陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题详解-第9~12章【圣才出品】
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》配套题库【章节题库(含名校考研真题)】(英语语言的应用(II))【圣才出
第9章英语语言的应用（II）I. Fill in the blanks.1. H. P. Grice believes that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the Cooperative Principle. According to the maximum of _____ Do not say what you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence. In other words，speak truthfully; do not lie.【答案】quality【解析】质量原则的内容。
2. In the light of the _____ principle, four maxims are specified. They are the maxim of quantity, maxim of _____, maxim of _____ and the maxim of _____.（人民大学2005年、吉林大学2004年研）【答案】cooperative; quality; relation; manner【解析】考查合作原则及四条次则：数量准则、质量准则、关联准则、方式准则。
3. Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maximof_____.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?【答案】relation【解析】很显然Y的回答与X的问题“你昨晚跟谁在一起？”无关。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》配套题库【章节题库(含名校考研真题)】(英语语言变体(I))【圣才出品】
第10章英语语言变体（I）I.Fill in the blanks.1. Any discourse can be seen as a configuration of field，mode and _____.（中山大学2003年研）【答案】tenor【解析】话语包括语场、语式、语旨三个方面。
2. More qualifiers and intensifiers are used by _____.【答案】women【解析】语言使用的性别差异。
3. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, _____ language.【答案】vernacular【解析】凡属标准语之外的那些语言变体都被叫做非标准语或本地语。
4. A linguistic _____ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite”society from general use.【答案】taboo【解析】禁忌语是由于宗教、政治或性别原因而避免使用的词汇，通常被委婉语所代替。
5. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the _____ attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.【答案】social【解析】语言本身是不存在性别歧视的，但当语言被不同的人使用时，则会反映出社会中存在的性别歧视现象。
6. In terms of sociolinguistics, _____ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person’s language.【答案】idiolect【解析】从社会语言学的角度讲，个人习语指个人语言风格。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》章节题库(含名校考研真题)-第8~11章【圣才出品】
第8章英语语言的应用（I）I. Fill in the blanks.1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研）【答案】consequence, change brought about by【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。
2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研）【答案】illocutionary【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。
3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.【答案】Performatives【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。
II. Multiple Choices.1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研)A. John SearleB. John AustinC. LevinsonD. G. Leech【答案】B【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。
它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。
2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研）A. threatenB. adviseC. beseechD. urge【答案】A【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》课后练习-第1~4章【圣才出品】
第1章导言课后习题详解Check your understanding.State whether each of the following statements is True or False.(1) There is universal agreement about the origin of language.【答案】F(2) Pet dogs can speak human language.【答案】F(3) All human infants can speak some language.【答案】F(4) By creativity we mean the creative use of language as often practiced by poets. 【答案】F(5) With different cultures there will be different languages.【答案】F(6) Not all uses of language are meant to convey new information.【答案】TIn-Class Activities1. “Language”, like “yuyan”in Chinese, is used for different meanings in different contexts, as shown below:a. Chinese is a language.b. Linguistics is the systematic study of language.e. Both Jane and John like Shakespeare’s language.d. the language of beesAsk(1) What does “language” mean in each of the contexts?Key: a. a natural language; language in particular.b. a human-specific tool for communication; language in general.c. individual style of language use.d. a metaphorical way of referring to bees’ system of communication.(2) Is there any other context in which the use of the word means something else?Key: Yes. Example: language for the computer like C+.2. There is a well-known story in the Bible that reflects the importance of language in human society. According to the Old Testament, mankind spoke only one language until Nimrod began to build a tower that was to reach heaven. The Lord said, “Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language, and nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. Come, let us go down, and there confuse their language, that they may not understand each other’s speech.”Ask(1) What if there were no language?Key: If there were no language, human beings could not communicate with each other, the experience of great persons and the process of history could not be documented. All in all, without language, the society can not move forward.(2) What if there were only one language the world over?Key: It would be much more convenient for human beings to communicate with each other; however, on the other hand, there could not be such a prosperous development of different cultures.(3) What can we learn from this Bible story?Key: Language is powerful as a tool of human communication.3. The course of linguistics is aimed at bringing our conscious attention to language, something with which we are very familiar and which, paradoxically, we find strange. For instance, language is said to be creative. Consider the following two statements:a. I learned a new word yesterday.b. I learned a new sentence yesterday.Ask(1) Do you think the two statements are equally probable, and if not, why not?Key: (a) is more likely than (b), since as the basic unit of meaning, the word can occur independently in language is finite in number, whereas as composed of words ,the sentence, though is almost infinite in number, is madepossible by our knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. We can always produce and understand sentences that we never come across before. In that sense, no sentence is absolutely new.(2) In what context do we make the second statement?Key: When we focus our attention on the meaning of a sentence or when we are concerned with the form of a sentence as found in a language class.4. The following English words are what we call onomatopoeic words, words that are characterized by a natural correspondence between their physical property (like sound or form) and their content or meaning:bang; bark; crash; hissAsk(1) Are there onomatopoeic words in Chinese?Key: Yes. e.g.“哗啦”、“扑通”、“喀嚓”.(2) Does the existence of onomatopoeic words overthrow the claim that language is arbitrary?Key: No. Onomatopoeic words account for a very limited percentage in the vocabulary of a language5. The arbitrary nature of language does not suggest that individuals can use a language arbitrarily. In fact, once the members of a community agree on the meaning of words, they are supposed to abide by the convention. Look at thefollowing cartoon:Ask(1) Can one really invent a language of one’s own?Key: No.(2) If not, why?Key: A language comes into being and is used by convention or agreement among its speakers.6. Before the middle of the eighteenth century, theories of the beginning of language were widely discussed. According to these early theories, man was created almost instantaneously and speech was provided to him as a divine gift at the moment of creation. So goes the story of the Garden of Eden. God created Adam and speech simultaneously. God spoke with Adam and Adam answered him. The language they used was Hebrew.Andreas Kemke, a Swedish philologist, asserted that in the garden of Eden, God spoke Swedish, Adam spoke Danish, and the serpent spoke French. Goropius Becanus, a Dutch theorist, asserted that the language of the Garden was Dutch.The Egyptians considered themselves the oldest civilization, and therefore the original language was Egyptian.On the assumption that babies, if left alone, will grow up speaking “the original”language, Psammetichus (6 B. C.) had two babies taken at random from an ordinary family and given to a servant to raise. He ordered the servant not to speak a word to the babies. When they were two years old, the children one day abruptly greeted the servant with “Bekos!” The servant immediately reported this to Psammetichus. The king checked with his counselors, who informed him that “bekos”meant “bread”in Phrygian. So in true “scientific”spirit, Psammetichus announced that Phrygian was the original language.Ask(1) Is there any basic flaw in this experiment?Key: The process is not strictly controlled. There may have been some coincidence. The sample size is too small for the experiment to be valid. (2) Do you think we really can answer the question about the beginning of language?Key: No, at least in the present condition where/when we cannot perform experiments on the human brain, the key organ of speech.7. Below are samples of speech from children at three different stages in their acquisition process.。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(章节题库 第2章 英语语音)【圣才出品】
第2章英语语音Ⅰ.Fill in the following blanks:1.The sound/p/can be described with“_____,bilabial,stop”.（北二外2007研）【答案】voiceless【解析】/p/是双唇音，爆破音，清音。
2.The sound/b/can be described with“_____,bilabial,stop”.（北二外2004研）【答案】voiced【解析】/b/是双唇音，爆破音，浊音。
3.Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel.And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of_____and manner of articulation.（北二外2004研）【答案】place【解析】辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。
4._____are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.（中山大学2006研）【答案】Consonants【解析】发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。
5.The present system of the_____derives mainly from one developed in the1920s by the British phonetician,Daniel Jones(1881—1967),and his colleagues at University of London.（中山大学2008研）【答案】cardinal vowels【解析】基本元音是指一系列约定俗成、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》【章节题库】9-14章【圣才出品】
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》【章节题库】9-14章【圣才出品】第9章英语语言的应用（Ⅱ）Ⅰ.Fill in the blanks.1.H.P.Grice believes that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation.This is what he calls the Cooperative Principle.According to the maximum of_____,do not say what you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence.In other words,speak truthfully;do not lie.【答案】quality【解析】合作原则中质量准则内容：不要说自知是不真实的话；不要说缺乏足够证据的话。
2.In the light of the_____principle,four maxims are specified.They are the maxim of quantity,maxim of_____,maxim of_____and the maxim of_____.（人民大学2005年、吉林大学2004年研）【答案】cooperative;quality;relation;manner【解析】考查合作原则及四条次则：数量准则、质量准则、关联准则、方式准则。
3.Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of _____.X:Who was that you were with last night?Y:Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?【答案】relation【解析】很显然Y的回答与X的问题“你昨晚跟谁在一起？”无关。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》（章节题库第6章英语语言意义（Ⅰ））【圣才出品】
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》（章节题库第6章英语语言意义（Ⅰ））【圣才出品】第6章英语语言意义（Ⅰ）Ⅰ.Fill in the blanks.1.According to G.Leech,_____meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.（北二外2007研）【答案】affective【解析】利奇认为感情意义是指所传达的关于说话人/作者感情、态度方面的意义。
2._____=PARANT(x,y)&MALE(x)（北二外2005研）【答案】FATHER【解析】同时满足“父母亲”和“男性”的条件的只能是“父亲”。
3.According to G Leech,_____meaning refers to logic,cognitive,or denotative content.（北二外2005研）【答案】conceptual【解析】利奇认为概念意义是指逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容。
4.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for,is known as the_____theory.（中山大学2008研）【答案】referential【解析】把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论。
5._____is the technical name for the sameness relation.（北二外2007研）【答案】Synonymy【解析】同义关系是相同关系的专业术语，完全的同义关系是很少的。
所谓的同义词都是依赖语境的，它们总是在这方面或那方面有所不同。
6.Terms like“apple”,“banana”and“pear”are_____of the term“fruit”.（北二外2007研）【答案】hyponyms【解析】上下义关系是指意义内包关系或者说一种类和成员间的关系。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》（章节题库第12章英语习得）【圣才出品】
陈新仁《英语语⾔学实⽤教程》（章节题库第12章英语习得）【圣才出品】第12章英语习得Ⅰ.Fill in the blanks.1.The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as_____.（中⼭⼤学2008研）【答案】interlanguage【解析】中介语是在外语或第⼆语⾔学习中形成的。
2.An influential claim regarding the input issue is the hypothesis that there must be sufficient,comprehensible input available to L2learners,as captured by the_____ formula.【答案】“i+1”【解析】关于输⼊问题，⼀个有影响⼒的说法是假设对于第⼆语⾔学习者必须有可获得的⾜够的以及能够被理解的输⼊，⽤公式可表⽰为“i+1”。
3.Error is the grammatically incorrect form;_____appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.（中⼭⼤学2008研）【答案】mistake【解析】mistake是指在语法上正确但在交流语境中不恰当。
4._____are“the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend,learn,or retain new information”.【答案】Learning strategies【解析】学习策略是指特殊的想法或⾏为，这种想法或⾏为能够帮助学习者理解，学习或者获得新的信息。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题详解-第5~8章【圣才出品】
第5章英语语言结构（Ⅱ）5.1 复习笔记【本章要点】1. English paragraphs 英语段落2. English texts 英语语篇3. Cohesion in English texts 英语语篇的衔接4. Thematic progression in English texts 英语语篇主位推进【本章考点】英语段落，语篇的衔接等。
【本章内容索引】Ⅰ. English paragraphsⅡ. English textsⅢ.Cohesion in English texts1. Different means to develop cohesion in texts2. Classification of referenceⅣ. Thematic progression in English textsⅠ. English paragraphs（英语段落）A typical English paragraph employs a topic sentence stating the controlling idea of the paragraph.一个典型的英语段落中会用一个主题句来陈述整个段落的主旨大意。
To develop a paragraph, one may employ such means as exemplification, instantiation, comparison or contrast, cause effect reasoning, definition, analogy, and enumeration.为丰富段落，人们可能会用举例，例示，对比，因果推理，定义，类推和列举等。
Ⅱ. English texts（英语语篇）A well-written text is not a simple amalgam of paragraphs. It must be properly organized around a central purpose or coherent topic.一篇好的文章不是简单的段落叠加。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》配套题库【课后练习】(英语语言单位)【圣才出品】
(2) Formulate a morphological rule regarding how to form the plural verb form from the singular verb form in Samoan.
Key: Positive terms can have negative morphemes added to them, as in “happy-unhappy”, but semantically negative ones rarely do, because unis deprecatory as well as negative.
Key: Duplicate the penultimate syllable.
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
3. English has a couple of affixes that serve to express the opposition of meaning, of which un- figures prominently. Observe the following sets of English words (words marked with are not allowed in English):
Ask (1) Which other affixes are there in English that function as markers of negation?
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(第2版)章节题库-英语语言单位【圣才出品】
第3章英语语言单位Ⅰ.Fill in the blanks.1.In traditional grammar,_____is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item.（中山大学2006研）【答案】pronoun【解析】在传统语法中，代词是唯一一种可用来代替其他语言项目的词性。
2.Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an_____affix from a longer form already in the language.（中山大学2006研）【答案】imagined【解析】逆构词法是一种不规则的构词类型，即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀，由此造出一个较短的单词。
3._____is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers,whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.It is the minimum free form.（中山大学2005研）【答案】Word【解析】词是个语言表达单位，无论是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人都能够凭直觉识别这个语言单位。
它是最小的自由形式词，是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位。
4.Take is the_____of taking,taken and took.【答案】lexeme【解析】词位是语言词汇的基本单位，taking，taken和took都是take这个词位的词位变体。
5.The_____is the minimal distinctive unit in grammar,a unit which cannot be divided a unit which cannot be dividedwithout destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether lexical or grammatical.（北二外2008研）【答案】morpheme【解析】语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》考研模拟试题及详解(二)【圣才出品】
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》考研模拟试题及详解（二）I. Fill in the following blanks1. The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features.【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
2. When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, its function is _____ function. 【答案】interpersonal【解析】人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能，人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。
3. _____ transcription should transcribe all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades.【答案】Narrow【解析】当我们用复杂的符号精确地标记语音所有可能的细小变化时，我们称之为“严式转写”。
4. Take is the _____ of taking, taken and took.【答案】lexeme【解析】词位是语言词汇的基本单位，taking, taken 和took都是take这个词位的词位变体。
5. An _____ is pronounced letter by letter, while an _____ is pronounced as a word. 【答案】initialism; acronym【解析】首字母缩写和缩略词的区别在于，前者是一个一个字母读，后者是按单词读。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》配套题库【课后练习】(英语语言的应用(II))【圣才出品】
第9章英语语言的应用（II）课后习题详解Check your understanding.State whether each of the following statements is True or False.(1) Maxim of quantity requires one to provide as much information as possible. 【答案】F(2) In order to be polite, one needs to cooperate in all possible ways.【答案】F(3) Every normal speaker needs to mind his own and others’ face.【答案】T(4) Politeness is a matter of degree.【答案】T(5) Cultures vary as far as politeness issues are concerned.【答案】TIn-Class Activities1. The meaning of “and” in English seems to be rather diversified in different contexts. Compare:a. The film is long and boring.b. Jane found John was handsome and fell in love with him.c. Jane called John and told him the news.Ask(1) How would you interpret “and” in each of the cases?Key: In a, “and” is a pure conjunction that coordinates two parts. In b, “and”signals cause-effect relation. In c, “and” indicates the sequence of events, meaning “and then”.(2) Do you vote for the argument that “and” is polysemous, or the argument that“and” has just one basic meaning and the other “meanings” areimplicatures derived from the context?Now, focus on the use of “or” in English:d. His birthday is in June or July.e. For the new post, a diploma in mathematics or computer science is a must.Key: “and” has one basic meaning. Other interpretations are derived from this basic meaning plus contextual information by way of implicature.(3) It seems that “or” has two conflicting meanings. What are they? Do you thinkone meaning is basic and the other is derivable in context by virtue ofimplicature?Key: They are exclusive “or” and inclusive “or”. The inclusive “or” is more basic. The exclusive “or” is realized by way of implicature.2. Being underinformative or overinformative in daily conversation is not rare. When either happens, some implicature is intended. Look at the followingfragment of talk:Jane: What’s your stepmother like?John: She’s a woman and she married my father.Ask(1) What does John want to say in actuality?Key: The stepmother is no good.(2) Why does John answer that way, you suppose?Now consider the following:Jane: When did you come back last night?John: Two o’clock in the morning. The meeting was just too long.Key: He does not want to say directly that his stepmother is bad.(3) What does John imply in the second part of his reply?Key: He did not mean to be late.(4) Why does John give that additional information?Public signs and ads also employ additional information sometimes. Look at the following pictures:Key: He wants to explain why he was late so that Jane would pardon him, if she minded.(5) What is the extra information in each of the cases?Key: In the first picture, the additional information is that “there is ice falling”.In the second picture, the additional information is “Heart disease is the#1 killer of African Americans”. In the third picture, the additionalinformation is “水是生命的源泉。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》章节题库(含名校考研真题)-第1~3章【圣才出品】
第1章导言I. Fill in the following blanks:1. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and _____ of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness.（大连外国语学院2008研）【答案】conventionality【解析】语言学习过程中学习者必须识记一些固定搭配或约定俗成的习语谚语等，因此使得语言学习比较费力。
2. In Sau ssure’s view, the relationship between signifier(sound image) and signified (concept) is _____.（北二外2005研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
3. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the _____it is associated with.（人大2007研）【答案】meaning【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
4. The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(第2版)配套题库-章节题库-第1~3章【圣才出品】
第二部分章节题库第1章导言Ⅰ. Fill in the following blanks:1. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and _____ of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness.（大连外国语学院2008研）【答案】conventionality【解析】语言学习过程中学习者必须识记一些固定搭配或约定俗成的习语谚语等，因此使得语言学习比较费力。
2. In Saussure’s view, the relationship between signifier(sound image) and signified (concept) is _____.（北二外2005研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
3. The term _____ originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language.（中山大学2006研）【答案】phatic communion【解析】寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，最先由Malinowski提出。
4. The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
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第9章英语语言的应用（Ⅱ）9.1 复习笔记【本章要点】1. Cooperation in using English 英语语言应用中的合作原则2. Politeness in using English 英语语言应用中的礼貌原则3. Face considerations in using English 英语语言应用中的“面子”原则4. Using English as a rhetorical act 英语语言应用作为一种修辞行为5. Using English as a cultural act 英语语言应用作为一种文化行为【本章考点】合作原则；礼貌原则；语用中的修辞学；语用与文化。
【本章内容索引】Ⅰ. Cooperation in using English1. Definition of Cooperation Principle2. Four Maxims of CP3. Violation of the CP4. Implicature vs. ImplicationⅡ. Politeness in using English1. Definition of Politeness Principle2. Six Maxims of PPⅢ. Face considerations in using English1. Definition of Face considerations2. The consistence of Face considerationsⅣ. Using English as a rhetorical act1. The purpose of Using English as a rhetorical act2. Two devices of Using English as a rhetorical actⅤ. Using English as a cultural actGeneral IntroductionⅠ. Cooperation in using English（英语语言应用中的合作原则）1. Definition of Cooperation Principle（合作原则的定义）Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。
2. Four Maxims of CP（合作原则的四条准则）①The maxim of quality: requires the speaker to be truthful（质量准则：要求说话人的话语真实）a. Do not say what you believe to be false;不要说自知是不真实的话；b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.不要说缺乏足够证据的话。
②The maxim of quantity: requires the speaker to be informative（数量准则：要求说话人提供信息）a. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange);使你的话语包含交谈所需要的信息（按照当前交流需要）；b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.你的话语不用包含超出需要的信息。
③The maxim of relation: requires the speaker to be relevant（关系准则：要求说话者说话有关联）Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.保证你说的任何话语都与当时的对话有关。
④The Maxim of Manner: requires the speaker to be clear and lucid（方式准则：要求说话者表达清晰）a. Avoid obscurity of expression避免晦涩b. Avoid ambiguity避免歧义c. Be brief做到简练d. Be orderly井井有条3. Violation of the CP（合作原则的违反）(1) by violation (which is likely to mislead); e.g. to tell lies.违反合作原则（可能产生误导）；例如：说谎话。
(2) by opting out (saying, for example, “I don’t want to talk about it”);退出对话（例如：“我现在不想谈论这个问题。
”）(3) by fulfilling one at the expense of another owing to a conflict of maxims. (you cannot be as informative as is required if you do not have enough evidence); for example:为了满足一个准则而违反另一个准则。
（如果你没有足够的证据就不能提供足够的信息）；例如：A: Where does Tom live? 汤姆住在那儿？B: Somewhere in the suburbs of the city. 城市郊区某个地方。
(4) by blatantly flouting a maxim; for example:公然违反准则；例如：A: Let’s get the kids something.让我们给孩子买些东西吧！B: Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.好，但是我反对买冰淇淋！4. Implicature vs. Implication（会话含义vs. 含义）(1) Definition of a conversational implicature（会话含义的定义）A conversational implicature is something that is implied in conversation or beyond. Implicature is different from the familiar term “implication”because the latter technically defines a logical relationship between two propositions: 会话含义是指在会话过程中所暗含的意思，它有别于逻辑上所指的技术用语假设。
(2) The character of conversational implicature（会话含义的特点）In everyday talk, we often convey propositions that are not explicit in our utterances but are merely implied by them. Basically we seem to be dealing here with a regularity that cannot be captured in any straightforward syntactic or semantic analysis, but has to be accounted for in other ways.在日常谈话中，我们经常转移暗指我们谈话的命题而并非所指我们正在谈论的话语。
实质上，我们在处理规则上是以其它的方式而非根据直接的句法或语意分析。
Ⅱ. Politeness in using English（英语语言应用中的礼貌原则）1. Definition of Politeness Principle（礼貌原则的定义）There is a general principle of politeness: to be polite, one needs to minimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs and maximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.礼貌原则遵守尽量礼貌的准则，我们需要尽量少表达不礼貌的信念，尽量多表达有礼貌的信念。
2. Six Maxims of PP（六条最大化礼貌原则）(1) The T act Maxim: minimize cost to others; maximize benefit to others (other-perspective)得体准则：使他人受损最小；使他人受惠最大。
(2) The Generosity Maxim: minimize benefit to self; maximize cost to self (self-perspective).慷慨准则：使自身受惠最小；使自身受损最大。
(3) The Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of others; maximize praise of others (other-perspective).赞誉准则：尽量少贬低别人；尽量多赞誉别人。
(4) The Modesty Maxim: minimize praise of self; maximize dispraise of self (self-perspective)谦虚准则：尽量少赞誉自己；尽量多贬低自己。
(5) The Agreement Maxim: minimize disagreement between self and others; maximize agreement between self and others一致准则：尽量减少双方的分歧；尽量增加双方的一致。