词汇学复习资料
词汇学复习提纲
English LexicologyChapter 1 Introduction1. V ocabulary(1) The total number of words that make up a language.(2) All the words used in a particular historical period.(3) All the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.2. Importance of V ocabulary(1) An extensive vocabulary aids expressions and communication.(2) V ocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension.(3) Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary.(4) A person may be judged by others based on his or her vocabulary.3. LexicologyThe literal meaning is the “science of the word”. It is a branch of linguistics which deals with English words, their origin, meaning, historical development, morphological structures, semantic structures, sense relations, idioms, formation and application.4. WordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. (TB:p2)5. Sound and Meaning (TB:p3)There is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional.6. Sound and FormThe written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the phonemic elements of the spoken language. What causes the differences between sound and form?(1)The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not employ thesystem of one single letter to stand for one sound.(2) The early scribes deliberately changed spelling of words for easier recognition.(3) Dictionaries help to fix the spelling of words, which means the stabilization of spelling, meanwhile, sounds continue to change.(4) English has borrowed many words from other languages, which may not have been assimilated. Some borrowings do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, such as:7. Classification of Words(1)Criterion : by use frequency: Basic word stock ＆Non-basic vocabulary(2) Criterion: by notion: Content words ＆Functional words(3) Criterion : by origin: Native words ＆Borrowed words(4) Criterion: by morphology: Simple words, Compounds ＆Derived words, etc. 8. Features of Basic Word Stock(1)All national character (2) Stability (3) Productivity (4) Polysemy(5)Collocability9. Content and Functional WordsContent words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary and the number is ever growing, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. Functional words are stable and take a very small part of the vocabulary, i.e. prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles10. Native and Borrowed WordsNative words are not native, but words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words.Chapter 2 Development of English Vocabulary1. Indo-European Language FamilyThere are main three branches in Indo-European language family: Germantic branch, Latin branch and Slavic branch.2. Historical Influence(1) Britons: The early inhabitants of the island we now call Britain were Britons, a tribe of Celts. Their language were dialects of a small branch of the Indo-European language family— Celtic.(2) The Roman conquest: In BC 55-54 Britain was invaded by the Roman conqueror, Julius Caesar. During the 400 years of Roman occupation, the official language of government was Latin.(3) The English conquest: At the beginning of the fifth century Britain was invaded by three tribes from the Northern Europe: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes.Historical Influence(4) The Danish invasion: King Alfred the Great (849-901) succeeded in driving the Danes off with force. Laying down his sword, Alfred set himself to the task of encouraging education and literature.(5) The Norman Conquest: The French-speaking Normans Duke William came in 1066. When Norman and English intermingled, many terms emloyed by Normans were adopted into English language.3. Historical Phases(1) Old English (450-1160): Old English was a highly inflected language. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowelschanges or both, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.Historical Phases(2)Middle English (1150-1500): The Middle English period was one of great changes,changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since.(3)Modern English (1500 up to now): This period may be divided into two parts: the Early Modern English (1500-1700) and the Late Modern English (1700- now).Early Modern English: The chief influence of this time was the great humanistic movement of the Renaissance. In this period the study of the Latin and Greek on English was great.Late Modern English: With the rapid development of modern science and technology; social economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages, new words today sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time.4. Foreign Elements in English V ocabularyEnglish vocabulary owns most of its words from foreign language, in which Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian stand out as the major contributors. Other languages have also done their part, such as Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese and Celtic, etc.5. Characteristics of English Language(1) Receptivity, Adaptability and Heterogeneity(2) Simplicity of inflection(3)Relatively Fixed Word-order6. Modes of V ocabulary Development: Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change and borrowing.Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words1. MorphemeIt is the smallest meaningful unit of language, consisting of a word or part of a word that can‟t be divided without losing its meaning.2. MorphologyIt is the study of the morphemes of a language and of the way in which they are joined together to make words.3. Types of Morphemes(1) Free and Bound MorphemesMorphemes that can exist as individual words are free morphemes. Others which function only as a word part are bound morphemes.(2) Derivational and Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.(TB:P47)Inflectional morphemes, in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers.4. Morpheme and Word-formationIn morphology, words can be analyzed into morphemes, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix in word-formation.5. Root, Stem and Base: What are the differences within them?Root is a basic form of a wor d which can‟t be f urther analyzed without total loss of identity. Root cannot be further divided and carries the fundamental meaning.Stem refers to the part after moving inflectional markers.Base is the part that can take affix of any kinds (derivational and inflectional). Chapter 4 Word Formation1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word formation. The most productive are affixation(30%-40%), compounding(28%-30%) and conversion(26%). The rest of the new words come from shortening(8%-10%), blending(1%-5%) and other means.(P54)2. Affixation (or derivation) is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to roots to supply grammatical or lexical information. The morphological structure of an English word: (prefix) + root + (suffix)3. Prefixation: The process of adding a prefix to the root is called prefixation. English prefixes usually do not change the word class. Types of Prefix (TB:P55)4. Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix to the tail end of a stem, which usually changes the lexical category of the stem. Types of Suffix. Similar to the exception to the prefixes, some suffixes do change or modify the meaning without changing the lexical categories.5. Compounds: The process of combining two or more than two existing words together to form new lexical items is called compounding.6. Characteristics of Compounds(1) According to orthographic criterion, compounds are written in three ways:1) solid 2) hyphenated 3) open(2) Phonologically, compounds can often be identified as having a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3) Semantically, compoun ds can often be identified as “having a meaning which may be related to but can not simply be inferred from the meaning of its parts.7. Conversion is a main type of word-formation shifting the base to a different word class with no change of form. Converted words are often short, vivid and expressive,8. Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.9. Clipping refers to a word-formation process which involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.10. Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase, and initialisms are pronounced letter by letter.11. Acronymy: The process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.12. Words From Proper NameIt refers to the coinage of common words from proper names. They come from all sources, from names of scientists, politicians and statesmen, trademarks, names of places, literature, TV films, movies, book titles etc.13. Analogy: A new word or a new phrase is coined by an analogy between a newly created one and an existing corresponding one.Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis1. Word MeaningGenerally speaking, a word is the combination of word-formation and its meaning. …Form‟ refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. …Meaning‟ is what the form stands for. Word meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between form and referent.2. Semantic TriangleConcept is the general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a person‟s mind.Reference is the relationship between language and the world. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.3. Motivation of MeaningMotivation refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning, which is divided into 4 types. They are phonetic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation and etymological motivation.(1) Phonetic Motivation (or Onomatopoeic motivation) explains the words whose sounds suggest their meaning, because these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noise.(2) Morphological motivation (or grammatical motivation) concerns the words whose morphological structures suggest the meaning, such as, the meaning of a derived wordor a compound is based on the meaning of the word-building.(3) Semantic motivation is the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word, i.e. the figurative sense of a word suggested by the literal sense.(4) Etymological motivation explains the words whose meanings are closely associated with their origins, i.e. the meanings of the words suggested by their sources.(5) Motivation by Analogy: Words are created in imitation of other words4. Types of Meaning(1) Grammatical & Lexical MeaningGrammatical meaning indicates all the inflectional forms of words, such as singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and so on. Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word.(2) Conceptual & Associative MeaningConceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Associative meaning is a supplement to the conceptual meaning, which is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc.(3) Connotative Meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.(4)Stylistic Meaning: Apart from conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles.(5) Affective Meaning expresses the speaker‟s attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be conveyed simply by the choice of the right words.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative and pejorative. Words of positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.5. Word Meaning and ContextWord meaning depends upon context. The context determines which meaning out of all the possible meanings is to be attached to the word. Generally speaking, when used literally, words have their original meaning; when used figuratively, words have symbolic meaning.6. Components of word meaningAll lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic features or semantic components which may be universal. This semantic theory is called Componential Analysis (CA), such as:horse, cat, machine, chair [+/-animate]water, gas, stone, tree [+/-count]sit, cry, read, give [+/-transitive]road, house, thought, philosophy [+/-concrete]Chapter 6 Sense Relations1. Sense RelationsWords are arbitrary symbols and are independent identities so far as spelling and pronunciation are concerned. Sense relations means all words are related in one way or another. In light of sense relations, words can be classified semantically.2. Types of Sense Relations(1)Polysemy(2) Hyponymy---semantic inclusion(3) Synonymy---semantic similarity(4) Antonymy---semantic opposition(5) Homonymy3. PolysemyWhen a word is first coined, it is always the case that it has only one meaning (monosemic). But in the course of development, the same symbol may be used to express new meanings. The result is polysemy, which shows the economy and efficiency of human languages.4. Meanings of Polysemy(1) A word has two or more meanings in which one is the basic, original meaning (Primary meaning), and the others are derived from the basic meaning (Secondary meaning).(2) It is possible that a word is endowed with different word classes, such as noun, adj., verb.5. Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronic approach is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one word. Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in one historical period of time.6. Concatenation is a process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually from its primary meaning by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the meaning that is finally developed and the primary meaning.7. Radiation is a process in which the primary meaning stands in the center, and the derived meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. All the derived meanings can be traced back to the primary meaning.8. Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the general lexical item (superordinate) and the specific lexical items (subordinate). (TB:p137)9. Function of HyponymyThe hyponyms (or specific words) can make our speech and writing more vivid and expressive, while using too much general terms can result in vagueness and triteness. In reading comprehension, cohesion by hyponymy is an important key.10. Synonymy is a relationship of …sameness of meaning‟ that may hold between two words. And synonym refers to a word that means the same as another.11. Discrimination of Synonyms(1) Difference in denotation(2) Difference in connotation(3) Difference in collocation(4) Difference in distribution12. Antonymy is a relationship of …meaning opposition‟ that may hold between two words. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.13. Types of Antonyms(1) Contraries: Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremesCharacteristics of Contraries1) The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other.2) They can be modified by very and have comparative and superlative forms.3) The cover term is often used in daily life.(2)Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning.(3)Converses: This third type consists of relational opposites, which indicate a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other.(4) Semantic Incompatible is a relationship of …meaning opposition‟ that may hold among several words.14. Function of AntonymyAntonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together, and many great writers are fond of using antonyms to serve their stylistic purposes.15. Homonymy is the relation between two words that are spelled or pronounced in the same way but differ in meaning. Homonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor or irony for stylistic purposes.16. Semantic Field refers to the phenomenon that vocabulary is an integrated system interrelated in sense and can be divided semantically into related sets or fields. Most languages share same semantic fields, such as time, space, age, kinship, food, color, emotion…17. Application of Semantic Field(1) A very large number of lexemes can be grouped together into fields and subfields in a fairly clear-cut way.(2) It has proved helpful to present learners with sets of related lexemes, rather than with a series of randomly chosen items.(3) Psychology has also shown that young children learn much of their vocabulary by bringing lexemes together in this way.Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning1. Types of Change(1) Extension of Meaning (2) Narrowing of Meaning(3) Elevation of Meaning (4) Degradation of Meaning(5) Transference of Meaning (6) Euphemism2. Extension of MeaningIt is also called generalization. It‟s a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.3. Narrowing of MeaningIt is the opposite of widening, is a process by which a word or wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.4. Elevation of MeaningElevation is the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance.5. Degradation of MeaningA process whereby words of good origin fall into ill manner or non-affective words come to used in pejorative sense.6. Transference of MeaningWords which were used to refer to one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.7. Euphemism is the substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation, such as death, toilet etc.8. Causes of Change(1)Extra-linguistic Factors1) Historical reason 2) Social reason 3) Psychological reason(2) Linguistic Factors: The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system, which occurs mainly in two ways: Ellipsis, Analogy Chapter 8 Meaning and Context1. ContextIn a narrow sense, it consists of the lexical items that come immediately before and after any word in an act of communication. In a broad sense, it refers to the whole passage, whole book, entire social or cultural setting.2. Types of Context(1) Linguistic Context refers to words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or whole books in which a word appears.1) Lexical context refers to the items combined with a given polysemous word.2) Grammatical context: In some cases, the meaning of a polysemous word may be determined by the grammatical structure (not specific words) in which it occurs. (2) Extra-linguistic Context refers to a particular time, space, or culture in which a word appears.1) Situational context: the actual situation in which communication occurs.2) Cultural context: the social and cultural background.3. The Role of Context(1) Elimination of ambiguity: condition whereby any linguistic form has two or more interpretations.1) Lexical ambiguity: caused by polysemy. 2) Structural ambiguity3) Implied meaning 4) Meaning of the omitted parts(2) Indication of referents(3) Providing clues for inference of meaning: In many cases, when a new word appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints, which might help the readers to grasp the concept or comprehend the idea.。
词汇学复习资料
词汇学复习资料词汇学复习资料词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究词汇的构成、分类和使用规律。
对于学习一门语言来说，掌握丰富的词汇是非常重要的。
在这篇文章中，我们将提供一些词汇学的复习资料，帮助读者巩固和扩展词汇量。
一、词汇的构成词汇是语言的基本单位，是由一个或多个音素组成的。
在不同的语言中，词汇的构成方式也有所不同。
例如，英语中的词汇主要由字母组成，而汉语中的词汇则由汉字组成。
1. 字母构词法英语中的词汇通常由字母组成，可以通过添加前缀、后缀和词根来构成新的词汇。
例如，单词“unhappiness”由前缀“un-”（表示否定）和词根“happy”组成。
2. 字形构词法汉语中的词汇由汉字组成，可以通过添加偏旁部首、衍生字和合成字来构成新的词汇。
例如，汉字“学”可以通过添加偏旁部首“子”来构成“字”，表示学习。
二、词汇的分类词汇可以按照不同的分类标准进行分类，例如按照词性、语义和用途等。
下面是一些常见的词汇分类。
1. 词性分类词汇可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和感叹词等不同的词性。
名词用来表示人、事物或概念，动词用来表示动作或状态，形容词用来描述人或事物的特征，副词用来修饰动词、形容词或其他副词，代词用来代替名词，介词用来表示位置、时间或方式，连词用来连接词语或句子，感叹词用来表示强烈的情感。
2. 语义分类词汇可以按照词义的相似性进行分类。
例如，可以将名词按照人、动物、植物、物体、抽象概念等进行分类；将动词按照行为、状态、感觉、思维等进行分类；将形容词按照颜色、大小、形状、性质等进行分类。
3. 用途分类词汇可以按照在句子中的作用进行分类。
例如，可以将词汇分为实词和虚词。
实词包括名词、动词、形容词和副词，它们在句子中起到实际的意义；虚词包括代词、介词、连词和感叹词，它们在句子中起到连接或修饰的作用。
三、词汇的使用规律词汇的使用规律是指在特定语境中使用词汇的约束条件。
不同的语言和不同的语境中，词汇的使用规律也有所不同。
词汇学复习资料
词汇学复习资料名词解释1.Lexicology: the study of meaning and origins of words; without grammar,very little can beconveyed,without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed.E.g.:original,aboriginal,originate2.Word: a minimal free form of a language, a sound unity, a unit of meaning, a form that canfunction alone in a sentence3.Vocabulary: made up by all the words in a language, all the words used in a particularhistorical period, all the words of a given dialect and etc.4.Terminology术语: technical terms used in particular disciplines5.Jargon行话:specialized vocabulary by which members of particulararts,sciences,trades,professions,communicate among themselves, people outside the circle have difficulty in understanding .6.Slang俚语:sub-standard language. E.g.:pot:marijuana大麻7.Argot黑话:jargon of criminals8.Archaisms古语:once in common use, now restricted only to specialized or limited use.9.Neologisms 新词:newly created words/expressions, words take on new meanings.E.g.:futurology未来技术10.Morpheme词素：the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words; the minimalform of grammatical analysis.11.Root词根:the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss ofidentify12.Concept: is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind;A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world; Evenin the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.辨析：1. Sound and meaning:...this symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary.......2. Sound and form: the written form of English is an imperfect representation of phonemic elements of the spoken language.Eg:f-laugh,i-women,sh-nation3. Classification of words: according to use frequency basic word stock4. Content words: notional words; Functional words: empty words5. Free morphemes: independent of other morphemes; have complete meanings in themselves; can be used as free grammatical units in sentences; identical with words.Bound morphemes: cannot occur as separate words; bound to other morpheme to form words or to perform a particular semi national funciton;cheifly found in derives words.5.Identifyingmorphemes :lexical morphemes:Mono-morpheme: skyDouble-.............mistakeTriple, four, over four...6. Concept:......a concept can have as many(×only one)referring expressions as there are languages on the world......7.diachronic历时角度：with the development of the timesynchronic 共时角度：at the same time8.Extension of meaning: known as generalizationNarrowing ................:..............specialization9. Idioms:consists of set phrases and short sentences;Include colloquialisms(口语词),catchphrases(时髦语),slang,expressions,proverbs,etc.简答/应用1. borrowed words:(1)denizens同化词:Borrowed early in the past well assimilated into EnglishEg:port form portus(2)aliens非同化词：retain original pronunciation/spellingEg:kowtow叩头，bazaar集市(3)translation loans译借词:form from the existing material in English but made led on the patterns taken from another language.Eg:lama from lama (tib)(4)semantic借义词:eg:pioneer=explorer2. Indo-European language family-made up of most language of Europe, the near west, and India-they all into a eastern set and a western set-the Germanic family from the western set includes 4 northern european languages (Norwegian 挪威语，Iceland, Danish丹麦语，and Swedish瑞典语）+German, Dutch, Flemish，English) 3. Blending(1)head+tailEg: chocoholic: be addicted to chocolate(2)head+headEg:sitcom情景喜剧(3)head+wordEg:medicare医疗护理(4)word+tailEg:workfare4. ClippingThe formation of new words by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead(1) front clippingeg:quake from earthquake(2) back clippingeg:exec from executive(3) front and back clippingeg:flu from influenza(4) phrase clippingeg:pub from public house5. Types of meaningGrammatical meaning and lexical meaningLexical meaning: Conceptual meaning and associative meaningAssociative meaning: Connotative meaning; Stylistic meaning; Affective meaning; collocative meaning6. homonymy同形同音异义Words different in meaning，identical in sound and/or spelling(1) perfect homonymyeg:bank;date(2) homograph同形异义eg:bow;sow(3) homophone同音异义eg:sun/son;dear/deer7. synonymy同义关系Different in sound and spelling,most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning(1) absolute synonyms完全同义词eg: scarlet fever=scarlatina 猩红热(2) relative synonyms相对同义词eg:change/alter/vary8.antonymy反义关系(1) complementaries互补反义词Mutually exclusive and audit no possibility between themEg:dead –alive(2)contraries相对反义词In terms of a scale running between two poles or extremeseg:poor-rich(3)converses逆反反义词Show reciprocal social relationship;one of them can’t be used without suggestingEg:parent-child9.Transference of meaning语义转移(1)associated transfer(figurative extension of meaning)Eg:tongues of fine(2)transfer between abstract and concrete meaningsEg:room-space(3) transfer between subjective and objective meaningeg:pitiful-full of pity(4) synesthesia通感Take place between words of sensation. words usually associated with sense are used to describe another sense.Eg: warm color10. Types of context(1)Extra-linguistic context 非语言语境：embrace the entire culture backgroundEg:look out,landlord(2) linguistic contexta. lexical context词汇语境eg:term paper VS today’s paperb.grammatical contexteg:became+adj/n=begin to be11. The role of text(1)elimination of ambiguityEg:hard-hard working/difficult(2)indication of referentsEg:I like the Prime Minister during the second World War in English.I like the Prime Minister who advocates more medicate for the British people.(3)provision of clues for inference of word meaning2)explanation：explain the idea in simple words,make a restatement in known words.(4)synonymy近义词Eg:their fear was of a conflagration since they would destroy their house.(5)antonymy反义词eg:fighting reached its peak, and the economy neared nadir.(6)hyponymy上下义关系Eg:The villages had amenities, such as a pub, a library and a post house.12. Semantic unity-Consist of at least 2or more constituents but each is a semantic unity-The various words which make up the idiom have their respective literal meanings, but have lost their individual identities in the idioms-the illogical relationship between the lateral meaning of each constituent and the meaning of the idiom.Eg:rain cats and dogs=rain heavily13. Structural stability-The constituents of idioms cannot be changed or replace/ -the word order cannot be inverted or charged-the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article-many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.14. Rhetorical features(1)phonetic manipulationa. alliteration头韵法eg:part and parcel(most important part)b. rhyme(押韵)eg:wear and tear(damage from use)(2)lexical manipulationa.reiteration意义重复Eg: muscle and bustleb.repetitioneg:by and by; day by dayc.juxtaposition of antonyms反义词并置eg:here and there15. Initialisms:VOA :voice of America; BBC British Broadcasting company; UFO: Unidentified Flying Object; TB: tuberculosis肺结核; TV television; ID: identification; CA cancer; Acronyms:NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization 北约; AIDs Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome; TEFL: Teaching English as a Foreign Language; N-bomb: neutron bomb 中子弹; ATM automatic telling machine16. i.e.: that is to say; etc.: and so on, cf.: compare, ibid: in the same book。
词汇学复习资料
★1.Lexicology is the study of the structures, origins, meanings and usages of words.★2.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning andsyntactic function.★3.Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language. It also stands for allthe words used in a particular historical period, of a given dialect or discipline, or possessed by a person.4.Classification of Words:（1）by use frequency :A .Basic Word Stock(基本词汇)B. Nonbasic V ocabulary（非基本词汇）:Terminology 术语/ Jargon行话/ slang 俚语/ argot黑话/ Dialectal words 方言词/Archaism 古语词/ Neologism 新词（2）by notion: Content words and functional words 实义词与功能词（3）by origin: Native words and borrowed words 本族词与外来词5.Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系):Language and Language Families语言和语系•Number of languages in the world:3000-5000•Number of language families in the world:300•Basis for language family grouping:Similarities in the basic word stock and grammar of the languagesThe Indo-European, one of these, is made up of most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. (English belongs to Germanic , a Western set )1）Eastern Set（东部诸语族）：Albanian （阿尔巴尼亚语族）、Balto-Slavic （波罗的海-斯拉夫语族）、Amenian （亚美尼亚语族）、Indu-Iranian （印度-伊朗语族）2）W estern Set （西部诸语族）：Germanic （日耳曼语族）、Celtic （凯尔特语族）、Hellenic （古希腊语族）、Italic （意大利语族）6. Three periods of the English language:1)Old English(450AD—1150AD) when the first Germanic tribes began to settle inEngland.a. Anglo-Saxon—the Germanic tribesb. Latin –introduction of Christianity at the end of the 6th century.c. Scandinavian –Norwegian and Danish vikingsd. 5000-6000 words; highly inflected2)Middle English (1150—1500) during the Norman Conquest.a. French influence Norman Conquest 1066b. 9000 French words continually flowed into Englishc. Dutch words entered English with the trade relation.d. English regained position of importance–Wycliff translation of the Bible (威克利夫)–Writings of Chaucer and Langland (乔叟、朗兰)–English gradually came back to schoolsMidland is the chief ancestor of Modern English.3)Modern English (1500—):Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语•The Renaissance 文艺复兴—a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics•1500-1700–over 10,000 new words entered English.•The Bourgeois Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, colonization–absorb words from all major languages in the worldLate Modern English (1700-up to now) 后期现代英语•World wars•Advances in science and technology•Thousands and thousands of new words have been created through borrowing and word-formation•New words in all walks of life: politics, economy, commerce, culture, entertainment, education, sports, transportation, mass media•From synthetic language to analytic language7.Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式•C reation 创词– formation of new words by using existing materials such as roots, affixes and other elements.•S emantic changes 旧词新义– an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.•B orrowing借词—absorbing words from foreign languages★8.Morpheme (词素)1) The minimal meaningful units of language are known as morphemes. 语言的最小意义单位称为词素。
词汇学期末复习资料
1.Words Motivation言语理据：deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. There are four types of motivation, which are Onomatopoeic motivation,Morphologic motivation, Semantic motivation and etymologic motivation.(1) Onomatopoeic motivation:拟声理据Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound. For example, bow-wow, bang, ping-pong, miaow, tick-tuck ,haha and the like are Onomatopoeic words. Knowing the sounds means understanding the meaning of a word.(2) Morphologic motivation:形态理据It means that we observe the connection between morphemic structure of the word and its meaning. For example,if one knows the meaning of the affix and the base, say –able and learn, then one can immediately tell that the meaning of the word learnable is “that can be learned”. (3)Semantic motivation:语义理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental association suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. For example: When we speak of a stony heart we are comparing the heart with a stone.(4) etymologic motivation: 词源理据It explains the words whose meanings are closely associated with their origins, i.e. the meanings of the words. For example, now people use pen for any writing tool though it originally denotes “feather” because before modern pens were created, feathers were commonly used as writing tool.2.Meanings of meaning: There are seven types of meaning which is proposed by G. Leech.(1)conceptual meaning:概念意义it is the literal meaning. It is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing refers to. eg: the word "desk" is explained as a piece of furniture in the dictionary. (2)connotative meaning:内涵意义it refers to the meaning implied. eg: woman is a tiger and in this sentence, the word "woman" is connotative meaning.（3）social meaning: if refers to social circumstances. eg: the meaning of the word black differs in the two collcations of black hair and black tea.(4)affective meaning: 情感意义it refers to emotion or the feeling expressed by the speaker or writer. For example, the woman is cute. In this sentence, the word "cute" expresses the author's favor to woman..(5)reflective meaning:联想意义it refers to meaning undetected in communication. Take the word "table" as an example. It is a very common word in English. If we look it up in any dictionary, we will find that it has at least the following three meanings: a piece of furniture, all the people seated at a table, the food that is put on a table.(6)collocativemeaning:搭配意义it is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of other word..For instance, the phrase "see a film" is ofen used in everyday life but not "read a film".(7)thematic meaning: it is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of other and emphasis. For example, "It is until the midnight that my father worked in the lab", this sentence emphasis time adverbial and it's theme is that my father worked hard "until the midnight". However, in this sentence "It is my father that worked until the midnight in the lab", it emphasis the subject "my father"3.词义关系(1)Synonymy:同义关系refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. ①Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects. Eg. British English: autumn. American English: fall.②S tylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style. Eg. Start, begin, commence ③Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning. Eg. The two words collaborator and accomplice are synonymous inthat they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they differ in that a collaborator helps another in doing something good, while an accomplice helps another ina criminal act. ④S emantically different synonyms. Eg. The two words amaze and astound are very close in meaning to the word surprise, but have very subtle differences. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, astound suggests difficulty in believing. ⑤Collocational s ynonyms. Eg. charge…. With, rebuke….for, sour milk (2).Polysemy:多义现象It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. Eg. If we look up he word “table” in any dictionary, we will find the following meanings: 1)a piece of furniture, 2)all the people seated at table, 3)the food that is put on the table, 4)a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc, and so on(3).Homonymy同音异义refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. 1)Homophones同音异义—when two words are identical in sound. Eg. Meet/meat; son/sun; night/knight; Homonymy Homographs同形异义—when two words are identical in spelling. Eg. minute n/minute adj; tear v./ tear n ; lead v./lead n. Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling and sound. Eg. Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.(4).Hyponymy下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, moreinclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate上义词, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms下义词. Eg. Superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, fox, bear.(5)Antonymy 反义关系It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning. ①Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree). Eg.Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold .②Complementary antonyms互补反义词(the denial of one member of pair implies the assertion of the other) . Eg. Alive—dead; male—female; ③Relational opposites关系反义词(Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites)Eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below; north-south(6)Taxonomy:分类关系it is a classified structure formed by different level of types of lexicon. The relation between different types of lexicon is taxonomy. The lexicon contains a narrow type which is called taxonyms. While the lexicon contains a wide type on a superior level is superordinate. The lexicons in the same level are co-taxonyms. For example: plant can be divided into lichen, creeper, tree and so on, tree can be divided into conifer and deciduous. Conifer can be divided into pine and spruce. From the relations, pine is a kind of conifer which is a kind of tree, which is a kind of plant, so pine is a kind of plant.(7)Partonomy (Meronymy)部分整体关系:it involves part-whole relation between words. For example: wheel, engine, window and door are parts of car. Car is called the superordinate in the relationship. wheel, engine, window and door are called the meronyms in the relationship.4.Derivation:派生it is generally defined as a word formation process by which new words are created by odding prefix, suffix or both to the base form. For example: unhappy is the derivation of happy. Proposal is the derivation of propose. Dishonest is the derivation of honest.pounding :复合法is a process of word formation by which two or more stems are put together to make one word. For example: baby-sitter, housekeeper, speed-reading, overwork are all compound words.6.Conversion :转化is a word formation process by which a word of a certain word class is shifted into a word of another word class without the addition of an affix. For example: wateris a noun and it can convert into a verb which means to pour water on. Wealthy is an adjective and it can convert into a noun “the wealthy” which means rich people.7.Back formation:逆构词法it refers to a type of word formation by which a shorter word is coin by deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already existing in the language. For example: daydreamer is a noun. We can remove the suffix-er. Then the word daydreamer turns into a verb. The meaning of them are still same.8.Abbreviation(Clipping): 缩略法it refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases. For example: quake is the abbreviation of earthquake. Fridge is the abbreviation of refrigerator.9.Hyponymy:下义词it refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example: fruit, meat, vegetable are hyponyms of the superordinate term food. Beef , pork. Mutton are hyponyms of the superordinate term meat.10.Context:generally speaking, context is consist of two aspects: one is “linguistic context” referring to the linguistic unit preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text and refer to the words, clause and sentences in which a word appears. The other is “extra-linguistic” context or “non-linguistic” context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. It contains situational context referring to time , place, human characteristic and social status; common sense and some certain information in a certain situation.修辞：1.metaphor,隐喻:两个事物存在某一类似之处，而用一个事物的词来指另一个事物。
《英语词汇学》复习资料
《英语词汇学》复习资料《英语词汇学》复习资料1Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The 1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated intothe English language.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can bedealt with from two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal-”in “maltreat”is a 4 prefix, while “inter-”in “interstate”is a 5prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English languageof 6 endings, and a language of 7 endings.6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggesttheir meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, andthe later has two components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into twocategories: appreciative or12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.14 is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or aword plus a part of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-culturalgroups, and outsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty”and “handsome”share the same 16 meaning，but differ in 17meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into itsminimal components which are also known as semantic features..14.Radiation and 19 are the two coinages which the development of wordmeaning follows from monosemy to polysemy.15.20 deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specificword is included in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true”and F for “false”.1.Homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a wordof the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.2.Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, sothey have strong productivity.3.“Can-opener” used as slang to mean “all-purpose key”.4.Native words are neutral in style.5.The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, theFar East, and India.6.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary,particularly in earlier times.7.The smallest functioning unit in the composition of words is morpheme.8.Stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.9.Base is what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.10.Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the Englishvocabulary.11.“Fore-”in “forehead”and “fore-”in “foreknowledge”belong to two kinds ofprefix.12.Word-building and word-formation are relative synonyms.13.The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergonea process of extension of meaning.14.Parent—child and husband—wife are two pairs of converses.15.Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?3.List the four sources of synonyms.4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning? Ⅳ. Answer the following questions according to the requirement.Classify the three pairs of antonyms according to types of antonyms you have learned and describe the characteristics of each type of them.interviewer/interviewee; male/female; old /young成考复习资料答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical10. lexical11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending15. argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19.concatenation 20. hyponymyII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true” and F for “false”.1-5 TTTFT 6-10 TFFFT 11-15 TFFTFIII.Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?1)All national character 2) stability 3) productivity 4) polysemy5) collocability2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?1)Prefixes primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, i.e. prefixes do notgenerally change the word-class of the base but only modify its meaning.2)Suffixes have only a small semantic role and their primary function is to changethe grammatical function of the base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slight modification of meaning.3)So prefixes are categorized on a semantic basis while suffixes are divided on agrammatical basis.3.1)Borrowing; (2) dialects and regional English (3) figurative and euphemisticuse of words (4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?1)Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms thecore of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptualmeaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generallyhas the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speechcommunity. (3%)2)Associative meaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it isopen-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors asculture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc…（3%）Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.1)Interviewer& interviewee are converses; male & female arecomplementaries; old & young are contraries.2)Complementaries truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are soopposite to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit nopossibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other orvice versa. Complementaries are nongradable, and they cannot be used incomparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very”toqualify them.3)Contraries are gradable antonyms. The existence of one is in relation to theother. We can say: A man is rich or very rich and also we can say a man isrich than the other. Contraries are characteristic of semantic polarity. Theseantonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and canaccommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other.4)Converses consist of relational opposites. The pairs of words indicatereciprocal social relationships that one of them cannot be used withoutsuggesting the other. It also includes reverse terms, which compriseadjectives and adverbs signifying a quality or verbs and nouns signifying anact or state that reverse or undo the quality, action or state of the other.成考复习资料复习资料2I. 单选题1. In the sentence “I like to see a movie.”, there are ________ functional words.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 52. Conversion is amethod________________________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure3. The following words have derivational affixes EXCEPT ________________.A. subseaB. prewarC. postwarD. desks4. Which of the following statements is false?A. Conversion refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.B. Words mainly involved in conversion are nouns, verbs and adverbs.C. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectiveswhen converted to nouns.D. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.5. _________ is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core ofword-meaning.A. Grammatical meaningB. Denotative meaningC. Associative meaningD. Connotative meaning6. The words what have emotive content in themselves are said to contain __ meaning.A. collocativeB. affectiveC. stylisticD. denotative7. __________ explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.A. Etymological motivationB. Onomatopoetic motivationC. Morphological motivationD. Semantic motivation8. The following words have inflectional affixes EXCEPT __________.A. worksB. workerC. workingD. worked9. “Smog”is formed by combining “smoke”and “fog”. So it is an example ofA. clippingB. compounding成考复习资料C. blendingD. back-formation10. The word “smog”is created by blending, with the structure of __________.A. head + tailB. head + headC. head + wordD. word + tail11. The most important mode of vocabulary development in present-day English is the creation of new words by means of ________________.A. translation-loansB. emantic loansC. word formationD. borrowings12. Which of the following belongs to a semantic field?A. steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nagB. pony, mustang, mule, stud, mareC. policeman, constable, bobby, copD. domicile, residence, abode, home13. Words which are used to show the attitude of approval are ________________.A. appreciativeB. pejorativeC. conntativeD. collocative14. General features of English contains the following except _________.A. simplicityB. receptivityC. adaptabilityD. imprssiveness15. The most productive means of word-formation in modern English are the following except .A. compoundingB. affixationC. acronymD. conversionII判断题1. The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, theFar East, and India. （）2. The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergone aprocess of extension of meaning. （）3. The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the Norman Conquestwhich brought many Latin words into the English language. （）4. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, sothey have strong productivity. （）5. Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech, tense meaning, andstylistic coloring. （）6. Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the Englishvocabulary. （）7. The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarked term.（）8. Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity. （）9. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary,particularly in earlier times. （）10. “Radiation” shows that the derived meanings of a polysemantic word are not成考复习资料directly related to the primary meaning. （）III简答题1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.答案I． 1-5 AADDB 6-10 BDBCA 11-15 CBADCⅡ. 1-5 TFFTF 6-10 TFFTFⅢ. 1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning? Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speech community. Associativemeaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc…2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are words identical both in sound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear(a kind of fruit)Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. sow (to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig) Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear ( a loved person) and deer (a kind of an animal)复习资料3I．Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The __1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are wellassimilated intothe English language.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can bedealt with from two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal” in “maltreat” is a 4 prefix, while “inter-” in “ interstate” i s a 5_prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle Englishlanguage of___6__ endings, and a language of __7__ endings.成考复习资料6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggesttheir meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, andthe later has two components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or__12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.___14__ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or aword plus a part of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-culturalgroups, and outsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty”and “handsome”share the same _16_ meaning, but differ in _17_meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into itsminimal components which are also known as semantic features.14.Radiation and ___19___ are the two coinages which the development of wordmeaning follows from monosemy to polysemy.15.__20____deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a morespecific word is included in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F on the answer sheet:1.Homonyms come mainly from borrowing, changes in sound and spelling, anddialects.2.“Radiation”shows that the derived meanin gs of a polysemantic word are notdirectly related to the primary meaning.3.Borrowing is a very important source of synonyms.4. A word which has a synonym naturally has an antonym.5.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.6.Motivation explains the connection between the linguistic form and its meaning.7.Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech,tense meaning, andstylistic coloring.8.The origins of the words are a key factor in distinguishing homonyms frompolysemants.9.The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarkedterm.10.If the words differ in range and intensity of meaning, the words are not identicalin denotation.11.The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the NormanConquest which brought many Latin words into the English language./doc/3e8624236.html,ponential analysis is to break down. the conceptual sense of a word into its minimal distinctive components.13.Celtic language made great contributions to the expansion of the Englishvocabulary.14.Native words enjoy the same features as the basic word stock and more.15.Shortening includes clipping and blending.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.2. How would you explain the difference between backformation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1. What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?成考复习资料答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical 10. lexical 11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending 15. argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19. concatenation 20. hyponymy Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F in the brackets:1．F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6. T 7.F 8.T 9.F 10.T11.F 12. F 13. F 14. T 15. TⅢ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.un+bear+able:(1)‘bear’ is a free morpheme, and ‘un’, ‘able’are bound morphemes. inter+nation+al: ‘nation’ is a free morpheme, and ‘inter, al’ are bound morphemes.ex+prison+er: ‘prison’ is a free morpheme, and ‘ex, er’ are bound morphemes.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.1)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.2)Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.3)Backformation is therefore the method of creating words by removing thesupposed suffixes, so called because many of the removed endings are not suffixes but inseparable parts of the word.4)For example, it is a common practice to add –er, -or to verb bases to formagential nouns.5)Reasonably, people make verbs by dropping the ending such as –or in editor, -arin beggar and –er in butler.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.1)Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by theconceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.2)Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate fordifferent styles.3)Affective meaning expresses the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing inquestion.4)Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account ofthe meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.(1)Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are wordsidentical both in sound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear (a kind of fruit)(2)Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound andmeaning, e.g. sow (to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig)(3)Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling andmeaning, e.g. dear ( a loved person) and deer (a kind of animal)Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?1)Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with reference to spellingand pronunciation, as both have the same orthographical form but different meanings. This creates the problem of differentiation.2)The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the factthat the former refers to different lexemes which have thesame form and the latter the one and same lexeme which has several distinguishable meanings.3)One important criterion by which to differentiate them is ‘etymology’, i.e.,homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word of the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.4)The second principal consideration is ‘semantic relatedness’. The severalmeanings of a single polysemous lexeme are related and can be traced back to成考复习资料one central meaning. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.5)In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headwordwhereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.。
英语词汇学复习
英语词汇学复习的内容：一、考试题形式分为：Ⅰ.选择题(20分)：完全是考书中的理论与例子的结合,即知识点等。
1-9cahptersⅡ.填空（30分）：考定义概念。
1-10chaptersⅢ.（20分）习语英译汉：教材中汉语部分idioms: 习语的特点Ⅳ.(10分) 论述题：第三章为主Ⅴ. 树形图（依据上下义关系作图）(20分)：第二、六章二、教材内容简介三、复习内容Introduction 部分Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics. Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife 纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化是Narrowing or specialization第一章词的概述；1.识记：词的定义2.声音与意义3.声音与拼写4.词汇5.词汇的分类What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和-mentmisfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。
词汇学复习
1、多音节语素，判断什么是词、语素p11多音节语素，两个或两个以上音节的语素，以双音节为主，一般都能独立成词。
词由语素构成，理论上比词大。
关键区别在于，词能自由运用，语素则不一定，比如“电、水”可以自由运用，“脑、视、稻”就不能。
能自由运用的，可以直接上升为词，不能自由运用的，就要跟别的语素合起来组成词。
2、叠音词？重叠词？p233、造词法：音合法造词有哪些？p36约合法、形合法、音合法、契合法、转合法、移合法、类推法。
4、造词与构词的关系？p395、词汇的构成与概念（判断）p416、固定词组中惯用语与成语的区别（判断词的类型）p477、基本词汇的特点（多选）p56看书全民常用性、历史稳固性、构造新词语的基础性8、基本词汇与一般词汇的关系p59二者之间没有鸿沟，它们相互依存、相互转化、共同发展的关系。
9、口语词汇与书面词汇的关系（举例判断）p6410、判断词汇的单位p7411、构词特点（判断）p7912、词义的民族性表现在哪些方面？（问答）p91①不同民族语言的词义指称的客观对象的范围不同②不同民族语言中都有一部分词表示该民族特有的事物现象③表现在词义的引申发展上④表现在联想内容和情感内容上13、哪些种类词有明确性？模糊性？p9414、词义的内容？p96理性意义、联想意义、社会文化意义、色彩意义、语法意义。
15、形象色彩包括？p103表示视觉形象、听觉形象、触觉形象、嗅觉形象、味觉形象。
一般情况下，一个词只有一种形象感？否，需要看例子（判断）16、义位和义素分析法（PPT和书上的例子）p10517、什么词往往是单义词？p11518、多义词和多义语素的分辨？p11619、多义词产生的原因和途径（看书）p12220、多义词和同音词的根本区别，实例分辨p13821、什么是同义词及其类型？p14522、确定同义词应该注意的几个问题（判断是否是同义词，看书）p15723、反义词的类型？p165绝对反义词、相对反义词24、确定反义词应该注意的几个问题？（例子判断）p16925、上下义词是什么？写出某词的上下义词（看书）178-18026、词与词组合形成的关系p181语法关系和语义关系27、语义限制p18328、找出动词和名词的关系p18529、新词语的三个来源（简答、问答）p209新造、吸收和转化。
英语词汇学考试复习资料
一、单选题1.The plural morpheme “-s” is realized by /s/after the following sounds EXCEPT ______.A、/t/B、/g/C、/p/D、/k/答案： B2.30% to 40% of the total number of new words in English are produced through ______.A、compoundingB、affixationC、conversionD、shortening答案： B3._____ is NOT a pair of homophones.A、Fair (lovely) and "fair" (a regular gathering of people for barter and sale of goods)B、"Flea" (any of various small， wingless， bloodsucking insects) and "flee" (to escape)C、Lead (to guide) and "lead" (metal of a dull bluish-grey colour that melts easily)D、"compliment" (an expression of praise， admiration， or congratulation) and "complement" (something that completes， makesup a whole， or brings to perfection)答案： C4.By ______ motivation, we mean that the meaning of a word is related to its origin.A、onomatopoeicB、morphologicalC、semanticD、etymological答案： D5.__________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences,trades, and professions communicate among themselves.A、SlangB、JargonC、Dialectal wordsD、Argot答案： B6.The information about the word class of a word is part of its _____ meaning.A、lexicalB、grammaticalC、centralD、derived答案： B二、 判断题7.A word is the combination of form and ________.A 、spellingB 、writingC 、meaningD 、denoting答案： C8.The following words have derivational affixes EXCEPT ______.A 、worksB 、prewarC 、postwarD 、bloody答案： A1.The most important mode of vocabulary development in present - day English is creation of newwords by means of word formation.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确2.Simple words in English are usually non-motivated.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确3.When a prefix is added to a word, its word-class is usually changed.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误4.Lexical meaning is dominant in content words.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确pounds are words formed by combining affixes and stem.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误6.Quite a number of derivational affixes have more than one meaning.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确三、 名词解释四、 问答题7.Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确ponential analysis has no disadvantages.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误9.In most cases, the native term is more literary than the foreign one.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误10.Grammatical meaning refers to the part of speech tenses of verbs and stylistic features of words.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误1.Acronymy答案： is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.2.Morphs答案： Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.3.Etymological Motivation答案： The history of the word explains the meaning of the word4.Sentence Idioms答案： are mainly proverbs and sayings including colloquialisms and catchphrases. Each function as a sentence.1.Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？答案： Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.。
根据老师的要求整理的词汇学期末复习资料
根据老师的要求整理的词汇学期末复习资料Chapter 11.What is the scope of lexicology? How is lexicology related to lexicography and etymology?2.What are diachronic approach历时性研究and synchronic approach共识性研究in lexicological study?lexicology, a branch of linguistics, deals with the nature, history, use , and meaning of words and the relationships between elements of words. Lexicology mainly covers the origin, development, structure, meaning, and application of words.Linguists usually define a word as the smallest unit of a language1.Lexicology includes phonetics语音学phonology音韵学semantics 语义学etymology词源学lexicography词典学morphology形态学Etymology, which can be regarded as a subfield of lexicology, mainly focuses on the study of the origin and history of words. Lexicography, another related branch to lexicology, is mainly concerned with inclusion of words and the science of compiling dictionaries. Lexicography is about the application of lexicology--the science of dictionaries.Translation;coal abounds in this province.Crystal water wells out of the spring.2.Two major approaches are employed in lexicological studies;diachronic approach and synchronic approach. They are also two principal approaches to the study of language. all languages exist in a state of constant change and development. In language studies, linguists may investigate the history and stages oflanguage change(diachronic) in a course of time. It is historical lexicology. At the same time, they can study the language use, features and variation within a certain stage of its development(synchronic). Then it is descriptive lexicology.3.Chapter 21, what are the major foreign influences upon the development of the English vocabulary? Are there any other sources of influence that are not discussed in this chapter? Could you find some and add with examples?2, what factors do you think might influence the development of the English language? In your opinion, what will be English language be like in 50 years?The English vocabulary sprang from three major root sources; Germanic, Latin, and Greek.① Germanic tribes; anglo-Saxons, form AD450 to 1150; old English period, they contributed about 50. 000 very basic words in today’s English.②Latin; Roman Occupation, 55BC-AD410. The status of Englandwas re-enhanced as the Latin-speaking missionaries brought Christianity to England.Greek; Roman conquerors turned to learn Greek, and the English nobles began to learn Latin.French; in 1066, the Norman French conquered Britain and brought the French style of life to England.Italy; the European Renaissance, which originated from Italy in the late 14th century and began in large scale in Western Europe throughout the 15th century, signified a new epoch of scientific revolution, religious reforms, artistic transformations, and literary revival.as a result of this cultural movement, quite anumber of Italian words become a permanent part of the English vocabulary.In the 17th century, British conquered the place we call United State, mixed English with their language.In conclusion, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Jute, Viking, Norman.Chapter31.What is morpheme? What are the major types of morphemes? What is allomorph词素变体?A morpheme词素is the smallest part of a word that has grammatical function or meaning. For example, walks, walked, and walking can be analyzed into the morphemes(walk). None of these morphemes can be further divided into meaningful units.Morpheme;free morpheme自由词素it does not have to be attached to another morpheme.bound morpheme粘着词素they must be attached to some other unit(s).inflectional morpheme\屈折词素such as -s, -ed, -ing，the addition of inflectional morphemes merely changes word form. Such asderivational morpheme派生词素.re-, un-, -ness, -ful . The addition of derivational morphemes creates new words. Such as possible→impossibleWhen a morpheme has variant forms, these variant forms are called allomorphs. Allomorphs are different realizations of the same morpheme. Such as tooth→teeth, sheep→sheep(different pronunciation.)Chapter4The formation of English Words;derivation派生法; is the process by which new words areformed form existing words or roots by adding affixes词缀( prefix, suffix).Such as; self+less→selfless, self+less+ly→selflessly, un+self+ish→unselfish.compounding复合法；is a direct process of word formation.A compound word is usually formed of two or more independent words that can be used alone as individual words.Eg; database, weblog, webpage, customer service, data retrieval, mass-destructionconversion转类法；is a process in which the part of speech of a word changes while its form is maintained. Conversion is also defined as”zero derivation,”which means that a word can play a new role without deriving anything or making any changes.Such as; water n, v. bottle→t o bottle, closet, fool, knife, name, pocket, ship, can, e-mail, heat, microwave, nurse, shape, tutor. n→vblending拼缀法；is a word formation process in which parts of words are put together to get a new word. Such as; smoke+ fog→smog, spread+crawl爬行→sprawl伸开四肢坐或卧, camcorder→camera+recorder, blog→web+log, brunch→breakfast+lunch, comcast→communication+broadcast, guestimate→guest+ estimate, intercom →internal+ communication, laundromat→laundry+automat, medicaid→medical+care+aid, medicare→medical + care, newscast→news+ broadcast, nightscape→night + landscape, paratroops→ parachute+ troops伞兵,back formation逆构法；is a process of creating a new word out of an existing word which is mistakenly assumed to be in derivative; a supposed suffix of a longer word is removed. Such as; babysit from babysitting, nominate推荐from nomination提名.clipping 截短法；is another word formation process from which a new word is formed by dropping one or more syllables from a polysyllable word and the remaining will mean essentially the same thing as the original word.. Such as; fax from facsimile, and phone from telephone, ad→advertisement, cable→cablegram, dorm→dormitory, gas→gasoline, gym→gymnastics, kilo→kilogram, memo→ memorandum, ?acronyms缩略法；Acronymy and Initialism首字母缩略法；are word formation practices in which the first letters of the individual words of a phrase are put together to form a new word. Such as; DOB for date of birth.from proper noun to common noun从专有名词到普通名词Chapter71.How do your understand sense relations? What are the majorsense relations discussed in this chapter?2.What is polysemy? What is homonymy? How are they related? How are they different?The meaning of a word in usually related in important ways to the meanings of other words. The relations in meaning are known collectively as sense relations. The major kinds of sense relations include; synonymy同义关系antonymy反义关系hyponymy上下义关系（such as flower and rose）polysemy一词多义homonymy同形或同音异义关系（bank bear）Polysemy; refers to the capacity of a word to have multiple meanings.A polyseme is a word or a phrase with different but related meanings. There are two kinds of polysemy; regular/systematicpolysemy and irregular/nonsystematic polysemy. Regular polysemy refers to the situation where different interpretations of one word have parallel sets of meanings among one another. For example, bottle can refer both to a container( of liquids)-as in this bottle is full of water-and to a quantity( of liquids)-as in i would like to buy a bottle of wine. Irregular polysemy is different. For example, glass can refer to a certain material, or to a certain kind of container, or to a certain optical aid which is often made of this material. Although these three meanings of the word are, to some extent, related to each other, the relations among them are not systematic, since we cannot give rulesthat would account for these three meanings of glass.Homonymy is , in the strict sense in linguistics, a sense relation in which words share the same spelling and/or the same pronunciation but have different meanings. One example of homonym is left( opposite of right) and left( past tense of leave). This is an example of perfect homonyms-they are the same in spelling as well as pronunciation, but different n meaning. Besides true homonyms, there are two other types; words that are same in spelling, but not in pronunciation, are called homographs; words that are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling, are called homophones. Bear;忍受；生育(一词多义)，bear 忍受；熊（同形异义）Chapter8Metaphor隐喻；a metaphor is an implied analogy that suggestively identified one thing with another.Eg; the city is a jungle, where the strong survive and the weak perish. The jail is a zoo, where many” animals” are caged.Life is the morning dew, which vapors away in a mere glimpse.The world is a stage.Personification拟人化; is a figurative technique by whichnon-living objects such as things and ideas are endowed with the traits, feelings, actions, characteristics, and even languages of human beings.The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-panes, The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-panes, Licked its tongue into the corners of the evening,Lingered upon the pools that stand in drains,Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from chimneys,slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap,And seeing that it was a soft October night,Curled once about the house, and fell asleep.Hyperbole夸张; or exaggeration, is a figurative technique used to emphasize a point. Writers or speakers use this technique to be impressive or to emphasize a point.The fish is as small as a shrimp.To heaven or to hell, I will to with you.He feels as if he could crumb the earth into pieces.Allusion暗指;allusion is another kind of metaphor. It is used to refer to something that is well-known in literature or history to express your point.This story is actually a new version of King Lear’s tragedy.Many Americans were worried that the war in Iraq would become a second Vietnam War.After getting tired of the Tom-and-Jerry games in a high school, he quit his teaching job.Want to make a million dollars overnight? Have you got the Aladdin’s lamp yet?Paradox悖论refers to seemingly self-contradictory statement that actually is true.it may appear totally senseless on the surface but is really valid.Rewards are not always proportionate to efforts.You achieve your goal only to find out that it’s not what you want. Ignorance is joy.Onomatopoeia 拟声; means to take advantage of the words whose sounds are associated with the objects or actions they represent. Onomatopoeia generates sounds.“We won!” my boss chortled in joy.The ghost chortled as it was getting closer to him in the nightmare howl.One of the war phots recorded a mother howling over the dead body of her child.Better wind howled through the naked trees.The horses snorted when pulling the wagon up the mountain road. That old steam-engine train snorted as it left the train station. “That is my father.” she whispered to him.Leaves were whispering in the autumn wind.A little boy was wailing for a toy train.An ambulance wailed down the street.A dog barked at the stranger.“Hold it! Or I’ll shoot,” the farmer barked at the intruder.The roar of a lion echoed in the valley.“Get out!” he roared, “I don’t want to see your face again!”Several young sparrows were twittering in their nest.He could not sleep because several little girls were twittering outside the window.。
英语词汇学总结复习资料
英语词汇学总结复习资料大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。
其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。
区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。
第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word ——A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）–natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight –past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例子)1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang——substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）–words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stockand stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s–words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky第二章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 words The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words bycombining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary herit age.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been enteredto express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词）1. Creation –the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing –to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph——A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect –free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveysthe meaning of “say or speak” as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning “tell beforehand”。
词汇学期末复习参考资料
UNIT1 A SHORT HISTORY OF ENGLISH重点在于各阶段英语对现代英语的影响，历史部分不再赘述。
另：由于语音部分过于复杂，贴上传送门，有兴趣的同学自己研究。
按这里进入。
OLD ENGLISH发音和德语相近词汇复合法是重要的构词方法。
复合词在古英语词汇中占有显著的地位。
据统计，在史诗《贝奥武夫》3183行诗句中，竟有1069个复合词。
有些复合词中不重读部分，渐渐失去了独立地位，而演变成了词缀，如for-, in-, -ful 等派生法在古英语中也广泛使用。
共有二十四个名词后缀、十五个形容词后缀，-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -the, -ful,- ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。
古英语时期的诗歌有一种特殊的修辞手法，即头韵(alliteration)，由此产生的许多短语一直保留到现在，如night and main, friend or foe, a labour of love。
一批来自拉丁语和斯堪的纳维亚语的词汇进入英语。
语法古英语的名词有数和格的分别。
数分为单数、复数；格分为主格、所有格、与格、宾格。
因此一个名词加起来共有8种变化形式。
此外，名词还分阳性、中性和阴性。
但是比较奇怪的是，这些性的区分并不是以性别来判断的，而且没有性别的事物也未必是中性。
例如妇女就是阳性的。
形容词的形态变化分为强、弱两种，它的数和格也共有8种变化。
动词只有现在式和过去式两种时态变化。
MIDDLE ENGLISH发音依然和德语相近词汇中古英语吸收了大量法语的词汇，数目有几千之多。
此外，中古英语还吸收了拉丁语、佛兰芒语、荷兰语、低地德语的一些词汇。
同时，大量古英语的词汇由于不再使用而被淘汰。
语法中古英语的语法在形态变化方面发生了简化。
名词逐渐失去了古英语复杂的数和格的变化，简化成了单数和复数两种形式，复数以词尾-s表示。
形容词则简化成了没有任何变化的词类。
词在句子中的关系不再通过性、数、格的变化来表示，而是由词在句子中的位置来表示。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
1.单词的构成：单词由不同的字母组合而成，可以包括前缀、词根、
后缀等。
2.词根和词义：词根是单词中带有基本词义的部分，在单词形态变化
时不会改变。
词根可以是一个字母、一个词或一个词组。
词根可以通过前
缀和后缀的添加，以及音变等形式进行变化。
3.前缀和后缀：前缀是加在词根前面的一种字母或几个字母，可以改
变单词的意义或词类。
后缀是加在词根后面的一种字母或几个字母，可以
改变单词的意义、词类或语法功能。
4.同义词和反义词：同义词是意义相近或相同的词，可以在表达时相
互替换。
反义词则是意义相反的词，通常用来表达对立或对比的关系。
5.词义的变化：词义可以根据语境和用法的不同而发生变化，有时一
个词也可以具有多个意义。
6.词义的分类：词义可以分为字面意义（词义的最基本的意义）、引
申义（从原来的字面意义发展而来的新的意义）和隐喻义（使用一个词来
暗示或比喻另一个概念）。
7.词义的搭配：词义可以和其他词搭配使用，形成固定的词组或短语，这些搭配可以帮助我们更好地理解和运用单词。
8.词法关系：词汇学研究不同词之间的关系，如近义词、反义词、属
于关系等。
9.词源学：词源学研究词语的起源和发展，并追溯词汇的历史和语言
渊源。
10.词汇扩充：词汇学研究如何通过学习和运用词汇扩充词汇量，如学习词根、前缀和后缀的意义和用法，以及拆解和分析复杂单词的方法。
词汇学复习资料 大纲 英语专业必考
Chapter11.word:A word is the smallest unit of spoken written language which has meanings and can stand alone. A word is a minimal free form that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function2. A word is(1)A minimal free form of a language;(2)a sound unity;(3)a unity of meaning;(4)a form that can function alone in a sentence.3.1 the physical structure of the word(1)Phonetics is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for the description, classification and transcription.(2)Morphology is the branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and rules by which words are formed. In other words, it identifies the smallest meaningful units in a language which are called morphemes and look into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words.2.2 the semantic structure of the word（1）the word is a unit of speech or writng, which serves the purposeful human communication.（2）the word can be perceived as the total of the sounds that comprise it（3）the word , in writing, is seen as a sequence of letters bounded on either side by a blank space.（4）the word, viewed linguistically, possesses its physical structure (form) and semantic structure (meaning).4.V ocabulary:V ocabulary refers to all the words used in a particular kind of work, business or known to a particular person.5.V ocabulary and Lexis :Lexi, a mass noun, is defined as the total stick of words in a language.6.Lexicology: the study of meaning and uses of words论述对词汇学的理解包括内容：Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words. This may include their nature and function as symbols, their meaning, the relationship of their meaning, and the rules of their composition from smaller elements. Lexicology also involves relations between words, which may involve semantics, derivation, usage and sociolinguistic distinctions. Any other issues involved in analyzing the whole lexicon of a languages.Chapter21.The development of English vocabulary. The history of English language can be divided into 3 periods:a/ Old English period (449—1100)the former inhabitants, the Celtic, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes Anglo-Saxon as Old English, Old English contains 50-60 thousand words, which consists of the basic word stock.*3个重大事件：(1)Teutonic Conquest 乔顿征服(2)Christianity(Latin word)(3)Scandinavian invasionb/ Middle English period (1100-1500)characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.The French loan words were found in law and governmental administration (judge, justice）1150-1204:French occupied the dnoinant position1204-1500:English gradually come back to a positionc/ Modern English period (1500--)the early stage of this period ( including the years between 1500-1700), the Renaissance brought great changes to the vocabulary. borrowing from Latin, Latin were now mostly connected with science and abstract ideas. Greek borrowings were mostly literary, technical and scientific words2.The origins of English words2.1 the native words: Anglo-Saxon elements2.2 the loan words: French, Latin, Greek, Scandinavian, other European elements, ChineseChapter31. American English: is the form of English used in the United States. It includes all English dialects used within the United States.2. British English: is the form of English used in the United Kingdom. It includes all English dialects used within the United Kingdom.3. The history:(1)17th century: The English language was first introduced to the American by British colonization, beginning in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.Early in the 17th century, the English settlements in Virginia and Massachusetts began the main stream of what we recognize as the American history.The language taken there was Elizabethan English(2)The War of Independence : It marks the end of the colonial period.The political independence brings the tendency to develop an American brand of English.4.Americanism: A word, phrase or idiom characteristic of English as it is spoken in the US.5.Difference: pronunciation / spelling/ vocabulary / habitual expression/ grammarChapter41.Neologism(新词): a neologism is a recently coined word, phrase or usage. It can also be an existing word or phrase which has been assigned a new meaning.Chapter51.morpheme:A morpheme is the minimal meaningful units of which the language is composed. Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.2.分类：(1)free morphemes (自由词素)(2)bound morphemes (黏着词素): bound root +affixA. Inflectional affixes (-s ,-es ,ing,-er ,or -(e)d,est)B. Derivational affixes(3)content and function morpheme(4)derivational and Inflectional morpheme3.Root, stem, base词根、词干、词基A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. (词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分)A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.(词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分)A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. (词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式)词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。
词汇学 复习资料
Unit 1名词解释：①LexicologyLexicology, which contains two Greek morphemes: lexikon (word) and logie (learning or the study of), is the branch of linguistics, concerned with ‘the study of the meaning and uses of words’ (LDCE).②English lexicologyEnglish lexicology is a theory—based course in which the basic theories of English words are mainly discussed. Nevertheless, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we will certainly deal with a great number of words and idioms, and site a great many examples. There will, naturally, be a lot of practice involved.③PhoneticsPhonetics is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for the description, classification and transcription.④Morphology 词法/形态学Morphology is the branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and rules by which words are formed. In other words, it identifies the smallest meaningful units in a language which are called morphemes and look into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words.⑤GrammarGrammar is the study or the use of the rules by which words change their forms and are combined into sentences.⑥SemanticsSemantics is the branch of linguistics which studies the meanings of language in different linguistic levels: lexicon, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. Lexicology focuses on the lexical level.⑦Etymology 词源学Etymology is the scientific study of the origins, history, and changing meanings of words.⑧Stylistics 语体学/文体学Stylistics is “the study of optional variations in the sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language as characteristic of different uses of language, different situations of use, or different literary types.”⑨synchronic approach共时方法If we study English words as they exists at a particular point in time, it is synchronic study. For instance, one could carry out a synchronic description of the words of Beowulf, of Chaucer, of Shakespeare or of present—day English, disregarding whatever changes might take place.⑩diachronic approach历时方法If we study English words as they exist in different historical periods, it is called diachronic study. That is to study words from the point of view of their historical development.关键词：⑪English lexicology deals with English words, their origin, meaning, historical development, morphological structures, semantic structures, sense relations, idioms, formation and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and usage of English words.⑫English lexicology itself is a branch of linguistics. However, it is closely related to other branches of linguistics, such as phonetics, morphology, grammar, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography, etc, each of which has been established as a subject on its own.⑬Phonetics is closely connected with lexicology. Without sound there is no word because every word is a unity of sound and meaning.⑭Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of inflections (also called Inflectional Morphology) and the study of word-formation (often referred to as Lexical or Derivational Morphology).This is one of the major concerns of lexicology, which discusses the inflections of words, the internal structure of words and methods of word-formation.⑮Words and grammar are organically related to one another. In learning a language, both grammar and words are equally important. If language structures make up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and the flesh. Grammatical knowledge allows us to generate sentences. At the same time, however, we must have something to say; we must have meanings that we wish to express, and we need to have a store of words that we can select from when we wish to express these meanings under the control of grammatical rules.⑯The types of meaning and sense relations, such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, polysemy, homonymy and semantic fields all belong to the semantic study and constitute an important part of lexicology.⑰Modern English is derived from the languages of early Germanic tribes with a fairly small vocabulary.Lexicology deals with how this vocabulary has developed into a huge Modern English vocabulary and how the changes have taken place in the forms and meanings of words.⑱Stylistics is concerned with language variety differing according to use rather than user. The same user may use different varieties for different purposes, different situations, in conversation with different people, to produce different effects.⑲The stylistic range is achieved by means of different word choices. Therefore, the study of words is significant for the study of language. Lexicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes: synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech, etc.⑳Lexicography, like lexicology, deals with the same problems: the form, meaning, origin and usage of words, but they have a pragmatic difference. The task for the lexicographers is to record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the readers, providing authoritative reference, whereas the learners of the lexicology is to acquire the knowledge and information of lexicon so as to enhance their lexical awareness and capacity of language use.⑴Though English lexicology covers very wide academic areas, we have a specific and consistent task of studying English words in different aspects and from different angles.⑵Language study involves the study of speech sound, grammar and vocabulary(three elements of the language). All the words that make up a language constitute what is known as its vocabulary. Vocabulary has proved very important and rather difficult.Unit2名词解释：①Denizens 同化词Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language.②Aliens 非同化词Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling③Translation-loans 译借词Translation-loans are words and expressions borrowed from foreign languages by means of translation.④Semantic loans 借义词Semantic loans are words which have acquired a new meaning under the influence of other languages.⑤syntheticA synthetic language is one, which shows the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections.⑥analyticAn analytic language is one, which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflections.关键词：⑪The Indo-European language family：In the Eastern Set In the Western Set⑫Native words:Borrowed words: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic loans⑬Early Settlers:1, Iberians(伊比利亚人）2, Britons (750BC-55BC)3, The Roman Conquest (about 55 BC-- 410 AD)4, English Conquest:There were three tribes from Northern Europe: Angles, Saxons and Jutes.5, The Social Conditions of theAnglo-Saxons6, Anglo-Saxon Religious Belief and its Influence: heathen peopleAnglo-Saxon English, which is now called Old English.⑭Feudal England:The Danish Invasion (about 787AD)787AD Danish Vikingsking Alfred the great (849-901)chronicle1013 Danish came again 30ys⑮The Divisions of the History of the English Language:Old English Period (AD450—1150)Middle English Period (AD1150—1500)Modern English Period (1500—present)Early Modern English Period (1500—1700)Late Modern English Period (1700—present)⑯The vocabulary of Old English consists mainly of Anglo-Saxon words.⑰Two classes of language in the world: synthetic and analytic.⑱Old English is a synthetic language.⑲the first printing press was set up by William Caxton in 1476⑳The Norman Conquest was the cause of this change(Middle English).⑴French influence on the English vocabulary is much more direct and observable.⑵In the Middle English period grammatical gender disappeared and was completely replaced by the natural gender.⑶the Latin and Greek classics was stressed, so the influence of Latin and Greek on English was great.The Greek element is an important element in the English vocabulary.⑷Some developments in the standard language since the 18th century .The standard orthography was fixed in the 18th century by the agreed practice of printers.In the 18th century French greatly influenced English.⑸The 19th and 20th centuries are a period of rapid expansion for the English vocabulary in the history of the English language.⑹Since the Second World War the English vocabulary has been affected powerfully by social, political, economic, especially not only changes, but also changes quickly in this period.Unit 3名词解释：①wordAn English word is a minimal free form of a language with one or more letters put together that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.②Morpheme词素/语素A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language, consisting of a word or part of a word that cannot be divided without losing its meaning.关键词：⑪Classification of wordsFull words and form words (P11)Popular words and learned wordsAbstract words and concrete wordsTransparent words and opaque wordsPolysemic words and monosemic wordsNative words and loan words⑫Types of morphemesfree morphemes (自由词素) bound morphemes (黏着词素)Allomorph (词素变体)Unit 6名词解释：①MeaningMeaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between name and sense.②MotivationMotivation is the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.As the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, the connection of the sign and meaning in most words does not have a logical explanation. Only a few words could be recognized as being motivated to a certain extent.③Phonetic Motivation (Onomatopoeic motivation )（语音/拟声理据）Phonetic Motivation or Onomatopoeic motivation explains the words whose sounds suggest their meaning, because these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noise.④Morphological Motivation (grammatical motivation) 形态理据It concerns the words whose morphological structures suggest the meaning, for generally speaking, the meaning of a derived word or a compound is based on the meaning of the word-building.⑤Semantic MotivationSemantic motivation is the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word, i.e. the figurative sense of a word suggested by the literal sense.⑥Etymological motivationEtymological motivation explains the words whose meanings are closely associated with their origins, i.e. the meanings of the words suggested by their sources.关键词：⑪The term semantics was first used by the French linguist Michael Breal in the nineteenth century. At that time the term, borrowed from Greek, was not used simply to deal with meaning but with the development and change of meaning.⑫According to the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure the linguistic sign consists of a signifier (修饰语/能指）and a signified（修饰事物/所指）, that is, a sound image and a concept. This is called the sign theory of de Saussure（索绪尔的符号理论）.Ogden & Richards’the semiotic triangle 语义三角理论：a word a concept the meaning of a word⑬Meaning and MotivationThe Naturalists (Pope) (自然派), who believed that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature, that there was an intrinsic connection between sound and sense, The Conventionalists (Shakespeare) (习惯派), who held that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary.⑭Three Kinds of Motivation1. Phonetic Motivation (Onomatopoeic motivation )（语音/拟声理据）2. Morphological Motivation (grammatical motivation) 形态理据3. Semantic Motivation⑮Main Types of Word MeaningWord meaning can also be classified according to different perspectives.⑯Meaning↓Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning↓Denotative meaning and associated meaning↓Connotative meaning↓Stylistic meaning &Affective meaning⑰Word Meaning and ContextThe context generally shows in what sense the word is used, in its primary sense or its figurative sense. When used literally, words have their original meaning; when used figuratively, words have symbolic meaning.The meaning of the word is defined by the context.The context determines which meaning out of all the possible meanings is to be attached to the word.Word meaning depends upon context. Different contexts give words different meanings.Unit 7&8名词解释：①PolysemyThere are words that have two or three senses, and the most commonly used ones can have as many senses as over a hundred.Polysemy is a universal feature to all natural languages.Most words in English language are polysemic words.②concatenationConcatenation is another semantic process in which the original meaning of a word may be lost on other meanings, that is to say, the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its primary meaning by successive shifts of meanings until, in many cases, there is not a shadow of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had in it at the outset.③radiationRadiation is an important process of sense shift by which words extended their meaning and in which the original meaning of a word is to be considered as the primary or central meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings are derived from it every direction like rays.④Homonymy 同形同音异义现象Homonymy is a term used to refer to two or more words which have the same form or sound but differ in meaning.⑤Homonyms（同形同音异义词）Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.⑥perfect homonyms（完全同形同音异义词）Perfect homonyms also known as absolute homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different in meaning.⑦Homophones 同音异形异义词Homophones are words identical in sound but different in meaning and spelling⑧homographs (homoforms) 同形异音异义词homographs are words identical in spelling but different in meaning and sound.⑨Synonymy (同义关系）Synonymy means that two or more words have the same meaning and deals with relation of sameness of meaning.⑩Synonyms （同义词）Synonyms words different in sound and spelling but similar or exactly the same in meaning.⒒Hyponymy（上下义关系）Hyponymy, the relationship of inclusion (包含关系) (the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word), organizes words into taxonomies (分类), or hierarchical tree-type diagrams (等级分类的树型图).12. Semantic fields (Lexical field) 语义场The organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationship to one another13. Componential AnalysisThe conceptual meaning can be broken down into its minimal distinctive components which are known as semantic features. Such as analysis is called componential analysis.关键词：⑪Two processes of sense shift1) radiation 2) concatenation⑫Two approaches to polysemyDiachronic ApproachDiachronically, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.Synchronic ApproachSynchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time, say, Modern English.⑬Main related meanings•Original meaning & Extended meaning•General meaning & Specific meaning•Abstract meaning & Concrete meaning•Literal meaning & Figurative meaning⑭Three Types of homonyms1) perfect homonyms（完全同形同音异义词）2) Homophones 同音异形异义词3) homographs (homoforms) 同形异音异义词⑮Two types of synonymsperfect (absolute) synonymsrelative synonyms.⑯Sources of synonyms1) Borrowing2) Figurative and euphemistic use of words3) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions⑰AntonymyAntonymy deals with the relation of oppositeness of meaning.Antonyms are words opposite in meaning.⑱Four kinds of antonyms, or oppositeness1) Absolute antonyms （绝对反义词）complementaries（互补反义词）；binary antonyms（二元反义词）；contradictory terms（矛盾反义词）E.g.: dead; alive true; false2) Contraries（相对反义词; 两级反义词；反义词gradable antonyms 可分级反义词）e.g.: hot—cold; warm —cool3) Conversives 换视角反义词4) relational opposites（关系反义词）e.g.: parent; child5) semantic incompatible（多项不相容词）e.g.: north; south; east; west⑲superordinate (上义词)hyponym (co-ordinate)(下义词)co-hyponyms (共下义词)⑳The semantic field of WALKmarch 齐步前进, 行军pace 踱方步patrol 巡逻，巡查stalk 高视阔步地走stride 大踏步地走，跨步tread 踩, 践踏tramp 用沉重的脚步行走step out (美口) 暂时走开prance 欢跃地走strut 趾高气扬地走，大摇大摆地走prowl 潜行，暗中徘徊plod 沉重缓慢地走，步履艰难stroll 散步；闲逛；溜达shuffle 曳足而行，拖着步子走stagger 蹒跚，摇晃，踉跄sidle（尤指鬼鬼祟祟地或胆怯地）悄悄地走trudge 步履艰难地走, 跋涉toddle 蹒跚行步，东倒西歪地走ramble 漫游；漫步roam 漫步；闲荡；漫游saunter 闲逛；漫步meander (of people) 漫步, 散步; (of rivers and streams指河川）蜿蜒而流；迂回曲折地前进lounge 闲逛loiter 走走停停；徘徊；闲逛creep 匍匐前进，爬行；蹑手蹑脚地走⑴T he meanings of man and woman can be defined in terms of a few sense components or semantic features in formula as shown below:Man: 〔+ human + Adult + Male〕Woman: 〔+ human + Adult + Female〕Unit 9名词解释：①NeologismsNeologisms are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technical change in human society ②ArchaismsArchaisms sometimes are called obsolete words, which are not used now except for special purposes.③Extension of meaningExtension of meaning, also known as generalization, is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept.④Narrowing of meaningNarrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening meaning⑤Elevation of meaningWords often rise from a humble beginning to a position of greater importance because of social changes. This is called elevation of meaning, or amelioration.⑥Degradation of meaningDegradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.⑦MetaphorA metaphor, like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.⑧MetonymyMetonymy is a very common, useful and effective language device. Metonymy is also an important factor in the shift of meaning that involves substitution of the name of one thing for that of another closely associated with it.⑨SynecdocheSynecdoche is a figure of speech that involves the substitution of the part for the whole or the whole for the part.⑩EuphemismEuphemism is the substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation. In short, a euphemism is a false word substituted for the true word in order to soften the shock of reality关键词：⑪Extension of meaning1) From specific to general2) From concrete to abstract3) From technical terms to general words4) From proper nouns to common nouns⑫Narrowing of meaning1) From general to specific2) From abstract to concrete3) From common nouns to proper nouns4) From general words to technical terms5) Loan words⑬Sense Shift/Sematic ShiftAnother semantic change is change from literal meaning to figurative sense. That is to say, people always use figures of speech to express this kind of semantic changes.In figures of speech words no longer retain their literal meaning, but are used as symbols and images.Semantic change from the literal use (meaning) of words to their figurative use (meaning)⑭3 major groups of metaphors according to function and character1. Anthropomorphic metaphors (many inanimate objects compared to the parts of the human body)2. Animal metaphors (many inanimate objects, including various instruments, machines, and parts of machines called after an animal)3. Synaesthetic metaphors (a direct association between the form and the meaning of language used to refer to)⑮1. coin: wedge, corner, angle2. deer: animal3. dreary: gory, bloody, cruel4. giddy: mad, insane, foolish, stupid5. honest: held in honor; respectable6. nerve: sinew or tendon7. pretty: cunning, crafty, wily, artful, astute8. sincere: true, correct, exact9. skill: reason as a faculty of the mind10. sky: cloud⑯1) cease to think ___die____2) memorial park __graveyard_3) mental hospital psychiatric hospital4) senior citizens __old people__5) industrial action __strike__6) custodian of the law __lawyer__7) underachiever __failure__8) the disadvantaged __poor people__9) the lounge _lazy or idle person_10) weight watcher __fat person__11) welfare mother __welfare worker__⑰Causes of the changes of meaning1. social cause1) social development and the changes of meaning2)social environment and the changes of meaning3) social classes and the changes of meaning4) natinal emotion and the changes of meaning5) racial emotions and the changes of meaning6) sexual differences and the changes of meaning7) social value judgement the changes of meaning8) official article and the changes of meaning2. linguistic cause。
词汇学复习资料
Ⅰ. 词义改变的几种方式（1）Extension （四种）(P93)1.from specific to general--- picture2.from proper nouns to common nouns:----rugby，magnet, champagne, etc.3. from concrete to abstract: threat（军队—威胁）Grasp（抓—领会）nitpick(挑虱子—挑剔）4.from technical terms to general words: catalyst--催化剂--刺激/促进因素example original meaning modern meaningcitizen city dweller inhabitant of a state or nation ---1salary salt money fixed regular pay esp. for workers---1layman one who is not of clergy non-member of any profession-- 1 --offend 反对→使感到恼火或愤恨不满----- 1bird 小鸟→任何一种鸟----- 1quarantine （隔离的）四十天→被迫隔离的一段时间--- 1companion 伙伴，尤指法律或正式关系的伙伴（如配偶或同事）→同伴----2pile 桥墩→堆在一起的或逐个叠放的大量东西----2subsist 使存在，使活着→存在，生存----1task 税款→任务 ---3（2）specialization（四种）(P96)1. from general to specific----meat, girl年轻人2. from abstract to concrete----- gear ( habit, manners P.96)3. from common nouns to proper nouns----- the Mediterraneanexample original meaning modern meaningmeat food edible fleshstarve die die from hungerwife a woman a married woman hangar 棚| 飞机棚，飞机库garage 安全地方| 汽车间grocer 批发商|（经营茶叶、咖啡、糖、香料、水果等杂品的）零售商artillery 军火| 大炮liquor 液体| （尤指蒸馏制成的）酒原义词义缩小后的意义poison 饮料| 毒药shroud 衣服| 寿衣stink 任何一种气味| 臭气hospital 供旅游者休息娱乐的场所| 医院(3)Amelioration(. Elevation of meaning 词义的升格)：原来贬义或中性的词转换为褒义。
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论述题一、一般词汇与基本词汇的关系基本词汇和一般词汇都有各自特点，因此，它们是语言词汇中两个完全不同的部分。
但是，基本词汇和一般词汇又有非常密切的联系，它们相互依存，共同发展，都是语言词汇中不可缺少的部分。
第一，基本词汇是语言的基础，它也是一般词汇形成的基础，一般词汇中的大多数词都是在基本词汇基础上形成的。
第二，一般词汇反映社会的发展是非常敏感的，它几乎经常存在不吨的变动之中，因此，语言词汇中的新成分往往首先出现在一般词汇中，然后个别成分再进入基本词汇中，促成基本词汇的发展。
从这一角度讲，一般词汇又可以充当基本词汇发展的源泉。
第三，基本词汇和一般词汇中的个别成分又是可以互相转换，在词汇发展的过程中，随着社会交际需要的改变，某些基本词转化成一般词，而某些一般词也能转化为基本词汇，如过去的基本词“鬼、窝窝头”等，现在已成了一般词，又如过去的一般词“党”，现在已经由一般词转化成基本词，成为“共产党”的简称。
总之，基本词汇和一般词汇就是在这样相互依存不断转化的关系中间共同发展和丰富起来。
它们的发展又形成整个词汇的形成。
二、词义发展的概况1、新词的增加。
语言是随着社会的发展而发展的，在这发展过程当中，词汇又是最敏感的部分，因此，社会上的一切都会在词汇中有所反映，这就促成了语言中新词的不断增加。
2、双音词的增多。
随着汉语的发展，词汇中的双音词逐渐增多起来，由单音向双音发展，是汉语词汇发展的一种必然现象。
因为随着社会的发展，交际的需求越来越纷繁复杂，需要表示的事物越来越多，有限的单音节形式就必然造成语言中同音词的大量出现。
因而给人们的交际带来许多不便，汉语词的双音化就此发展起来。
3、实词虚化现象的发展。
主要表现在两个方面：一方面是由实词类变为虚词类，如“因”原为“原因”，而后发展为“因为”，充当连词使用；另一方面，是由可以充当词根词素的实词虚化成了附加词素，如“了”原为“了结”虚化成了“好了”。
“了结”是实词，后来虚化成了词尾词素，读为“le”附在动词后面，表示完成体的语法意义，如“看了”、“做了”。
4、造词和构词方面的发展。
汉语造词和构词的情况发展到今天已有了很大的变化，不但造词方法已多样化，而且构词的方式也更加丰富和精密了。
如新词语的创制、汉语的造词法和构词法也是不断丰富和发展的。
5、同义词、多义词和抽象词语的发展。
同义词组的不断出现，多义词和抽象词语的不断增多，都是人们认识能力发展的结果，同时，这些现象也标志着语言极大词汇的丰富和完善。
其中汉语词汇中很早就存在着同义词现象，多义词的发展是语言词汇发展的必然趋势之一。
抽象词语的发展不但取决于人们认识的发展，而且和社会科学文化的发展也分不开。
6、词义的发展。
词义的发展是词汇发展的一个重要方面。
词义的发展可以从很多方面促成整个词汇系统的变化和发展。
7、旧要素的消亡。
词汇的发展和变化不但表现为新要素的不断发展和增加，同时也表现在旧要素的消亡。
一般表现为旧词的消亡、义项的消亡和词素的消亡。
汉语词汇的发展纷繁复杂，我们在认识和分析词汇的发展时，不能只看由简趋繁的一面，也应同时注意由繁趋简的发展现象。
只有这样，才能更好的认识、更正确的理解词汇的发展。
三、词汇的系统性(P13)1、词的结构的系统性。
词的结构由共性，这个共性可以概括为类型，如并列、表述、偏正、支配等等。
每一类型都联系一大批词。
绝大多数词都可以归入少数几个结构类型中。
由此可以看出，词杂I结构上是很有规则地联系在一起的，表现出词的组织结构的系统性。
2、词义关系的系统性。
一般认为，从词的意义关系来说，词可以构成层次关系词群和非层次关系词群。
层次关系有上下位关系（如：植物—树木—柳树）、整体部分关系（如：手—手掌—手心）、亲属关系（如：祖父—父亲—儿子）、等级关系（如：军长—师长—团长）等。
非层次关系词群的成员一般都是同位关系，同位关系中词义叠合或大部分叠合的词就是同义3、同族词的系统性。
同族词中各个合成词意义上有联系，如“网”以不同的意义作为联系的线索进行归类；在结构平面上，“网”按照语言中原有的构词方式，与不同的语速结合，组成并列、偏正、支配、附加等结构的合成词，表现了现代汉语词汇结构平面上的规律性、系统性。
四、词义发展的类型（P135）1、词义深化。
概念义适用对象不变，表示的对象特点深化，主要是一些表示最基本的自然现象，表示动物植物的词，它们的适用对象古今基本上是一样的，但词的概念义所表示的对象特点，则随着人的实践和认识的发展而深化。
如“土”、“牛”、“人”。
2、词义扩大。
A表名物的词适用对象从整体变为部分（指空间），表示的对象特征也随着变化，如“脸”、“腿”；B表名物的词适用对象从整体变为部分（指成员），表示的对象特征也随着变化，如“妇人”、“火花”；C表名物的词其适用对象从单一的事物发展到一般的事物，其表示的对象特征也随着变化，如“河”、“江”；D表性状的词适用对象的扩大，如“动听”、“平衡”；E表动作行为变化的词的行为变化的主体扩大，如“瞎”、“缺”；F表动作行为的词关系对象扩大，如“洗”、“容纳”。
3、词义缩小。
A表名物的词适用对象从整体变为部分（指空间），表示的对象特征也随着变化，如“肌肉”、“脚”；B表名物的词适用对象从整体变为部分（指成员），表示的对象特征也随着变化，如“学者”、“烈士”；C表性状的词适用对象缩小，如“皎洁”、“皑皑”；D表动作行为的词行为主体缩小，如“结婚”、“休养”；E表动作行为的词关系对象缩小，如“报复”、“营业”。
4、词义转移。
词义转移有两类：一是词性不变，原义和后起义的适用对象之间没有整体和部分，类和种，多类对象和其中一类对象的关系，表示的对象特征不同，例如“主人公”是名词，本义和后起义的适用对象不同类，表示的对象特征也不同；二是词性转换所造成的词义转移，如“布告”原义是动词，发展出来的意义是名词，“秀才“原义是形容词，发展出来的意义是名词。
5、感情色彩变化。
例如“爪牙”从“中性或褒义”变为“贬义”，词义的变化是：原指“武臣”，发展出来的意义指“坏人的党羽”，词义转移了。
五、词义发展的原因（P147）1、新事物出现，旧事物消灭，阶级斗争的发展。
“钱”一词意义的变化，着重说明了新事物出现，旧事物消亡所引起的词义变化；在阶级社会中，各个阶级，特别是统治阶级，常把本阶级的思想意识输入语词之中，使词义发生变化，如“崩”，原指山塌，后专指皇帝死。
2、人的思想意识的发展。
第一，思想认识的发展，主要是一些反映自然现象、动物、植物的词，古今词义适用对象大体相当，但表示的对象特征有了很大的发展，如“天”、“云”、“气”；第二，思维联想规律的作用，如“包袱”，原指用布包衣物的包儿，后用来比喻思想上的负担。
3、语言内部各个因素的相互作用。
语法、语音、词汇、词义的发展变化是互相作用的，汉字字形的变化对词汇、词义的发展也有相当作用，如“恩典”原指“帝王对臣民的恩惠”是名词，现可用作动词“给予恩惠”。
六、词义呈现出来的特征词义呈现出来的特征的多方面的同时又是相互联系的。
1、词义的客观性。
客观事物或现象的存在是词义产生的基础和根据，没有这种客观事物或现象做依据，就不会有词义。
例如，如果可过上没有“书、市场、生活、学习”这些事物或现象，就没有表达这些词的词义。
许多新造词的出现，也是因为产生了这些新事物新现象。
“软件”、“电子邮箱”、“克隆”、“多媒体”的意义也是由于客观上出现了这些新事物才产生的。
2、词义的概括性。
如，“人”的词义是会说话、能制造劳动工具、过社会生活的脊椎动物，它不是专指一个人，而是指具有以上特征的一切人。
完全是由社会成员公同约定俗成的。
4、词义的主观性。
有些词所代表的事物在现实社会中并不存在，而是由人们想象出来的，如“鬼”、“神”、“仙女”、“玉帝”等，但这些词的意义也没有脱离现实社会的客观事物做依据。
这些事物在人们头脑中的想象，仍同人类社会的一些事物有关系，是在客观事物的基础上加工而成的，是客观事物在人们意识中的曲折反映。
“仙女”、“玉帝”是以人的形象为基础的，“鬼”、“神”是以人或动物的形象为基础的。
5、词义的发展性。
词义是一个历史范畴，由于社会的发展变化，词义也必然会有发展变化，这是语言发展的规律。
如，钟是古代的乐器，后来讲钟就专指寺庙里用的一种东西，和时钟。
6、词义的民族性。
不同民族语言用什么词表示什么事物可以不同，概括的对象可以不同，这就是词义的民族性。
民族的文化性会对词语产生种种影响。
如，英语有参议院，上院，汉语有人代会，政协。
7、词义的概念的对应性和具体事物的对应性。
七、词汇发展的原因ABC八、判断“商量”、“商榷”的用法（P107选择）（一）充当句子成分对比1、商量是必要的（V）商榷是必要的（V）这种商量是必要的（V）这种商榷是必要的（V）2、我们同他商量（V）我们同他商榷（V）我们商量了一会儿（V）我们商榷了一会儿（*）3、办事要有商量（V）办事要有商榷（*）我们开始商量了（V）我们开始商榷了（*）中美双方进行商量（V）中美双方进行商榷（*）4、商量的意见给大家说（V）商榷的意见给大姐说了（V）我们要商量的意见给大家说了（V）我们要商榷的意见给大家说了（V）（二）词语搭配对比对这个问题，我们要同你商量（V）对这个问题，我们要同你商榷（V）对这个提法，我们要同你商量（V）对这个提法，我们要同你商榷（V）对这个观点，我们要同你商量（V）对这个观点，我们要同你商榷（V）对这个论断，我们要同你商量（V）对这个论断，我们要同你商榷（V）我们商量这个问题（V）我们商榷这个问题（V）我们商量这个提法（V）我们商榷这个提法（V）我们商量这个观点（V）我们商榷这个观点（V）我们商量这个论断（V）我们商榷这个论断（V）我们商量事情（V）我们商榷事情（*）我们商量借几块钱（V）我们商榷借几块钱（*）我们商量要几个人（V）我们商榷要几个人（*）我们商量买几本书（V）我们商榷没几本书（*）商量的问题提出来了（V）商榷的问题提出累了（V）商量的条件踢出来了（V）商榷的条件踢出来了（V）商量的钱给了（V）商榷的钱给了（*）。