语言学导论-英文版共40页
语言学导论-第3章Morphology
(Note: receive, submit, permit, … one morpheme)
Free Morpheme 自由词素
Definition: can occur by itself, not attached to other morphemes
E.g.: girl, teach, book, class, the, of, etc.
feature: new examples are rarely added (but not impossible Open classto add) Closed class e.g.: Pro, (function words) 开放性词类 Prep, Conj, Art.封闭性词类
Bound Morpheme 黏着词素
Those socks are inexpensive. The strongest rower continued. The pitbull has bitten the cyclist. She quickly closed the book. The alphabetization went well. Jim needs the newer copy.
e.g. brunch breakfast+ lunch smog smoke+ fog motel motor+ hotel
newscast
news + broadcast
telex
teleprinter + exchange
bit
binary + digit
Reaganomics
Connection: Sound & Meaning
语言学导论-英文版
Information study 李公宜（1987）《从阅读高效率看汉字》：中文的阅读 速度是英文阅读速度的1.6倍。并由此自豪地认为“1.6 倍意味着在相同的阅读时间内，中国人可以比西方人多 得60%的精神食粮；意味着在同样勤奋的条件下，一个 中国人一辈子（按平均寿命70岁计算）看的书，西方人 只能在上帝给予他比中国人多活36年的寿命时才能读 完。” 林汝昌、李曼珏（1998）通过他们的阅读对比实验，同样 得出“阅读英文所花的时间大约为阅读中文所花时间的 1.7倍”的结果：“我们的实验数据与李公宜先生所得 出的数据极相近。” 蔡勇飞等（2005）等也有同样的观点：“汉文一般比英文 简短1/3以上，因此同样内容的文章，阅读汉文比阅读 英文快。”
从杭州坐旅游车向西南方向走大约二小时可以到 达一个叫瑶林的旅游胜地。 There is a tourist attraction called Yaolin which you can reach in about two hours by going southwest by tourist bus from Hangzhou. There is a tourist attraction旅游胜地 called Yaolin一个叫瑶林 which you can reach可以到达 in about two hours走大约二小时 by going southwest向西南方向 by tourist bus旅游车from Hangzhou杭州.
研究方法
Methods to carry out studies
1. 共时/历时Synchronicity/ Diachronicity. Contrastive study of certain phenomenon in the same period, Modern to modern, ancient to ancient. 2. 描述/解释Explanation/description. CA not merely finds the differences between languages but gives explanation 3.演绎/归纳Deduction/induction. CA not only lists examples and facts to draw a conclusion, but also put forward a propose and try to illustrate. 4. 实证/思辩Statistics/Analysis. Conclusion is drawn on the basis of statistical study not merely few cases and examples
《英语语言学》ppt课件
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举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/ 发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系
学不研究
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Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
义和区别 2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音 3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征
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Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.
印欧语系,汉藏语系，南岛语 系，阿尔泰语系，南亚语系
印欧语系下的日耳曼语族，罗曼语 族，凯尔特语族, 斯拉夫语族，伊朗
印度语族
日耳曼语族下分西日耳曼支，东日 耳曼语支，北日耳曼语支
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Indo-European language family
印欧语系
Germanic group 日耳曼语族
Celtic group 凯尔特语族
计算机语言学
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语言学分类-按研究导向分
Linguistics
Theoretical Linguistics
Linguistic nature, universal rules
Applied Linguistics
language acquisition, teaching, assessment
generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. 反例：印度狼孩
语言学导论课件 语言学LINGUISTICS
duality二重性: language as a system with 2
subsystems/structures/levels---meaningless sounds and units of meaning grouped and regrouped with sounds
creativity (productivity)创造性: provides opportunities for sending
4.The functions of Language
6 functions(by Jacobson): referential,poitic,emotive,conative,phatic,
metalingual function(所指、诗学、感情、意动、
元语言功能)
3 functions(by Halliday):
COMMENT: Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's distinction are very similar. They differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
communication system. Human language is ‘unique’,or,language is human specific.
《英语语言学导论》(第四版Chapter11 Second Language Acquisition
11.2.2 Learner’s factors
• Learner’s factors mainly cover the following aspects:
• Motivation • Language aptitude • Age • Learning strategy
11.2.1 Social factors
Discussing Task
Group work: Have a discussion on the following questions.
1. How does (second) language acquisition take place?
2. How is foreign language learning different from second language acquisition?
The Symbolic Function of Words
Teaching Aims
1. To know what SLA is, and how the theories account for SLA. 2. To understand different factors affecting SLA 3. To know how learner’s language is analyzed 4. To cultivate students’ research awareness and innovative spirit in discovering and solving problems by analyzing the different kinds of errors and individual differeneces in SLA.
语言学导论 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
The
End
Descriptive（描写式）vs. Prescriptive（规定式） ♦ Descriptive:a lingustics study that aims to describe and analyze the language ople actually use.
♦ Prescriptive:a linguistics study that aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.i.e.,to tell people what they should say or what they should not say.
Example
▪ Jack said I love you to Rose in the street.
The relationship between langue and parole ● The parole must depend on langue, and without parole, there would not be any existing significance for langue. Langue and parole are interdependent. They together constitute language.
C ha pte r 1 Invita tions to Linguistics
1.9 Im porta nt D istinctions in Linguistics
jijijiijif
contents
• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive • Synchronic vs. Diachronic • Langue vs. Parole • Competence vs. Performance
语言学导论 Unit 2 The sounds of English
Review
What are the major defining features that natural languages possess?
Major contents
3.1 Linguistics and its branches 3.2 Vowels and consonants 3.3 Phones, phonemes, and allophones 3.4 Phonological rules 3.5 English syllables 3.6 Stress, tone, and intonation
Phoneme 音位
the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.
linguistics, etc. applied linguistics:
language testing, stylistics, discourse analysis, text linguistics, computation linguistics, etc.
Phonetics vs. phonology
1.语言学导论
1.语言学导论第一章语言学导论一. Why Study Language?二. What is Language?三. Design Features of LanguageThe features that define our human languages can be called Design Features.What makes language unique to human beings?The design features of language which refer to the defining properties of human language tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.Arbitrariness is a core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Duality, which means the property of having 2 levels of sturctures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the 2 levels has its own principles of organization. Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic unites to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never heard before. Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters, in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.So all these features make language unique to human beings.Design features refer to the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human langugae distinguishable from any animal system of communication.ARBITRARINESSBy ‘language is arbitrary’ we mean there is no logicalconnection between meanings and sounds. For example, there is no reason why English speakers use the sounds /dog/ to denote the animal ‘dog’, or /pig/ to refer to the animal ‘pig’ while Chinese speakers use different sounds (狗and 猪respectively) to indicate them. There are different levels of arbitrariness.(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.We must admit that there are certain words with different degrees of onomatopoeia in every language which imitate natural sounds, such as ‘bang, crash, and roar’ in English, and ‘叮叮当，咔嚓，扑哧’ in Chinese. However arbitrariness and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time. Widdowson’s illustration of a line ‘The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves’ in Keats’Ode to a Nightinggale by attempting the s ubstitution of ‘murderous’ for ‘murmurous’ shows that no connection will be established between sounds and the little noiseness of the flying flies. ‘It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.’(Widdowson, 1996:6)(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelAs to arbitrariness at the syntactic level, there are 2 opposite points of view.According to some functional linguists (Halliday, 1985/1994), language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level because there may be a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings. Put it differently, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as word order is concerned. Compare: a). He came in and sat down. b). He sat down and came in. c). He sat down after he came in. Sentence a) means the actions occurred in this order. Sentence b) means theopposite sequence of the real happening—perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled himself into the room. In sentence c) with the help of the word ‘after’ we can reverse the order of the clauses.However, formal linguists underscore the autonomy of syntax. ‘Human cognition embodies a system whose primitive terms are non-semantic and non-discourse-derived syntactic elements and whose principles of combination make no reference to system-ext ernal factors.’ (Newmeyer, 1998:18) in other words, to them, syntax is purely arbitrary.(3) Arbitrariness and ConventionArbitrariness and Conventionality are 2 indispensable sides of the coin of language. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of languge makes learning a language laborious.DUALITYDuality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has 2 levels of structures, such that units of the primary level (words) are composed of elements of the secondary level (sounds) and each of the 2 levels has its own principles of organization.For example, a syllable is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself, and scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes.Why do people take duality as one of the important design fuatures of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such desine feature?Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements.For example, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language had no such design feature, then it would be like animal communicational system which consists only a number of basic sounds and this would be highly limited. Then we would not be able to produce a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words), which are distinct in meaning. In other words, the number of messages one can send woud be restricted to the number of basic sounds.CREATIVITYOne of the design features of human language is creativity. What is it? And what makes it possible?By Creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. It is one of the design features that only human language has.Human language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. The speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The recursive nature of langugae provides a theoretical basis for creating endless sentences.DISPLACEMENTHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as displacement.For example, we can talk about Hitler, who is already dead;we can even talk about next week, which is in the future.‘An refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.’ This shows that language has the design feature of displacement.四. Origin of LanguageTheory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the Yo-he-yo theory.The Bow-wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.五. Functions of LanguageWhat are the 7 functions of human language?According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least 7 functions, and they are illustrated as follows:(1)INFORMATIVE FUNCTION: it means that language is the instrument of thought and languageserves an informational function when used to tell something. It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. The declarative sentences such as ‘This is a book.’ are the typical illustration of this function.(2)INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION: it means people can use language to estabilish and maintaintheir status in a society. It is the most important sociological use of language. In the framework of functional grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.(3)PERFORMATIVE FUNCTION: it is primarily to change thesocial status of persons, as inmarriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate, the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎平安(every year be safe and happy) as a means of controling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.(4)EMOTIVE FUNCTION: it is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucialin changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, for example, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, for example, God, My, Damn it, Wow, Ugh, Ow, etc.(5)P HATIC COMMUNION: it originates form Malinowski’s study of the functions of languageperformed by Trobrind Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language . People always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as ‘Good morning, Go d bless you, Nice day, etc.’ to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.(6)RECREATIONAL FUNCTION: it means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such asa baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.(7)METALINGUAL FUNCTION: it refers to the fact that peoplecan use language to talk aboutitself. For example, I can use the word ‘book’to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression ‘the word book’ to talk about the sign ‘b-o-o-k’ itself.六. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or the scientific study of language.七. Main Branches of LinguisticsPHONETICS and PHONOLOGYPhonetics mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called phonology.Illustrate the significance of studying speech sounds in linguistics.Language is first and foremost a ‘system of vocal symbols’. Human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system, as we have seen in the discussion of language speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.Analysis of speech sounds can be approached on 2 levels: phonetics and phonology. Phonetics deals with speech organs and their functions, speech sounds, waves carrying speech sounds, analysis and processing of the sounds by the listener. Phonology is concerned with the organization of speech within specific languages, or with the systems and patterns of soundsthat occur in particular languages. Both phonetics and phonology are main branches of linguistics.To study speech sounds, linguistics need to analyze the minute processes and acticities of the speaker and explain the way speech organs move to convey meaning. The theory and methods thus developed can be applied to numerous other fields. For example, people who work in recording, language description and language teaching will have some interest in phonetic knowledge while those who work in audiology, speech therapy and speech pathology must have a solid foundation in phonetics and phonology.MORPHOLOGYThe branch of grammar which studies the internal stucture of words is called Morphology.SYNTAXThe branch of grammar which studies the internal structrue of sentence is called Syntax.In linguistics, Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence.SEMANTICS and PRAGMATICSSemantics and pragmatics investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use.Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics?Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and link language to the world, we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study.Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguisticexpressions, particularly meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speaker’s meaning, utterence meaning, or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning; the later is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra.八. MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics studies how linguistics is related with other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in languge and society, including the social functions of langugae and the social characteristics of its users. It attempts to show the relationship between language and society.九. Important Distinctions in LinguisticsDESCRIPTIVE vs. PRESCRIPTIVEDescriptive study attempts to tell what is in the language,while Prescriptive study tells people what should be in the language. Most comtemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.An approach in linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is Prescriptive.Modern linguistic is Descriptive in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.SYNCHRONIC vs. DIACHRONICThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic linguistic study. Diachrony is concerned with the evolution of language over time.The study of language at one point in time is a Synchronic study.Synchrony refers to the state of a language as it exists at any given time.LANGUE /PAROLE and COMPETENCE/PERFORMANCESaussure puts forward the concept of Langue and Parole, and Chomsky puts forward the concept of Competence and Performance. Please dwell upon the differences and similarities, if any, of the 2 pairs: Langue and Parole vs. Competence and Performance.According to F. de Saussure, Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community; while Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. We can compare them along the following dimensions: Langue is abstract; Parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs. Langue is not actually spoken by someone; Parole is always a naturally occurring event. Langue is relatively stable andsystematic; Parole is subject to personal and situational constraints. The linguists’proper object is the Langue of each community, the lexicon, grammar and phonology implied in each individual by his upbringing in society, and on the basis of which he speaks and understands his language.For Chomsky, a fundamental distinction between linguistic Competence and Performance should be made. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic Competence. And Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. In light with this, Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s Competence is stable but his Performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, and thus would involve imperfections such as slips of tongue, false starts, unnecessary pauses, and so on. Thus, the point is that a speaker’s Performance does not always match his Competence.Sauss ure’s distinction is somewhat similar with Chomsky’s in the sense that the both refer to the constant factor which underlies the utterances that constitute Parole/Performance. However, their difference is quite obvious. Saussure’s Langue is a social product, a set of conventions for aspeech community. Chomsky regards Competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at Language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.Li nguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s competence.。
英语语言学导论
Is language a system?Yes.Is there intrinsic connection between form and meaning?No. It’s arbitrary .Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)[Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.A system ----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot bearranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. bkliArbitrary ----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Vocal --------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Symbols ----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device” (LAD)语言习得机制Origin of language1.The divine theory 神论说--- God created language for human beings.2.The bow-wow theory 拟声说--- Language developed from the imitation of the calls ofanimals.3.The pooh-pooh theory 感叹说--- Language developed from instinctive sounds of pain,anger and joy of human beings.4.The “yo-he-ho” theory 韵律说--- Language developed from rhythmic grunts of peoplewhen they worked together.Properties of Language -Design featuresArbitrariness [‘a:bi,trərinis] 任意性•The arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between sounds and meanings (form and meaning).Arbitrariness◆Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning◆Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelThe sentence is less arbitrary than words.Correspondence between word order and natural event.◆Arbitrariness and conventionWhile arbitrariness makes language flexible and creative, convention makes it stable and laborious to learn.Conventionality is more important than arbitrariness in learning a language.Duality二元性•The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels.◆Two levels of structures•Primary level: meaningful units(e.g. words)•Secondary level: meaningless units(e.g. sounds)Productivity 多产性•The speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.•Eg.•He bought a book / which was written by a teacher / who taught in a school / which was known for its graduates / who…•We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary, and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring. Cultural transmission 文化传递性How did you learn language?•While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Displacement 时间移位性•To symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Functions of LanguagePractical functionsTo chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet people...Abstract functionsTo refer, to inform, to communicate…▪Halliday 2003•Three broad functions of language (Page10)▪Jakobson•Six key elements of communication•Six basic functions of language▪Hu et al: (7 functions)Functions of LanguageHalliday (born 1925)Functional GrammarIdeational Function 概念功能Interpersonal Function 人际功能Textual Function 语篇功能M.A.K. Halliday―Three broad functions of language→IdeationalLanguage expresses our perception of the world→InterpersonalLanguage enables us to communicate with people→TextualLanguage is used to organise texts: written and spokenFunctions of LanguageJakobsonSix key elements of communication-addresser, addressee, context, message, code, contactFramework of language functions-referential 所指功能poetic 诗学功能emotive 情感功能conative 意动功能phatic 交感功能metalingual 元语言功能●Addresser---emotive情感(to express attitudes,feelings and emotions)(e.g. 'Oh!' )●Addressee---Conative意动(to persuade andinfluence others through commands and entreaties)(eg. imperatives: Come here! )●Context---referential所指( to convey messageand information)(eg. The Earth is round ; Water boils at 100 degrees.)▪Code---metalingual 元语言(to clear up intentions, words and meanings).▪What do you mean by 'krill' ?▪Contact---Phatic 交感(to establish communion with others)▪(e.g. Good morning!)▪Message---Poetic 诗学(to indulge in language for its own sake)▪(e.g. 'Oh!' )胡壮麟Seven basic functions of languageInformative 信息功能Interpersonal 人际功能Performative 施为功能Emotive 感情功能Phatic 交感功能Recreational 娱乐性功能Metalingual 元语言功能Informative function of languageThe predominant function of language, also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.Language expresses our perception of the worldInterpersonal function of languageThe most important function in sociological use of language.1.To express the identity of the addresser and addressee. For example,①Physical identity: age, sex, voice print, etc.②Psychological identity: language, personality, intelligence, etc.③Geographical identity: accent, dialect, etc.④Ethnical and social identity: class, status, role, solidarity, distance, etc.2.To express the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. (e.g.Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant)Performative function of language1.To change the social status of persons.▪In marriage ceremonies: Now I pronounce you man and wife.▪In a law court: Now I sentence you to 3 three years imprisonment.▪In church: May God bless y’all.▪In a launching ceremony: Now I name the ship Elizabeth II.▪In cursing someone: God damn it.2.To control reality–in Chinese：岁岁平安-Every year be safe and happy.Emotive function of language1.To change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.–What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Ow ...2.To express one’s own feelings without any implication of communicating with others–Damn! Man! Oh, boy! And hurrah!Phatic function of languageWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.1.To start or end a conversation- “Nice day, isn’t it?”- “Hi, I’m William Blake.”- “I must go home, or my husband will beat me.”2.To help maintain a comfortable socio-interpersonal relationship between people.- “Good morning”- “吃饭了吗？”Recreational functionThe use of language for the sheer joy.1.To entertain people- nursery rhymes 童谣- nonsensical lyrics 无意义的歌词2.To show skills in the use of language.- poetry for its sheer beautyMetalingual function of languageThe use of language to talk about language.This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only human beings can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.。
语言学导论 Unit 1 Preliminaries about language
• There are some 6,800 known languages spoken
in the 200 countries of the world. In 2003, the total number of languages in the world was estimated to be 6,809, of which 2,261 have writing systems (the others are only spoken). What if there were only one language the world over? (Pபைடு நூலகம் 11 No. 2)
language.
• Both Jane and John like
Shakespeare’s language. • the language of bees
• Language contributes to the success of
our everyday life and the survival of human beings.
another by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
• Question: Can we deny that human language has a
genetic basis? What is the implication of the story about “wolf child”? What about those patients with neurological lesions in areas like Broca area (named after a French scientist) and Wernicke area (named after a German scientist) [aphasia] ?
英语语言学导论
Course Name:Introduction to LinguisticsSept. 2012, for Grade 2010 Classes 1-6English Undergraduate ProgramDepartment of EnglishSchool of Foreign Language StudiesNanchang University (NCU)Course Instructor: Prof./Dr. JIANGSyllabusCourse Description:This course aims at providing undergraduate juniors of English major with a fundamental and systematic account of the basic knowledge of the studies of linguistics at the modern time with explanations, illustrations, and necessary examples from the course book and also from present English and Chinese language uses, to help develop the students’ interest in this study, to facilitate their understanding of the linguistic terms and theories, and to build a systematic knowledge of the said study.Major Books Used for this Course:1)Hu, Zhuanglin 2006.Linguistics. A Course Book (Third Edition). BeijingUniversity Press, used as students’ course book.2) Robins, R. H. 1967/1997. A Short History of Linguistics (4th edn). London, NewY ork: Longman.4) Yule, George. 2000. The Study of Language.Beijing: Foreign Language Teachingand Research Press.5) Keith Brown et al. (eds.) 2006. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd edn),Oxford: Elsevier.6) Collinge, N. E. (ed.) 2005. An Encyclopaedia of Language. London, New Y ork:Routledge.7) Strazny, Philipp (ed.) 2005. An Encyclopedia of Linguistics.New Y ork, Oxon:Fitzroy Dearborn.8) Wikipedia. /9) Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007. the electronic edition can be accessible on theinternet.Course Requirements:1)Attentive listening, active participation, quick note-taking and understanding,nice presentation in class and all the related activities2)Complete preview, in-class and after-class assignments3)Pass the final examinationCourse Schedule:1)General Introduction2)Chapter 1—Design features, origin, and functions of language3)Chapter 1 — Main branches, macro-linguistics, and important distinctionsin linguistics4)Chapter 2—Phonetic studies5)Chapter 2—Phonological studies6)Chapter 3—W ord and Formation7)Chapter 3—W ord/lexical changes8)Chapter 4—Syntactic relation, construction, and function9)Chapter 4—Grammatical categories, phrasing and beyond10)Chapter 5—Meaning and sense relation11)Chapter 5—Meaning analyses12)Chapter 8—Pragmatics (1)13)Chapter 8—Pragmatics (2) --Post-Gricean developments14)Chapter 11—Linguistics and foreign language teaching15)SummaryLecture 1General Introduction:Modern Linguistics and Earlier Linguistic StudiesIn this lecture, we shall make a general introduction to the development of modern linguistics and the linguistic studies before that. The students will get a general view/picture of the developments, the main linguistic schools, and their studies through attending this lecture.0.Leading in: What does your mind do most of the time? Or what do you do most ofthe time in your life including the dreaming time when you sleep? What is your major? What is English? Language is what you use most of the time in your life and is also your major. Since you are language majors, very likely you will use it for your future work. Why not learn about it then? What is language? What does it cover? …These are the questions for linguistics.1.The beginning of MODERN linguistics: 1916—(Q1. When did modern linguistics begin?)1) The first modern linguistic approacha. The ―father of modern linguistics‖-- Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔(1857-1913)(Q2. Who was the father of modern linguistics?)b. The first modern linguistic book ―A Course on General Linguistics‖(1916).《普通语言学教程》Saussure’s two students pieced their notes takenfrom attending their teacher’s lectures and got it published in 1916/Englishversion in 1959.(Q3. What was the first modern linguistic book?)(Q4. Who published it?)2) Why is it ―modern‖?Because of the scientific views and the researchmethods introduced in this book. Eg. Language is a system of signs.Language has a sound system and a meaning system. Language has associative relation and paradigmatic relation.(Q5. In what sense is it called a ―modern‖ linguistic book?)2.What happened before Saussure?Some traditional approaches to language—there are three successive phases before Saussure’s time(Q6. Who were the earliest scholars of language? What did they study?)1) The Greek researchers and their studies--―Traditional Grammar‖ wasinstituted;Based on logic;Aiming solely at providing rules;Distinguishing correct from incorrect forms;Classic study, philosophical, logical, meaning.(Q7. What were studied about language during the Middle Ages?)2) The researches during the Middle Ages--PhilosophyAlexandria, the ―philosophical‖ school, religious, literary, linguistic;Linguistic structure is not the central concern, but meaning is;Seeking primarily to establish, interpret and comment upon texts;Applying the method of criticism;Comparison of texts of different periods and of different writers;Data—written language, exclusively Greek & Roman antiquityPrescriptive grammar;Paved the way for historical linguistics.(Q8. What were the two establishments in the 19th century?)3) Linguistic researches during 1800-1900--―Comparative grammar‖a. The establishment of linguistic family trees—The Indo-European Family Tree印欧语系The Sino-Tibetan Family Tree 汉藏语系, etc*In 1816, ―The Sanskrit Conjugation(动词变位) System‖ by Franz Bopp was a study of the connections between Sanskrit（梵文）, Germanic, Greek, Latin, andother European languages. The primitive elements that Sanskrit maintained are vital for the purposes of reconstruction of Indo-European language family.b. The establishment of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 国际音标and the publication in 1888, based on French teachers’ practice of teachingLatin and some other related languages.Later representatives—Max Müller, G. Curtius, A. Schleicher;Historical and comparative, etymological (语源学的);Comparativist school was the dominating study of the time.3. What does modern linguistics cover?1) Saussure and his study: the first structuralist approach2) Prague School布拉格学派The leading figure—V. Mathesius马泰休斯(1882-1946);Flourished during 1920s-30s;Mainstream structuralism; synchronic;Approach language structurally and functionally —form-functionalapproach;Followed both Polish B. de Courtenay (库尔特内) and Swiss F. de Saussure;First functionalist;Founded the International Functional Linguistic Association 1976;Distinguished contributions:a) Established the theory of phonology; distinguished between phoneticsand phonology; developed phonology as an independent study in 1939;b) Mathesius’ functional analysis of sentence components—very close tothe present division of given/new or theme/rheme, functional syntacticanalysis.3) American Structuralism/ Also called descriptive linguistics 美国结构主义/美国描写语言学Developed independently from the anthropological studies by Americanscholars such as Boas, Sapir, etc.；The representative figure—Leonard Bloomfield布龙菲尔德(1887-1946),his Language《语言论》(1933)；Flourished during 1930s-1950s；Structural and behavioral；Major focus—syntactic analysis；Contribution—IC analysis (immediate constituent analysis)4) The Chomskian approachThe leading figure—Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基(1928--);Influential during 1960s-1980s;Formal approach, deep structure/surface structure; NP VP;Psychological; we were born with LAD (language acquisition device);Innateness;Major focus—syntax;Contributions— a. Phrase Structure Theory;b. Transformational-Generative Grammar.5) London School 伦敦学派Leading figures:a. Malinowsky马林诺夫斯基(1884-1942) — anthropologist;b. Firth 弗斯(1890-1960) the 1st professor of General Linguistics in GreatBritain;c. M. A. K. Halliday韩礼德(1925-- ) Systemic-Functional Grammar;Influential from the 1980s;Functional approach and anthropological;Major focus—meaning in society and functional grammar;Contribution — functional analysis6) Cognitive Linguistics: a new perspective on how language is used; how weview the world and express it in language; how language tells different cognition of the same world in which human beings live.Leading figures: R. Langacker兰盖克; G. Lakoff 拉可夫;M. A. K. Halliday (partly);N. Chomsky (partly)7) Computational Linguistics: a branch of linguistics about how to teachcomputer to receive, comprehend, produce and translate natural languages. It reflects human ambition.4. Homework:1) Go over the questions discussed.2) Preview 1.1--1.5 of Chapter 1.3) What is language defined by different people? What is linguistics? How does asound come to have meaning?Lecture 2Design Features, Origin and Functions of LanguageIn this section, we shall mainly discuss some important features and functions of language. As widely discussed, there are four features and seven main functions.(Q9. What is linguistics? p14.What is language?p3.)0.Check students’ homework orally in class; ask them to give some presentation;offer them some different definitions (cf. Essentials of Linguistics pp.1 & 14);underline the key words in the definitions; explain them one by one with examples from English and Chinese to facilitate their understanding and memorizing.1) ―Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication. ---It is a system since linguistic elements are arranged systematically rather than randomly. It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. It is symbolic because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention. It is vocal because sound or speech is the primary medium for a human language. It is human in that no other animals possess such language.‖2) ―Modern linguistics is the scientific study of language. ---It studies the rules and principles whereupon human languages are constructed and operated as systems of communication. ‖(Q10. What is a design feature of language?)(Q11. How many design features are there and what are they?)1. 4 Design features of languageThe features that define human languages are called design features. (p3) (Q12. What is arbitrariness?)1)Arbitrariness 任意性There is no natural relationship between meaningand form, as well as meaning and sound of a language.Eg 1. fish (in English)le poisson (in French)鱼(in Chinese)*The above words and sounds all mean the same and all refer to the same kind of animal living in water, yet they take different forms.Eg 2. eat (in English)manger (in French)吃(in Chinese)(Q13. What is duality?)2)Duality 双重性Word is a combination of sound and meaning. Language has alevel of sounds/ a sound system and a level of meaning/ meaning system.Or: language has two systems—sound system and meaning system.(Q14. What is creativity?)3)Creativity 创造性(productivity 能产性in other linguistic books)a.W e can create new words;b.W e can create endless new sentences with limited number of words.(Q15. What is displacement?)4)Displacement 不受时空限制性a.One can refer to someone/sth. in the past, at the present or in thefuture;b.One can refer to someone/sth in another place or in another world,real or imagined.(Q16. What is convention?)*Convention 约定俗成is a community’s or society’s acceptance, use, and carrying on of a certain sound or form for a meaning.2. Origin of Language(Q17. How did language possibly begin?)1) Language is the very thing that makes us human.2) William C. Stokoe’s interpretation of language origin: language may have begunwith gestural expressions.Instrumental manual actions may have been transformed into symbolic gestures, and vision would have been the key of language evolution.(Q18. What is the possible relationship between language and gesture?)3) The relationship between language and gesture—whether it is one of unity orduality. Should we consider gesture and language as different and independent phenomena?A unity for language and gesture is a more reasonable understanding (Adam Kendon, in McNeill 2000).*Our knowledge and understanding of the nature of language and other related types of communication is limited and calls for ceaseless exploratory endeavor.(Q19. How many functions are there of human language? What are they?)(Q20. What is informative function?)3. 7 Functions of language1) Informative function: 信息功能(also understood as ideational function)Language is used to note down, to carry, and to pass information.(Q21. What is interpersonal function?)2) Interpersonal function: 人际功能Language is used for human communication/for communication amongpeople. It is used to establish and maintain people’s status in society/ orestablish and maintain social rules.(Q22. What is performative function?)3) Performative function: 行事功能W e can use language/words to do things.a. W e can use it to make others do something;b. W e do something ourselves at the time when we are saying something.(Q23. What is emotive function?)4) Emotive function: 情感功能(expressive function in other books)Language can be used to express feelings or emotions.Egs. ―My God.‖―Alas!‖―Ouch!‖―Damn it!‖―Wow.‖(Q24. What is phatic function?)5)Phatic [\feitik] function: 酬应功能Language can be used to indicate or to maintain relationship.This function originated fro m Malinowski’s study of the functions oflanguage.Egs. ―Good morning.‖―God bless you.‖―I’m sorry to hear it.‖―Good day.‖ ―Hello!‖ ―Good-bye.‖(Q25. What is recreational function?)6)Recreational function: 娱乐功能Language can be used for joy, fun, amusement, or recreation.Egs. Jokes,Chinese cross talk,songs and lyrics,poetry in general(Q26. What is metalingual function?)7)Metalingual function: 元语言功能Language can be used to talk about itself.Eg. ―book‖ is a word that we use to refer to something that we read…*What teachers do in class is mainly the use of language of this function--touse language to explain language.4. Homework:1) Go over the questions discussed.2) Preview sections 1.7 -- 1.9 of Chapter 1. Write about differences andsimilarities between phonetics and phonology, morphology and syntax, semantics and pragmatics, and hand in this homework next time.Lecture 3Main Branches, Interdisciplinary Branches and Important Distinctions0.Collect homeworkAn oral check of the questions discussed last time.(Q27. How many main branches of linguistics are there? What are they?)(Q28. What is phonetics?)1. 6 Main branches of linguistics1)Phonetics: 语音学The study of speech sounds. It studies and describes any speech sound whether it distinguishes meaning or not.Eg. three ―p‖sound s are noted in ―speak‖(un-aspirated不送气, as [p=]), ―peak‖(aspirated送气, as indicated by the diacritic h in [p h]), and ―deep‖(the neutral one [p]).(Q29. What is phonology?)2)Phonology: 音位学/音系学The study of the sound system of language--of the minimal/smallest meaningful sounds.--of the minimal sounds that distinguish meaning.Eg. the three ―p‖s in 1) above don’t distinguish meaning. They are of one meaningful phoneme.*Y et, in ―tip‖ and ―sip‖, or ―tip‖ ―dip‖ the change of ―t‖ to ―s‖ or ―t‖ to ―d‖ brings about another word. T herefore, ―t‖ and ―s‖ are two independent phonemes.(Q30. What is morphology?)3)Morphology:形态学The study of the internal structure of words or of the formation of words.Prefix, suffix, root all help to form words.Eg. ab | norm | alfriend | lyglob | al | iz | ationdialogue, monologue, onomatopoeicinternationalism, localization(Q31. What is syntax?)4)Syntax:句法学The study of the structure/formation of sentence.Eg. I speak French.traditional analysis: Chomsky’s analysis:S Pr O SNP VPV NP(Q32. What is semantics?)5)Semantics: 语义学The study of meaning.a.meaning of words and their relations;b.meaning of sentences/ or: sentence meaning.Eg1. flower ( a super-ordinate word)rose lily tulip daffodil (hyperboles)Eg2. buy/purchase; begin/commenceEg3. in/out; give/take(Q33. What is pragmatics?)6)Pragmatics: 语用学The study of meaning in context, or meaning in use.How can people understand the following utterances correctly? Pragmatics tries to explain how and why people get the inference/implied meaning ofutterances other than the superficial/literal meaning expressed by the words.Eg1. A: How do you think of my new dress?B: The one you wore last week is really beautiful.2. A: Shall we go to the cinema?B: I have to complete the homework.3. Butterflies in one’s stomach.4. Apple in one’s eye.5. John is a lion. Queen Victoria was made of iron.(Q34. What is macrolinguistics or interdisciplinary linguistics?)2.Macrolinguistics宏观语言学It is the interdisciplinary(跨学科/跨专业) studies of linguistics, the study of language involving other fields.(Q35. What is psycholinguistics?)1)Psycholinguistics心理语言学: it is the study of the interrelation betweenlanguage and mind(语言与心智), about how language is produced, understood, and acquired/learned.(Q36. What is sociolinguistics?)2)Sociolinguistics社会语言学: it is the study of the characteristics oflanguage varieties, language functions and language speakers within a speech community/society.(Q37. What is anthropological linguistics?)3)Anthropological linguistics人类语言学:it is the study of the unwrittenlanguage, the emergence of language and the divergence of languages over thousands of years through human development.(Q38. What is computational linguistics?)4)Computational linguistics计算（机）语言学: it studies the use of computersto process or produce human language, including machine translation, computer-aided teaching, corpus(语料库), information retrieval(信息提取), and artificial intelligence, etc.3. 4 Important distinctions in linguistics(Q39. What is the distinction between descriptive and prescriptive?)1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive study: 描写性/规定性The former describes how things are; the latter prescribes how thingsought to be.*The 18th century grammar books are mainly prescriptive and the modern onesare mainly descriptive.(Q40. What is the distinction between synchronic and diachronic?)2)Synchronic vs. diachronic: 共时性/历时性The former describes phenomenon of language of a certain/single period;the latter describes language by analyzing its development throughdifferent period of time.Egs: 1) the study of the development of the Chinese ―ba-construction‖;2) the development of the sound“阿”from ―[e]‖ to ―[a]‖;3) meaning changes of words (“小姐”,“老板”, ―girl‖, ―bird‖ etc).(Q41. What is the distinction between langue and parole?)3)Langue & parole: 语言/言语The former refers to the abstract innate system of language; thelatter—the outcome (words and sentences) or what we actually utter/write.(Q42. What is the distinction between competence and performance?)4)Competence & performance: 语言能力/语言使用（或语言行为）The former refers to one’s knowledge or ability of a language; the latterthe use of it.[*The difference between pairs 3) and 4) above: Langue & parole are a pairof notions distinguishing rules and production by people following the ruleswhile competence & performance are a pair of notions focusing on languageuser’s power and the performing of it.]4.Homework: 1) Go over the questions discussed.2) Preview 2.1 & 2.23) What is ―fanqie‖反切? How to use it? What is 注音字母？Howdid it occur? How to use it? When and how did ―pinyin‖拼音begin?And the significance of its occurrence?Lecture 4PhoneticsIn this section, we shall start a new chapter—discussing speech sounds. The students will learn about 1）the main areas of the study；2）the speech organs；3）the manners and places of sound production; and 4）the description of consonants and vowels of English.0.Check students’ homework in class(Q43. What are the three branches of phonetics?)1.Three main areas of phonetics1) Articulatory Phonetics发声语音学--the study of sound production2) Acoustic Phonetics声学语音学--the study of physical properties of sounds3) Auditory Phonetics听觉语音学--the study of how sounds are perceived and understood(Q44. What organs do we use in producing speech sounds?)2. Vocal organs and sound notation1) Speech organs/ vocal (of voice) organs●Lung, trachea (wind pipe), throat, nose, mouth●Tongue, palate (腭roof of the mouth)●pharynx咽, larynx喉●vocal folds (vocal cords)声带, vocal tract 声道●oral cavity, nasal cavity 口腔，鼻腔(Q45. What is a coronal, a dorsal, a radical sound? p25. What is a voiceless sound, a voiced sound? p27.)*In phonetics, the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip, the blade, the front, the back and the root. In phonology, the sound made with the tip and blade is referred to as a coronal sound, with front and back as a dorsal sound, with root as a radical sound.*When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is a voiceless sound. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other the resultant sound is voiced.(Q46. What is sound/phonetic notation/transcription? What’s the principle for establishing the IPA?)2) Phonetic transcription/sound notation语音标示/音标●The use of sets of symbols for transcribing speech sounds or torepresent language sounds.●The main principles were that there should be a separate letter foreach distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be usedfor that sound in any language in which it appears.●International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), developed first by a group ofFrench language teachers based on their teaching experience around1930s.●Danish grammarian Otto Jesperson 叶斯柏生(1860-1943) formallyproposed it in 1886.●The first publication was in 1888.●Revised and corrected several times afterwards, widely used indictionaries and textbooks.●The very recent version came out in 2008.(Q47. What is a pulmonic sound, a non-pulmonic sound? p29)*Pulmonic sounds are produced by pushing air out of the lung, as in mostcircumstances, while non-pulmonic sounds are produced by either suckingair into the mouth or closing the glottis and manipulating the air betweenthe glottis and a place of articulation.(Q48. What are the manners of articulation? )3. Manner and place of sound production1) Manner of articulation● 1. stop/ plosive塞音/爆破音● 2. nasal 鼻音● 3. fricative 摩擦音● 4. approximant 延续音/畅音● 5. lateral 边音● 6. trill颤音●7. tap and flap触音/闪音eg. better, letter, city, pretty, bottom, button●8. affricate 塞擦音*Find examples for them from English.(Q49. What are the places of articulation? Give examples for each.)2) Place of articulation:● 1. Bilabial 双唇[b] [p] [m][w]● 2. Labio-dental唇齿[f] [v]● 3. Dental 齿[θ][δ]● 4. Alveolar 齿龈[t][d][n][s] [z][l][r]● 5. Postal velar后齿龈[∫] [з][t∫] [dз]egs. chew, true, child, tried, choose, truth, joke, drove, jam, drum● 6. Retroflex卷舌[r]●7. Palatal 颚[j]●8. Velar 软颚[k] [g] [η] eg. English, ink●9. Uvular 小舌[r] in French●10. Pharyngeal咽头Glottal 声门[?] egs. fat[f æ?t], pack[p æ? k], beaten[bi:?n], lantern, button[h] egs. glottal fricative: home, hold, hand, hat4. English speech sounds(Q50. How to describe a consonant sound of English?)1) English consonants (24 symbols according to recent revision)2) The description of consonants usually involves the place and the manner and is made with a sequence of a) the place of articulation; b) the manner.Eg 1. bilabial stop—where bilabial is the place and stop is the manner. [p] [b]Eg 2. bilabial nasal [m]Eg 3. bilabial approximant [w]*Notice: whenever there are two members in the same box in the table above,a third distinction –voice-- is needed and is mentioned in the first place:Eg 4. [p] a voiceless bilabial stop[b] a voiced bilabial stopEg 5. a voiceless labial-dental fricative [f]a voiced labial-dental fricative [v]3) English vowels (20 symbols according to recent revision)front central backhigh i: u:I umid-highз: əo:mid-low e٨ Dlow æ α:(Q51. How to describe a vowel sound of English? p37.)4) The description of English vowels is made in terms of 4 aspects:(1) the height of the tongue (high, mid, low)—tongue height(2) the position of the higher part of the tongue (front, central, back)—tongueposition(3) the length or tenseness of the sound (tense vs. lax, or long vs. short)(4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. un-rounded)Egs. [i:] high front tense un-rounded vowel[I] high front lax un-rounded vowel[α:]low back tense un-rounded[æ]low front un-rounded[ə]mid central un-rounded4. Homework:1) Go over the questions discussed.2) Find how many mistakes you make in your pronunciation of the 44 basicsounds of English. What are they and why do they occur?3) Hand in next time: What is Mandarin Chinese? How many dialects has it? Whatis the difference between language branch(语族), language, and dialect? What is a dialectic island and the significance of its existence?Lecture 5Phonological analysis0. Collect homework and check the other two parts of the homework orally inclass by asking individual students.(Q52. What is co-articulation? What is anticipatory co-articulation and perseverative co-articulation? p38.)1. Co-articulation and different transcriptions1) Co-articulation协同发音Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)Eg. ―map‖ where [æ] is influenced by [m], making it a bit nasalized.―lamb‖ where [æ] becomes more like the following sound [m].*If a sound becomes more like the following sound, it is anticipatoryco-articulation. If a sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it isperseverative co-articulation.(Q53. What is nasalization? p38.)* When a non-nasal sound carries some feature of a neighboring nasal sound,this phenomenon is called nasalization.(Q54. What is narrow/broad transcription?)2) Narrow/broad transcription: 严式标音/宽式标音The former intends to symbolize all the possible speech sounds while the latter indicates only those capable of distinguishing one word from another.Egs. 1）[p=] [p h] [p] for variations of sounds in ―speak‖ ―peak‖―deep‖2）[p] for all of them(Q55. What is a phone, a phoneme, and an allophone?)2. Phonology—some basic concepts1) Phone, phoneme, and allophone●Phone 音素—a phonetic unit or segment. Any smallest speech soundwe hear and produce.Eg. [pit] [tip] [spit] we can identify three different /p/s;It is what ―n arrow transcription‖ describes;It may or may not distinguish meaning.●Phoneme音位—a phonological unit. It has distinctive value; anabstract unit in the sound system that has no particular sound;represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Eg. /p/ is realized differently in [pit] [tip] [spi:k]./æ/is realized by an un-nasalized [æ]and a nasalized [æ].。
语言学导论第一课language.
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
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1.2 Language is arbitrary
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Sound English: tree Chinese: 树
Language
Lecture 1
1
Coming
1. What is language? 2. Design features of language 3. Language and human beings 4. On the knowledge of language
2
1. What is language?
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Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently.
Dogs woof. Cats meow. Birds tweet. Mice squeak. Cows moo. Frogs croak. Elephants toot. Ducks quack. Fish blub. Seals ow.
2.2 Productivity
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Language is productive or creative, as we can produce and understand an infinite number of sentences, including sentences we have never said or heard before.
英语语言学Linguistics 第一章Chapter1 导论Introduction
Displacement移位性/不受时空限制
Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from immedite situation. (P. 9) 用语言谈论超越说话人所处语境的任何人或物或事，语言 使用不受时空限制。
基础 认知 感觉器官↓ ↑认知水平提高 反映 脑神经↓ ↑ 心理现实 编码 离散化分类概括 ↓ ↑表达对象 指称 义（概念范畴） 语言符号 ↓（社会）约定 一般性 音（语音形式） ↑
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客观现实
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音响（物质材料 ）特殊性
In the beginning was the word. —John 1:1
Any elements of language not arbitrary?
Arbitrariness任意性
Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated理据 ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
2021优选语言学导论ppt
7. prescriptivism & descriptivism
Prescriptivism: a) Set down a kind of form, admit one dialect or variety is more superior than another. b) Form grammar, pronunciation, lexicon. Regulate people how to actually use language. How things should be. c) Language police
isn’t innate
As.
Material →
→ product
※ competence ① (Grammar) is equal to everybody ② ideal knowledge of language user
performance ① isn’t equal to everybody ② influenced by psychological and social factors.
In the mid of 19th
3.Philology
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Linguistics
F.De Saussure (the founder of general linguistics）
(语文学） （语言学）
4. Linguistic study (1) diachronic study 历时性学习 Study the development of language in the course of time. 研究语言在不同时期的特点。 (2) synchronic study 共时性学习 Study linguistics at a particular point of time (given linguistic status or stage of a particular language) 研究语言在同一时期的不同阶段。
语言学导论
language is cultural-dependant
language mirrors culture
4. Functions of language in communication
(1) Phatic
(2) Directive function
(3) Informative function
② ideal knowledge of language user
performance ① isn’t equal to everybody
② influenced by psychological and social
factors.
※ Performance is the realization of the knowledge
symbols : people use it to represent objects, ideas, opinions or actions.
Used for human communication : human specific (人类特有 ）
2. Design features of language
(1) Communicative means (the most important one)
(2) The means for conceptual thinking and recognition of
the world.
(3) The vehicle and transmitter of culture.
Scope of linguistics: Phonetics Phonology Morphology Microlinguistics Syntax
语言学导论-第8章LanguageSociety
Language and society
Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 to study the relation
between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures
I ain’t afraid of no ghosts.
Register
“Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” (Halliday)
Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation
same geographical region same regional dialect
speak differently
Features: phonetic features: -n’ -- -ing grammatical level: I can’t eat nothing. accent: Received Pronunciation (RP) 标准发音 (upper class speech, high-status marker)
icebox- fridge 火星文：符号、繁体字、日文、韩文、冷僻字或汉字拆分后的部分等
非正规化文字符号组合而成（似乱码或错字，不规范，字面无法了解）
偶口以跟你作朋友吗？ 3Q 你是我的好麻吉！ 私今天没事做。 海皮，粉，河蟹，小盆友，……
Dialectal varieties
语言学导论
4. vowel *definition:The soundere is no obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract. * types: position of the highest part of tongue: front,central,back openness of the mouth: open, semi-close, semi-open shape of the lips: rounded, unrounded 5. Transcription: broad transcription: with letter-symbols only narrow transcription:with diacritics
18
the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
19
1. basic concepts morpheme: the minimal lexical or grammatical unit e.g. care, -ful, re-, -ness allomorph: one morpheme may have several pronunciations or phonological forms. Each is an allomorph of the same morpheme, e.g. cats [ts],dogs[z], watches [iz] root: the part of the word left when all the affixes have been removed, care in careful
英语语言学导论
Chapter 1 Introduction介绍1.语言定义What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. This explains why “iblk” is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why “Been he wounded has” is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word “pen” and the thing we write with. Different languages have different words for the same object. Words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.2. 语言特征Design Features of LanguageDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Charles Hockett (American) in 1960 : (5 of 13)①Arbitrariness 任意性: There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.) On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrary, such like onomatopoeic words and some compound words.②Productivity 多产性: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.③Duality 双重性: Language is a system, which consists of two levels. The basic level is a structure of sounds, and the higher level is the units of meaning.④Displacement 移位性: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑤Cultural transmission 文化传承性: Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3.语言功能Function of LanguageThree main functions : the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.①The descriptive function: also referred to differently as the cognitive, or referential, or propositional function, is assumed to be the primary function of language.It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.②The expressive function: also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.③The social function: also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Roman Jakobson (Russian-born) :He identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.①Addresser, Emotive 情感功能The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.②Addressee, Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.③Context, Referential 信息功能The addresser conveys a message of information.④Message, Poetic 诗性功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.⑤Contact, Phatic communication 寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.⑥Code.Metalinguistic 元语言，纯理功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. “Let me tell you what the word ‘linguist’ means.”M.A.K. Halliday (British) in the early 1970s :He explored the functions of child language, and found that as a child grew into an adult the7 functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract system of functions.①Ideational 经验功能: The ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions.②Interpersonal 人际功能: The interpersonal function is to establish or maintain socialrelationships between people.③Textual 语篇功能: The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.4.语言学定义What is LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.)(It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.)5.语言学范围the scope of linguisticsRelatively independent branches within the area of linguistics, and also the core of linguistics:①Phonetics语音学: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication.②Phonology音位学: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.③Morphology形态学: The study of the way in which symbols are arranged and combined to form words.④Syntax 句法学: the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.⑤Semantics语义学: In most general terms language is used to convey meaning. The study of meaning is known as semantics.⑥Pragmatics语用学: Language communication does not occur in a vacuum, it always occurs in a context. The study of meaning in the context of language use is called pragmatics. Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study: sociolinguistics社会语言学psycholinguistics 语言心理学applied linguistics 应用语言学。
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16、人民应该为法律而战斗，就像为 了城墙 而战斗 一样。 ——赫 拉克利 特 17、人类对于不公正的行为加以指责 ，并非 因为他 们愿意 做出这 种行为 ，而是 惟恐自 己会成 为这种 行为的 牺牲者 。—— 柏拉图 18、制定法律法令，就是为了不让强 者做什 么事都 横行霸 道。— —奥维 德 19、法律是社会的习惯和思想的结晶 。—— 托·伍·威尔逊 20、人们嘴上挂着的法律，其真实含 义是财 富。— —爱献 生
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46、我们若已接受最坏的，就再没有什么损失。——卡耐基 47、书到用时方恨少、事非经过不知难。——陆游 48、书籍把我们引入最美好的社会，使我们认识各个时代的伟大智者。——史美尔斯 49、熟读唐诗三百首，不会作诗也会吟。——孙洙 50、谁和我一样用功，谁就会和我一样成功。——莫扎特