1 水、电解质代谢紊乱
水电解质代谢紊乱
水电解质代谢紊乱水电解质代谢紊乱是指体内水分和电解质的平衡失调,包括钠、钾、钙、镁、氯等多种离子的异常变化。
这种情况常常会导致一系列的症状和健康问题,并需要及时的诊断和治疗。
原因造成水电解质代谢紊乱的原因多种多样。
如在体内出现吸收不良、排泄不足、消耗过多等情况,大多数情况下是由于疾病、医疗、手术、药物和饮食等原因造成的。
饮食原因过量饮用含咖啡因的饮料、饮酒以及食用高盐、高胆固醇、高蛋白、高钾和高镁的食物可能会影响身体内的水和电解质平衡。
此外,经常食用过咸和过甜的食物,缺乏饮用水等也会导致水电解质代谢紊乱的发生。
疾病原因水电解质代谢紊乱与多种疾病的发生和发展密切相关。
患有肾脏疾病、肝脏疾病、心脏疾病、消化系统疾病、神经系统疾病等各种疾病的患者容易发生水电解质紊乱。
药物原因许多药物在治疗过程中会影响人体内部的水和电解质平衡,例如利尿剂、抗生素、铁剂、抗癫痫药等。
其他因素胃肠道感染、高热等疾病状态,大量出汗(例如高温环境、高强度运动),严重失血、多次呕吐、腹泻等情况均会损失身体内的水和电解质,导致水电解质代谢紊乱。
症状水电解质代谢紊乱的症状可以根据不同人的病因而有所不同。
一般来说,症状包括:•反复呕吐、腹泻和排尿不正常•体内水分不足,口干、口渴、皮肤和口腔干燥•头晕、乏力、疲惫,甚至昏迷•肌肉抽搐、痉挛、肌肉酸痛和无力•心律失常、心悸、呼吸急促或血压过低或过高等症状诊断检查水电解质代谢紊乱的方法主要包括化验检查和临床症状的观察。
化验检查包括电解质和血糖、肾功能、甲状腺和肾上腺等激素的检测。
在临床上,观察患者的症状和体征,按照患者病史,可做出初步诊断。
治疗水电解质代谢紊乱的治疗首先需要找到原因,并有针对性地进行治疗。
当水电解质平衡紊乱严重并危及患者生命时,应立即采取紧急处理措施,如透析、人工输注等。
另外,如果水电解质代谢紊乱程度较轻,可通过饮食调整的方式恢复身体内部的平衡。
需要避免高钠、高糖、高脂肪等食物,以及减少咖啡因、酒精含量的摄入。
病理生理学--水、电解质代谢紊乱课件
呼吸困难 端坐呼吸
右心衰→心性水肿
下垂性水肿 静脉压升高 肝肿大 腹水 双下肢明显水肿
❖ 肾性水肿(renal edema) 肾炎性水肿:早期眼睑和面部水肿 肾病性水肿:三高一低
❖ 肝性水肿 特点:腹水
4、水肿对机体的影响
❖炎性水肿稀释毒素 ❖细胞营养障碍 ❖水肿对器官组织功能活动的影响
碱中毒(alkalosis)
H+
肾小管
H+
K+
[H+]
Na+
K+
Na+
血[K+]
与膜电位异常相关的障碍
对膜电位的影响 对细胞膜离子通透性的影响
对骨骼肌和平滑肌细胞膜的K+通透性影 响不大。
对心肌细胞膜 对K+ 通透性降低 对Ca+ 通透性增加 可致Na+ 通道失活
(二)对机体的影响
1. 对肌肉组织的影响
Blood hydrostatic pressure(BHP) 60 mmHg out Colloid osmotic pressure(COP) -32 mmHg in Capsular pressure(CP) -18 mmHg in
Net filtration pressure(NFP) 10 mmHg out
缺钾(potassium deficit):细胞内钾缺失
(-)原因和机制
食物
ECF
K+ 血钾
3.5-5.5 mmol/L
ICF 钾 150mmol/L 体钾98%
消
多摄多排
化 道
肾 少摄少排
不摄也排
体钾
食物
①
1 水、电解质代谢紊乱(1 disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism)
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------1 水、电解质代谢紊乱(1 disorders of water andelectrolyte metabolism)1 水、电解质代谢紊乱(1 disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism) 1 水、电解质代谢紊乱(1 disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism) Dehydration (dehydration) \ hypotonic dehydration (Hypotonic dehydration) \ dehydration symptoms (Dehydrate, symptom) \ [hypertonic dehydration (Hypertonic, dehydration) / isotonic dehydration (Isotonic, dehydration) / water intoxication (Water, intoxication) \ hyponatremia (hyponatremia) \ hypernatremia (hypernatremia) A disorder of water and sodium metabolism Dehydration (dehydration): a decrease in body fluid volume (more than 2% of body weight) and a series of pathological disorders of function and metabolism. The water of the body is mainly the loss of extracellular fluid, while sodium ions are the most important cations in the extracellular fluid, so dehydration is often associated with the loss of sodium (I) hypotonic dehydration (Hypotonic, dehydration); Hypotonic dehydration: loss of sodium, more than water loss, serum sodium concentration 135mmol/L, plasma osmotic pressure 280mmol/L, and accompanied by decreased extracellular fluid volume, known as hypotonic dehydration.1 / 20Also called hyponatremia of low volume The etiology and pathogenesis of * * * * Mainly the loss of isotonic or hypotonic fluid. 1) extra renal causes A. digestive juices are lost in large amounts, B. fluids accumulate in large amounts in the body cavity, and C. accumulates large amounts of sweat or burns in large areas 2) renal causes A large number of long-term use of sodium intake or natriuretic drug limit A. (hydrochlorothiazide and furosemide and ethacrynic acid etc.)B. chronic renal interstitial disease, ascending limb of Henle and Na with renal dysfunction increased lostC. acute renal failure polyuria period, GFR increase, tubular function did not recover, sodium and water excretion increasedD. salt losing nephritis, tubular epithelial cell lesions of Ald (aldosterone) response to the decrease in sodium reabsorption in renal sodium excretion, reduce excessive The adrenal cortex and e., such as Addison disease, Ald secretion of Na, the decrease in tubular reabsorption and decrease renal sodium excretion and drainage increased F. excessive osmotic diuresis and renal excretion of Na and H2O increase 2. of the impact of the body The basic changes were obvious decrease of extracellular fluid and decrease of osmotic pressure Loss of sodium and water loss, the osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid, the decrease in---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ extracellular to intracellular water transfer to intracellular water up to cell edema, extracellular fluid decreased more obviously Clinical manifestation 1) circulatory failure (Symptom of, circulatory, failure) The water from the cell to cell outward transfer of extracellular fluid and blood volume down down down down down down, blood pressure, shock 2) dehydration symptoms (Dehydrate, symptom) Lower skin elasticity, sunken socket, and three concave signs in infants.(3) other clinical manifestations (Other, manifestation); - thirsty: early without thirst; in late, there will be thirsty. CNS - symptoms: severe hypotonic dehydration with haziness, drowsiness, coma. - urinary sodium:: urinary sodium or no 10mmol/L. According to the clinical symptoms of the severity of clinical hypotonic dehydration of three degrees (two) hypertonic dehydration (Hypertonic, dehydration); Hypertonic dehydration: dehydration more than sodium loss, serum sodium concentration 145mmol/L, plasma osmotic pressure 310mmol/L, and accompanied by decreased extracellular fluid volume, Hypertonic dehydration. Also called low volume hypernatremia. 1. etiology and pathogenesis Dehydration or loss of low osmotic fluid is the main cause of3 / 20hypertonic dehydration 1) simple dehydration A. is C. through the lung, B. by the skin, and by the kidneys (2) loss of hypotonic fluid C. loss of hypotonic fluid through the gastrointestinal tract, B. profuse sweating, and repeated osmotic diuresis caused by repeated use of mannitol or hypertonic glucose in the a. 2., the impact on the body 1) compensatory response of organism - drink (except for thirst thirst disorder) Plasma osmotic pressure increases, osmoreceptor (+) - (+) - thirsty thirst Here, AGTII relax, thirsty central blood volume (+) - thirsty Hypertonic dehydration, saliva, throat dry down While the proportion of high - oliguria (excluding diabetes insipidus patients) In the water from the cell within the extracellular transfer to the osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid decreased somewhat These three aspects make the extracellular fluid osmotic pressure fall back, so that the early blood volume of dehydration is not easy to drop to the degree of shock 2) the clinical manifestation varies with the degree - urinary sodium Mild hypertonic dehydration (early stage) The osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid, increase blood volume decrease is not obvious, the reabsorption of water and sodium, high urine sodium. Medium and severe hypertonic dehydration---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ (late) Blood volume and renal blood flow was significantly lower, Ald (aldosterone) secretion, increase urinary sodium down - CNS symptoms Severe hyperosmolar dehydration, intracellular fluid, brain cell dehydration and significantly decrease brain pressure decreases, the severity of the symptoms of CNS - thermal dehydration Here, the body temperature down to increase heat dissipation function, sweat gland secretory cells: liquid - shock, renal failure According to the severity of clinical symptoms, the hypertonic dehydration was three degrees (three) isotonic dehydration (Isotonic, dehydration); Isotonic dehydration: when water and sodium are lost in proportion or after losing fluid, the plasma osmotic pressure is still within normal range, the serum sodium concentration is 135~145mmol/L, and the plasma osmotic pressure is 280~ 310 mmol/L. 1. etiology and pathogenesis Vomiting and diarrhea, a large number of pleural and ascites formation, extensive burns and severe trauma, such as plasma loss. 2., the impact on the body Isotonic dehydration often has clinical manifestations of hypotonic and hypertonic dehydration. A massive loss of isotonic fluid, extracellular fluid, blood volume, blood pressure down, down to the decrease5 / 20in urine volume, body temperature, dehydration obvious appearance Isotonic dehydration can only be converted into hypotonic dehydration if only water is added to the treatment without attention to sodium supplementation. Water intoxication Water intoxication (Water intoxication): when the water intake, over regulating nerve endocrine system and kidney drainage ability, make a lot of water retention in the body, resulting in volume of intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid expansion, and the emergence of a series of diseases including hyponatremia, physical and physiological changes. 1. etiology and pathogenesis 1) take in or enter too much electrolyte free liquid 2) acute or chronic renal insufficiency 3) excessive secretion of ADH Excessive secretion of ADH is defined as abnormal secretion of ADH under certain pathological conditions. (a) ADH abnormal growth syndrome (SIADH): Hypothalamic diseases (encephalitis, brain tumors) and ectopic ADH secretion (lung, oat cell carcinoma) B) other reasons In pain, nausea and emotional stress: relax, ADH secretion of water intoxication In the case of adrenocortical function: GC (glucocorticoid), inhibition of hypothalamic ADH secretion function down down - exogenous ADH input (vasopressin and oxytocin) 4) certain special---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ pathological states A) heart failure, hepatic ascites, effective circulating blood volume down, down to the water load increase renal drainage and water poisoning (b) hypotonic dehydration - a large amount of electrolyte free water intoxication 2., the impact on the body Prominent manifestation: increased intracellular fluid volume or cell edema When water poisoning occurs, the extracellular fluid increases obviously, and the low permeability of extracellular fluid causes a large amount of water to enter the cell Mild water intoxication, the increase of intracellular and external fluid is not obvious, the symptoms are not obvious, may be weak, dizziness and so on Acute poisoning with water intoxication can cause brain cell edema and increased intracranial pressure, which can be life-threatening test questions 1. the balance of osmotic pressure inside and outside cells mainly depends on the movement of the following substances A., Na+, B., K+, C., Cl-, D., H2O, Ca++, E. 2., a large amount of water is added to the patients with severe hypotonic dehydration, while no sodium salt is added A. hypertonic dehydration, B. isotonic dehydration, C. poisoning, D. hypokalemia, E. edema 3. what are the major characteristics of hypotonic dehydration? 4.7 / 20why is hypertonic dehydration less prone to circulatory failure in the early stage? 5., we compared the similarities and differences between hypotonic dehydration and hypertonic dehydration. Case analysis Male patients, 2 years old, diarrhea 2 days, 6-7 times a day, watery stools; vomiting 3 times, vomiting is the milk consumed, can not eat. Accompanied by thirst, oliguria and bloating. Physical examination: the spirit of malaise, T37oC, BP11.5/6.67KPa (86/50mmHg), skin elasticity, eyes sag, bregmatic subsidence, fast heartbeat and weak, no abnormal lung, abdominal distension, abdominal reflex, decreased bowel sounds, knee reflex, cold extremities. Laboratory tests: serum K+3.3mmol/L, Na+140mmol/L. What kind of water and electrolyte disorder occur in the child? On the basis of what? Comparison of three kinds of dehydration Disturbance of sodium metabolism 1. hyponatremia Hyponatremia (hyponatremia) refers to serum sodium concentrations below 135mol/l. Plasma osmolality mainly depends on the concentration of serum sodium ions, so hyponatremia is usually associated with low osmolarity. (I) hypotonic hyponatremia (hypotonic, hyponatremia): The vast majority of hyponatremia is associated with a decrease in plasma osmolality 1) low capacity hyponatremia (hypovolemic,---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ hyponatremia) The loss of sodium is more than the loss of water, and the volume of extracellular fluid is decreased, that is, hypotonic dehydration 2) hyponatremia (isovolemic) It is seen in ADH secreting abnormal growth syndrome and osmotic reset 3) high capacity hyponatremia (hypervolemic, hyponatremia) The main causes are congestive heart failure, liver cirrhosis, ascites, nephrotic syndrome and so on, which lead to the pathological changes of the effective circulation and blood loss. Water intoxication (two) isotonic hyponatremia (chronic hyponatremia) (isotonic, hyponatremia); Hyperlipidemia or hyperlipoproteinemia patients, due to the increase of plasma lipid or protein content, serum water proportion decreased, so the serum sodium concentration under normal water, plasma sodium concentration in the clinically measured reduced, then called isotonic hyponatremia. (three) hypertonic hyponatremia (hypertonic, hyponatremia); Hyperosmolar hyponatremia: Sodium by outside impermeable solute permeability caused by increased extracellular fluid pressure increased, the water inside the cells to transfer, extracellular fluid sodium concentration decreases, which leads to the occurrence of hyponatremia in. 2. hypernatremia9 / 20Hypernatremia (hypernatremia): serum sodium concentration is higher than 145mmol/l. With the increase of plasma osmotic pressure, the basic changes of hypernatremia are common when the cells are dehydrated. (I) hyponatremia of low volume Mainly because of the large loss of water or hypotonic fluid, the loss of water exceeds the loss of sodium, which leads to the decrease of extracellular fluid and the increase of serum sodium concentration, which is called hypertonic dehydration (two) hypernatremia with equal capacity It is found in primary hypernatremia, impaired central nervous system and so on (three) hypernatremia with high volume The main reason is the excessive input of sodium solution. In patients who have been rescued from cardiac arrest and respiratory arrest, a large amount of NaHCO3 is added to fight lactic acidosis, resulting in an increase in extracellular fluid volume and sodium concentration. Two 、potassium metabolism disorder Disturbance of potassium metabolism: abnormal changes in K+ concentration in extracellular fluid (especially serum), and the patient’s clinical symptoms and signs depend mainly on the speed and extent of abnormal changes in blood potassium concentration (I) hypokalemia (hypokalemia); When serum potassium concentration is below 3.5mmol/L, it is called---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ hypokalemia. Potassium depletion: intracellular potassium and loss of total potassium in the body. 1. causes and mechanisms 1) lack of potassium intake 2) excessive potassium loss The loss of potassium through the stomach and intestines (hypokalemia) Loss of kidney by potassium (a) loss of kidney due to increased renal flow at the distal end of the renal tubule A large number of diuretics use: increasing the distal flow velocity of the renal tubule and increasing the exchange of Na with K Renal insufficiency, renal failure (b) aldosterone: aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid that promotes reabsorption of sodium and the secretion of potassium and hydrogen, causing potassium loss (c) renal tubule transmembrane potential increases negatively, resulting in potassium loss D) loss of potassium caused by low Mg blood Magnesium deficiency in the body, caused by the thick ascending limb of Henle epithelial cell Na, inactivation of the K-ATP enzyme, caused by potassium reabsorption and potassium loss.E) other Type I renal tubular acidosis: obstruction of the distal convoluted tubule to H+ Type II renal tubular acidosis: reabsorption of proximal convoluted tubules in HCO3- Type IV renal tubular acidosis: simultaneous presence of malabsorption11 / 20of Na+ and obstruction of the distal convoluted tubule with H+ Loss of skin by potassium 3) potassium to intracellular transfer (a) alkalosis (b) the use of insulin (c) hypokalemic familial familial periodic paralysis (d) barium poisoning, crude cottonseed oil poisoning 2. effects of hypokalemia on the body Related to the speed, amplitude and duration of blood potassium lowering, the faster the rate of blood potassium lowering, the lower the serum potassium concentration, the greater the impact on the body. 1) the effect on neuromuscular excitability The excitability and conductivity of nerve and muscle tissue are significantly affected Acute hypokalemia, extracellular fluid with constant liquid concentration decreased, intracellular potassium concentration, the results make the intracellular potassium concentration, the ratio of increase of intracellular potassium efflux increased, the absolute value of the resting membrane potential increases, and increase the threshold potential gap, the stimulation threshold excited should also be increased, it caused the excitability of nerve muscle cells decreased. When chronic hypokalemia occurs, the extracellular potassium can be replenished by intracellular potassium, because the potassium concentration in the---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ extracellular fluid is slowed down, so the symptoms are not obvious. Clinical manifestations: symmetrical limbs, flaccid paralysis, even soft paralysis, paralytic ileus, abdominal distension and so on. Physical examination: reduction of muscle tone in the limbs and decrease or disappearance of tendon reflex. Reason: the excitability of skeletal muscle cells decreases, and the gastrointestinal smooth muscle can also be involved 2) the effect on the heart Mainly cause arrhythmia, severe ventricular fibrillation, leading to heart failure A) physiological changes of myocardium [K +]e decreased, membrane permeability decreased, phase 4 K + efflux decreased, Na + or Ca2 + increased, and autonomic cells automatically increased rapidly and increased automaticity; The reduced membrane permeability decreased [K]e?? Em cell move, Em-Et spacing increased excitability?; The Em shift and Em-Et spacing decrease, the slope of the 0 phase curve increases, the front potential decreases, and the conductivity decreases; The [K +]e decreased 2? Ca2 + influx of [Ca2 +]i increased rapidly accelerated?? myocardial contractility increased (severe and chronic hypokalemia due to intracellular potassium deficiency, affecting cell metabolism, myocardial damage,13 / 20decrease of myocardial contractility). (b) electrocardiographic changes The obvious U wave after S-T segment depression and T wave is characteristic of hypokalemia Conduction prolongation, P-R interval prolongation, ORS wave presentation and broadening The calcium influx in the 2 stage accelerates the potassium efflux, the 2 stage repolarization accelerates and the S-T depression decreases The 3 phase of potassium efflux slowed down to repolarization, and the 3 phase extended to U wave obviously C) arrhythmia In hypokalemia, the myocardial excitability increased, the supernormal period prolonged and the ectopic pacemaker increased automaticity. At the same time, the conductivity decreased, the conduction slow and the effective refractory period shortened, and it was easy to cause excited reentry. Therefore, hypokalemia is prone to premature beats, atrioventricular block, ventricular fibrillation, and other arrhythmias. 3) the influence on acid-base equilibrium Hypokalemia may cause alkalosis (paradoxical uric acid) 4) the effect on the kidney The accumulation of renal dysfunction occurs in the so-called depletion of postassiun (nephropathy) 5) the effect on blood vessels Reducing peripheral vascular resistance to hypokalemia is associated with vertigo, hypotension and other---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ symptoms 3. prevention and treatment principle of hypokalemia 1) prevention and treatment of primary diseases 2) proper potassium supplementation during treatment. The principle of potassium supplementation: feeding can be taken orally as possible potassium supplement; intravenous potassium supplementation should pay attention to low concentration (20~40 mmol/L) and low flow rate (10 mmol/h); daily potassium supplementation can be controlled at 40~120 mmol. Special attention should be paid to intravenous potassium supplementation only when the renal function is good. When the amount of urine is greater than 500 ml, the potassium supplementation is safe. Potassium deficiency is caused by magnesium deficiency, Magnesium should be supplied before potassium can be effectively supplied. Attention should be paid to the acid-base balance of the patient. (two) hyperkalemia (hyperkalemia); Serum K + concentration greater than 5.5 mmol/L is called hyperkalemia. 1. causes and mechanisms 1) excessive penetration 2) renal excretion of potassium decreased Acute renal failure, oliguria stage, end-stage renal failure. High potassium type distal tubular acidosis Decreased aldosterone secretion or decreased renal15 / 20tubular aldosterone response to aldosterone Long term use of diuretics that can cause potassium retention 3) extracellular release of stromal cells Acidosis A great deal of hemolysis or tissue damage and necrosis When diabetic ketoacidosis occurs Membrane dysfunction of sodium pump Familial familial periodic paralysis of hyperkalemia 2. effects of hyperkalemia on the body 1) the effect on neuromuscular excitability Mild hyperkalemia (5.5 ~ 7.0mmol/L) often results in increased excitability. There are hand foot and foot abnormalities, tremors, myalgia, or colic, and diarrhea; Severe hyperkalemia (7 ~ 9.0mmol/L) often makes the muscle cells appear to be depolarized and blocked, causing muscle paralysis, and clinical weakness of muscle, flaccid paralysis and other symptoms. 2) the effect on the heart The effect on the heart, like hypokalemia, can also cause arrhythmias or ventricular fibrillation, but unlike hyperkalemia, severe hyperkalemia can cause cardiac arrest. (a) characteristics of myocardial physiological changes [K +]e increased, and the permeability of the membrane to K + increased after the repolarization of the self regulatory cells. The 4 phase of K + flow increased, the automatic depolarization slowed down, and the automaticity decreased. Increase of [K +]e, decrease of---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Em negative value in cardiac working cells, decrease of Em-Et distance, increase of excitability in mild disease and decrease in severe condition. The Em-Et interval is reduced. In the 0 stage, the depolarization is decreased and the potential is decreased, and the conductivity is decreased. Increase of [K +]e, decrease of calcium influx in 2 stage and decrease in contractility. B) changes in the electrocardiogram The action potential of cardiac myocytes decreased and P wave decreased, widened or disappeared The conductivity decreased, prolonged P-R interval, QRS composite is wide The T wave is high, the Q-T interval shortens and the S-T elevation (c) the manifestation of arrhythmia Acute hyperkalemia is reduced and slow conduction conductivity caused by unidirectional conduction block, and effective refractory period shortened, and also easy to cause the reentry arrhythmia, including ventricular fibrillation. Severe hyperkalemia can result in cardiac arrest due to reduced automaticity, block of conduction, and loss of excitability 3) the influence on acid-base equilibrium Hyperkalemia results in the metastasis of H + to the extracellular region and the decrease of H + in kidney, so metabolic acidosis can occur. (paradoxical alkaline urine) 3.17 / 20prevention and treatment principle of hyperkalemia 1) prevention and treatment of primary diseases 2) reduce blood potassium: myocardial toxicity against high potassium; promote K+ into cells; accelerate K+ excretion Hypokalemia * reasons Insufficient intake of potassium: can not eat or fasting, stomach, parenteral K solution too much: often iatrogenic, such as kidney dysfunction, more rapid, potassium supplementation Potassium loss or discharge excessive vomiting, diarrhea, intestinal fistula; using Paul sodium and osmotic diuresis; renal dysfunction and interstitial renal disease; aldosterone; magnesium deficiency; sweat reduction; renal failure and some kidney diseases; Adrenal cortical insufficiency; potassium sparing diuretic use * k the abnormal distribution of extracellular potassium into the cell: alkalosis; insulin; periodic paralysis; intracellular potassium escape cell barium poisoning: acid poisoning; severe hypoxia; periodic paralysis; hemolysis or serious tissue damage excessive muscle movement; the use of digitalis or propranolol. Effects on the organism * nerve muscle excitability is chronic; varies little Acute: lower chronic: little change Acute: mild increase, severe decrease * cardiac automaticity increases and decreases Excitability increased, slightly increased, decreased when---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ severe Decreased conductivity Decreased contractility Extend the ECG characteristics of the P-R interval, QRS wave width; S-T segment depression, T wave flat, U wave, Q-T wave, P wave interval prolonged low width, prolonged P-R interval, QRS wave width; S-T elevation, T wave tip The Q-T interval is shortened or normal * clinical presentation, tachycardia, arrhythmia, or ventricular fibrillation, arrhythmia, or cardiac arrest * acid base balance secondary metabolic alkalosis secondary metabolic acidosis * gastrointestinal peristalsis, abdominal distension, paralytic ileus, colic, diarrhea Three, acid-base balance and acid-base balance disorders Under physiological conditions, the pH of the extracellular fluid is between pH37.35-7.45 and the average value is 7.40. Extracellular fluid pH is in this relatively stable state, that is called acid-based (balance), that is, the relative concentration of hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) in the blood. The maintenance of acid-base balance depends on the humoral buffer system and the mediation of the lungs and kidneys. The acid-base equilibrium disorder refers to various causes accumulation or lack of body acidic or alkaline substances, leading to environmental damage in body fluid acid-base19 / 20homeostasis, which is caused by various reasons of arterial blood [H+] exceeded the normal range (increase or decrease) of the pathological changes.。
水、电解质代谢紊乱概述、表现与应用
(水中毒)
液过多(水肿)
水、电解质代谢紊乱概述 、表现和应用
概述
(一)低钠血症
• 低钠血症:指血清Na+浓度低于130mmol /L, 且常伴有细胞外液渗透压降低,为临床常见的 水钠代谢紊乱。
1. 低容量性低钠血症 2. 等容量性低钠血症 3. 高容量性低钠血症(水中毒)
细胞脱水 • 细胞外液: 位于细胞外, 20%
血浆: 5%(血容量相应改变) 组织间液: 15% 水肿
脱水 • 第三间隙液:关节水、、颅电解腔质、代胸谢紊腹乱腔概述, 2%( 积水)
、表现和应用
水、电解质代谢紊乱概述 、表现和应用
电解质:
以离子状态溶于体液中的各种无机盐、低分子有 机物和蛋白质。 • 细胞外液: Na+、Cl-、HCO3-为主 • 细胞内液: K+、HPO42-和蛋白质为主 • 血浆: 蛋白质较多(7%),其他电解质同组织间液
• 组织间液渗透压:与血浆渗透压基本相等 • 细胞内液渗透压:主要由K+、HPO42-维持
和细胞外液基本相等
水、电解质代谢紊乱概述 、表现和应用
体液容量及渗透压的调节:
• 口渴机制(口渴中枢,下丘脑侧面) • ADH(下丘脑视上核、室旁核) • ADS(保钠保水、排钾) • 心钠素(ANP) • 水通道蛋白
水、电解质代谢紊乱概述 、表现和应用
抗利尿素的调节示意图
机体水分 钠含量
血浆(晶体)渗透压 (下丘脑渗透压感受器)
抗利尿激素 (ADH)
促进肾远 曲小管和集 合管对水的
重吸收
循环血量 血压
容量感受器(左心房) 压力感受器
水、电(颈解动质代脉谢窦紊、乱概主述动脉弓)
、表现和应用
水和电解质代谢紊乱笔记
水和电解质代谢紊乱笔记水和电解质代谢紊乱是指机体内水和电解质的摄入、排出或分布异常,从而引起水、电解质、渗透压和酸碱平衡紊乱的现象。
水和电解质是维持生命活动的基本物质,其平衡状态的维持对于机体的正常生理功能具有重要意义。
一、水的代谢紊乱水的代谢紊乱主要包括脱水和水过多两种情况。
1.脱水脱水是指体内水分丢失过多,引起体液容量减少的现象。
脱水可分为高渗性脱水、等渗性脱水和低渗性脱水。
(1)高渗性脱水:高渗性脱水是指体内水分丢失多于电解质丢失,血浆渗透压升高的现象。
常见于高热、呼吸加快等情况下。
主要表现为口渴、尿少、皮肤干燥、弹性下降、眼球凹陷等症状。
治疗主要是补充水分和电解质,以口服为主,严重者可静脉输液。
(2)等渗性脱水:等渗性脱水是指体内水分和电解质丢失相当,血浆渗透压正常的现象。
常见于呕吐、腹泻等情况下。
主要表现为口渴、尿少、皮肤干燥等症状。
治疗主要是补充水和电解质,以口服为主,严重者可静脉输液。
(3)低渗性脱水:低渗性脱水是指体内电解质丢失多于水分丢失,血浆渗透压降低的现象。
常见于长期使用利尿剂、肾上腺皮质功能不全等情况下。
主要表现为头晕、乏力、恶心、呕吐等症状。
治疗主要是补充电解质和水分,以口服为主,严重者可静脉输液。
2.水过多水过多是指体内水分摄入过多或排出减少,引起体液容量增多的现象。
常见于肾功能不全、心力衰竭等情况下。
主要表现为水肿、呼吸困难、恶心、呕吐等症状。
治疗主要是限制水分摄入,促进水分排出,可使用利尿剂等药物。
二、电解质代谢紊乱电解质代谢紊乱主要包括钠、钾、钙等电解质的代谢紊乱。
1.钠代谢紊乱钠代谢紊乱主要包括低钠血症和高钠血症。
(1)低钠血症:低钠血症是指血清钠浓度低于135mmol/L的现象。
常见于呕吐、腹泻等情况下。
主要表现为头晕、乏力、恶心、呕吐等症状。
治疗主要是补充钠盐,以口服为主,严重者可静脉输液。
(2)高钠血症:高钠血症是指血清钠浓度高于145mmol/L的现象。
水和电解质代谢紊乱
水和电解质代谢紊乱
人和高等动物机体内的细胞也象水中的单细胞生物一样是在液体环境之中的。
和单细胞生物不同的是人体大量细胞拥挤在相对来说很少量的细胞外液中,这是进化的结果。
但人具有精确的调节机构,能不断更新并保持细胞外液化学成分、理化特性和容量方面的相对恒定,这就是对生命活动具有十分重要意义的内环境。
水、电解质代谢紊乱在临床上十分常见。
许多器官系统的疾病,一些全身性的病理过程,都可以引起或伴有水、电解质代谢紊乱;外界环境的某些变化,某些变化,某些医原性因素如药物使用不当,也常可导致水、电解质代谢紊乱。
如果得不到及时的纠正,水、电解质代谢紊乱本身又可使全身各器管系统特别是心血管系统、神经系统的生理功能和机体的物质代谢发生相应的障碍,严重时常可导致死亡。
因此,水、电解质代谢紊乱的问题,是医学科学中极为重要的问题之一,受到了医学科学工作者的普遍重视。
内环境的相对恒定主要是在神经一内分泌调节下实现的。
故本章在简述水、电解质平衡调节的基础上,着重讨论水、钠、钾、镁的代谢紊乱。
应当指出,水与电解质代谢紊乱之间,某一电解质与其它电解质的代谢紊乱之间,水、电解质与酸硷平衡紊乱之间关系密切,它们互相联系互相影响,一旦发生紊乱往往是综合的,即一种障碍往往可以伴有或引起另一种或另一些障碍。
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水中毒(Water intoxication): 当水的摄入过多,超过神经-内分泌系统调节和肾脏的排水能力时,使大量水分在体内潴留,导致细胞内、外液容量扩大,并出现包括稀释性低钠血症在内的一系列病理生理改变。
1. 病因和发病机制
1) 摄入或输入过多不含电解质的液体
2) 急慢性肾功能不全
1) 钾摄入不足
2) 失钾过多
→经胃、肠道失钾(稀释性低钾血症)
→经肾失钾
a) 肾小管远端流速增大引起的肾失钾过多
? 利尿药的大量使用:使肾小管远端流速增加,Na与K的交换增加
? 肾功能不全
b) 醛固酮增多:醛固酮是主要的盐皮质激素,能促进钠的重吸收和钾、氢的分泌,引起钾丢失
c) 肾小管内跨膜电位负值增大引起失钾
轻度水中毒时,细胞内、外液量增加不明显,症状不明显,可有乏力、头晕等
急性中毒水中毒时,引起脑细胞水肿和颅内压增高,可危及生命
试题
1. 细胞内外渗透压的平衡主要依靠下列何种物质的移动来维持
A. Na+ B. K+ C. Cl- D. H2O E. Ca++
? 钠代谢紊乱
1. 低钠血症
低钠血症(hyponatremia)是指血清钠浓度低于135mol/l。血浆渗透压主要取决于血清钠离子浓度的高低,因此低钠血症一般都伴有低渗透压。
(一) 低渗性低钠血症(hypotonic hyponatremia):
绝大多数低钠血症伴有血浆渗透压的降低
1. 病因和发病机制
呕吐、腹泻,大量胸、腹水形成,大面积烧伤和严重创伤使血浆丢失等。
2. 对机体的影响
等渗性脱水常兼有低渗性及高渗性脱水的临床表现。
大量丢失等渗性体液→细胞外液、血容量↓→易发生血压↓、尿量↓→体温升高、明显脱水外貌
? 等渗性脱水在处理上只补水而不注意补钠,可转变为低渗性脱水。
(三) 高渗性低钠血症(hypertonic hyponatremia)
高渗性低钠血症:由钠以外的不通透溶质增多引起细胞外液的渗透压增高,使细胞内的水分向外转移,细胞外液钠浓度随之降低,从而导致稀释性低钠血症的发生。
2. 高钠血症
高钠血症(hypernatremia):指血清钠浓度高于145mmol/l。总伴有血浆渗透压的升高,故细胞脱水时高钠血症共同的基本变化。
1) 循环衰竭体症(休克)(Symptom of circulatory failure)
水从细胞外向细胞内转移 →细胞外液↓↓→血容量↓↓→血压↓↓→休克
2) 脱水症状(Dehydrate symptom )
皮肤弹性下降,眼窝下陷;婴幼儿出现“三凹”体征。
3) 其他的临床表现(Other manifestation)
(一) 低容量性高钠血症
主要由于水或低渗液的大量丧失,使水的丢失超过钠的丢失,从而引起细胞外液的减少和血清钠浓度升高,又称高渗性脱水
(二) 等容量性高钠血症
见于原发性高钠血症,中枢神经系统受损等
(三) 高容量性高钠血症
主要原因为钠溶液的输入过多。见于抢救心跳、呼吸停止的患者中,为了对抗乳酸酸中毒而输入大量的NaHCO3因而造成细胞外液量和钠浓度升高。
急性低钾血症时,细胞外液加浓度降低,细胞内液钾浓度不变,结果使细胞内、外钾浓度之比增大,细胞内钾外流增多,膜静息电位的绝对值增大,与阈电位的差距加大,使兴奋的刺激阈值也须增高,故引起神经-肌肉细胞的兴奋性降低。慢性低钾血症时,由于细胞外液钾浓度降低缓慢,细胞外钾能通过细胞内钾逸出得到补充,所以症状不明显。
■脱水热
细胞内液↓→汗腺分泌↓→机体散热功能↓→体温↑
■休克、肾衰
按照临床症状的轻重,临床将高渗性脱水分为三度
(三) 等渗性脱水(Isotonic dehydration)
等渗性脱水:水和钠以等比例丢失,或失液后经机体调节血浆渗透压仍在正常范围,血清钠浓度为135~145mmol/L,血浆渗透压为280~ 310 mmol/L 。
2) 临床表现:随程度不同而不同
■尿钠
→轻度高渗性脱水(早期)
细胞外液渗透压↑、血容量↓不明显→肾小管重吸收水>钠→尿钠偏高
→中、重度高渗性脱水(晚期)
血容量和肾血流量明显↓→Ald(醛固酮)分泌↑→尿钠↓
■ CNS症状
严重高渗性脱水→细胞内液明显↓→脑细胞脱水和脑压↓→严重程度不同的CNS症状
■外源性ADH输入(加压素、催产素)
4) 某些特殊病理状态
a) 心力衰竭、肝性腹水→有效循环血量↓→肾排水↓→水负荷↑→水中毒
b) 低渗性脱水→大量补充不含电解质的液体→水中毒
2. 对机体的影响
突出表现:细胞内液容量增大或细胞水肿
→水中毒时,细胞外液明显增多,而细胞外液的低渗状态又促使大量的水分进入细胞内所致
主要原因:充血性心力衰竭、肝硬化腹腔积液、肾病综合征等引起机体有效循环血量减少的病理变化。如:水中毒
(二) 等渗性低钠血症(慢性低钠血症)(isotonic hyponatremia)
高脂血症或高蛋白血症患者,由于血浆脂质或蛋白质含量增多,使血清水所占的比例降低,因此血清水钠浓度正常的情况下,临床上测得的血浆钠浓度降低,此时称等渗性低钠血症。
基本变化:细胞外液明显减少、渗透压降低
失钠>失水→细胞外液渗透压↓→细胞外水分向细胞内转移→细胞内水分↑→细胞水肿→细胞外液减少更加明显
→临床表现
查体:精神萎靡,T37oC,BP11.5/6.67KPa(86/50mmHg),皮肤弹性减退,两眼凹陷,前囟下陷,心跳快而弱,肺无异常,腹胀,腹壁反射消失,肠鸣音减弱,膝反射迟钝,四肢发凉。
化验:血清K+3.3mmol/L,Na+140mmol/L。
该患儿发生何种水、电解质紊乱?依据是什么?
三种脱水的比较
c. 急性肾衰多尿期→GFR↑、小管功能未恢复→水钠排出增多
d. 失盐性肾炎→小管上皮细胞病变,对Ald(醛固酮)反应性↓→钠重吸收减少、肾排钠过多
e.肾上腺皮质并,如Addison病 →Ald分泌↓→小管对Na重吸收↓→肾排钠、排水增多
f.过度渗透性利尿→肾排Na、H2O↑
2. 对机体的影响
3) ADH分泌过多
→ADH分泌过多是指在某些病理条件下发生的ADH异常分泌。
a) ADH分泌异常增多综合征(SIADH):
下丘脑疾病(脑炎、脑肿瘤 )、ADH异位分泌(肺燕麦细胞癌 )
b) 其它原因
■疼痛、恶心和情绪应激:ADH分泌↑→水中毒
■肾上腺皮质功能↓:GC(糖皮质激素)↓ →抑制下丘脑分泌ADH 功能↓
d) 低镁血症引起的失钾
机体缺镁时,引起髓襻升支粗段上皮细胞的Na,K-ATP酶失活,引起钾重吸收障碍和钾丢失。
e) 其他
I型肾小管性酸中毒:远曲小管对H+的分泌障碍
II型肾小管性酸中毒:近曲小管对HCO3-的重吸收障碍
Ⅳ型肾小管性酸中毒:同时存在Na+的重吸收障碍和远曲小管泌H+障碍
→经皮肤失钾
1. 病因和发病机制
机体失水或丢失低渗体液是引起高渗性脱水的主要原因
1) 单纯失水
a. 经肺失水 b. 经皮肤失水 c. 经肾水
2) 丧失低渗体液
a. 经胃肠道丧失低渗液 b. 大量出汗 c. 反复使用甘露醇或高渗葡萄糖引起的渗透性利尿
2. 对机体的影响
1) 机体的代偿性反应
■口渴:早期可以没有口渴;中、后期会有口渴。
■ CNS症状:重症低渗性脱水有神志淡漠、嗜睡、昏迷等。
■尿钠量↓:尿钠<10mmol/L或无。
按照临床症状的轻重,临床将低渗性脱水分为三度
(二) 高渗性脱水(Hypertonic dehydration)
高渗性脱水:失水多于失钠,血清钠浓度>145mmol/L,血浆渗透压>310mmol/L,并伴有细胞外液容量减少,称为高渗性脱水。又称为低容量性高钠血症 。
临床表现:四肢对称性弛缓性麻痹,甚至软瘫,可有麻痹性肠梗阻、腹胀等。
体检:四肢肌张力降低,腱反射减弱或消失。
原因:骨骼肌细胞兴奋性降低,胃肠平滑肌也可受累
2) 对心脏的影响
→主要是引起心律失常,严重者发生心室纤维颤,导致心功能衰竭
a) 心肌生理变化特点
① [K+]e降低?膜通透性降低? 4期K+外流减少,Na+或Ca2+内流增加?自律细胞自动除极加快,使自律性增高;
一、水、钠代谢紊乱
脱水(dehydration):指体液容量减少(超过体重的2%)并出现一系列机能、代谢紊乱的病理状况。→机体的水主要是细胞外液的丢失,而钠离子时细胞外液中最主要的阳离子,因而脱水常伴有钠的丧失
(一)低渗性脱水(Hypotonic dehydration)
低渗性脱水:失钠多于失水,血清钠浓度<135mmol/L,血浆渗透压<280mmol/L,并伴有细胞外液容量减少,称为低渗性脱水。又称为低容量性低钠血症
② [K+]e降低?膜通透性降低?工作细胞Em上移,Em-Et间距减小?兴奋性增高;
■口渴求饮(渴感障碍者除外)
血浆渗透压↑→渗透压感受器(+)→口渴中枢(+)→口渴
血容量↓→AGTII↑→口渴中枢(+)→ 口渴
高渗性脱水 →唾液分泌↓→咽喉部干燥
■ 尿少而比重高(尿崩症病人除外)
■ 水从细胞内向细胞外转移 →细胞外液渗透压有所回降
→这三方面使细胞外液渗透压有所回降,使脱水早期血容量不容易降到发生休克的程度
1) 低容量性低钠血症(hypovolemic hyponatremia)