第一章语言学导论

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《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。

语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。

该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。

Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。

1．任意性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。

二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。

3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。

4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。

移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。

5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。

2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如(鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。

3．“噗噗”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。

5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。

Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。

人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。

3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。

在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。

4．感情功能语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。

5．寒暄功能寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题及答案

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题第一章:语言学导论I. Choose the best answer。

(20％)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contact B。

communicationC. relation D。

community2。

Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A。

tree B. typewriterC。

crash D。

bang3。

The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4。

In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A。

Interpersonal B. EmotiveC. Performative D。

Recreational5。

Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place，due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A。

语言学导论 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

The
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Descriptive（描写式）vs. Prescriptive（规定式） ♦ Descriptive:a lingustics study that aims to describe and analyze the language ople actually use.
♦ Prescriptive:a linguistics study that aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.i.e.,to tell people what they should say or what they should not say.
Example
▪ Jack said I love you to Rose in the street.
The relationship between langue and parole ● The parole must depend on langue, and without parole, there would not be any existing significance for langue. Langue and parole are interdependent. They together constitute language.
C ha pte r 1 Invita tions to Linguistics
1.9 Im porta nt D istinctions in Linguistics
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contents
• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive • Synchronic vs. Diachronic • Langue vs. Parole • Competence vs. Performance

1.语言学导论

1.语言学导论第一章语言学导论一. Why Study Language?二. What is Language?三. Design Features of LanguageThe features that define our human languages can be called Design Features.What makes language unique to human beings?The design features of language which refer to the defining properties of human language tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.Arbitrariness is a core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Duality, which means the property of having 2 levels of sturctures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the 2 levels has its own principles of organization. Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic unites to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never heard before. Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters, in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.So all these features make language unique to human beings.Design features refer to the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human langugae distinguishable from any animal system of communication.ARBITRARINESSBy ‘language is arbitrary’ we mean there is no logicalconnection between meanings and sounds. For example, there is no reason why English speakers use the sounds /dog/ to denote the animal ‘dog’, or /pig/ to refer to the animal ‘pig’ while Chinese speakers use different sounds (狗and 猪respectively) to indicate them. There are different levels of arbitrariness.(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.We must admit that there are certain words with different degrees of onomatopoeia in every language which imitate natural sounds, such as ‘bang, crash, and roar’ in English, and ‘叮叮当，咔嚓，扑哧’ in Chinese. However arbitrariness and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time. Widdowson’s illustration of a line ‘The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves’ in Keats’Ode to a Nightinggale by attempting the s ubstitution of ‘murderous’ for ‘murmurous’ shows that no connection will be established between sounds and the little noiseness of the flying flies. ‘It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.’(Widdowson, 1996:6)(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelAs to arbitrariness at the syntactic level, there are 2 opposite points of view.According to some functional linguists (Halliday, 1985/1994), language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level because there may be a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings. Put it differently, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as word order is concerned. Compare: a). He came in and sat down. b). He sat down and came in. c). He sat down after he came in. Sentence a) means the actions occurred in this order. Sentence b) means theopposite sequence of the real happening—perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled himself into the room. In sentence c) with the help of the word ‘after’ we can reverse the order of the clauses.However, formal linguists underscore the autonomy of syntax. ‘Human cognition embodies a system whose primitive terms are non-semantic and non-discourse-derived syntactic elements and whose principles of combination make no reference to system-ext ernal factors.’ (Newmeyer, 1998:18) in other words, to them, syntax is purely arbitrary.(3) Arbitrariness and ConventionArbitrariness and Conventionality are 2 indispensable sides of the coin of language. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of languge makes learning a language laborious.DUALITYDuality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has 2 levels of structures, such that units of the primary level (words) are composed of elements of the secondary level (sounds) and each of the 2 levels has its own principles of organization.For example, a syllable is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself, and scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes.Why do people take duality as one of the important design fuatures of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such desine feature?Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements.For example, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language had no such design feature, then it would be like animal communicational system which consists only a number of basic sounds and this would be highly limited. Then we would not be able to produce a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words), which are distinct in meaning. In other words, the number of messages one can send woud be restricted to the number of basic sounds.CREATIVITYOne of the design features of human language is creativity. What is it? And what makes it possible?By Creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. It is one of the design features that only human language has.Human language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. The speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The recursive nature of langugae provides a theoretical basis for creating endless sentences.DISPLACEMENTHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as displacement.For example, we can talk about Hitler, who is already dead;we can even talk about next week, which is in the future.‘An refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.’ This shows that language has the design feature of displacement.四. Origin of LanguageTheory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the Yo-he-yo theory.The Bow-wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.五. Functions of LanguageWhat are the 7 functions of human language?According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least 7 functions, and they are illustrated as follows:(1)INFORMATIVE FUNCTION: it means that language is the instrument of thought and languageserves an informational function when used to tell something. It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. The declarative sentences such as ‘This is a book.’ are the typical illustration of this function.(2)INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION: it means people can use language to estabilish and maintaintheir status in a society. It is the most important sociological use of language. In the framework of functional grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.(3)PERFORMATIVE FUNCTION: it is primarily to change thesocial status of persons, as inmarriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate, the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎平安(every year be safe and happy) as a means of controling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.(4)EMOTIVE FUNCTION: it is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucialin changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, for example, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, for example, God, My, Damn it, Wow, Ugh, Ow, etc.(5)P HATIC COMMUNION: it originates form Malinowski’s study of the functions of languageperformed by Trobrind Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language . People always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as ‘Good morning, Go d bless you, Nice day, etc.’ to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.(6)RECREATIONAL FUNCTION: it means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such asa baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.(7)METALINGUAL FUNCTION: it refers to the fact that peoplecan use language to talk aboutitself. For example, I can use the word ‘book’to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression ‘the word book’ to talk about the sign ‘b-o-o-k’ itself.六. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or the scientific study of language.七. Main Branches of LinguisticsPHONETICS and PHONOLOGYPhonetics mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called phonology.Illustrate the significance of studying speech sounds in linguistics.Language is first and foremost a ‘system of vocal symbols’. Human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system, as we have seen in the discussion of language speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.Analysis of speech sounds can be approached on 2 levels: phonetics and phonology. Phonetics deals with speech organs and their functions, speech sounds, waves carrying speech sounds, analysis and processing of the sounds by the listener. Phonology is concerned with the organization of speech within specific languages, or with the systems and patterns of soundsthat occur in particular languages. Both phonetics and phonology are main branches of linguistics.To study speech sounds, linguistics need to analyze the minute processes and acticities of the speaker and explain the way speech organs move to convey meaning. The theory and methods thus developed can be applied to numerous other fields. For example, people who work in recording, language description and language teaching will have some interest in phonetic knowledge while those who work in audiology, speech therapy and speech pathology must have a solid foundation in phonetics and phonology.MORPHOLOGYThe branch of grammar which studies the internal stucture of words is called Morphology.SYNTAXThe branch of grammar which studies the internal structrue of sentence is called Syntax.In linguistics, Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence.SEMANTICS and PRAGMATICSSemantics and pragmatics investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use.Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics?Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and link language to the world, we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study.Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguisticexpressions, particularly meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speaker’s meaning, utterence meaning, or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning; the later is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra.八. MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics studies how linguistics is related with other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in languge and society, including the social functions of langugae and the social characteristics of its users. It attempts to show the relationship between language and society.九. Important Distinctions in LinguisticsDESCRIPTIVE vs. PRESCRIPTIVEDescriptive study attempts to tell what is in the language,while Prescriptive study tells people what should be in the language. Most comtemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.An approach in linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is Prescriptive.Modern linguistic is Descriptive in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.SYNCHRONIC vs. DIACHRONICThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic linguistic study. Diachrony is concerned with the evolution of language over time.The study of language at one point in time is a Synchronic study.Synchrony refers to the state of a language as it exists at any given time.LANGUE /PAROLE and COMPETENCE/PERFORMANCESaussure puts forward the concept of Langue and Parole, and Chomsky puts forward the concept of Competence and Performance. Please dwell upon the differences and similarities, if any, of the 2 pairs: Langue and Parole vs. Competence and Performance.According to F. de Saussure, Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community; while Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. We can compare them along the following dimensions: Langue is abstract; Parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs. Langue is not actually spoken by someone; Parole is always a naturally occurring event. Langue is relatively stable andsystematic; Parole is subject to personal and situational constraints. The linguists’proper object is the Langue of each community, the lexicon, grammar and phonology implied in each individual by his upbringing in society, and on the basis of which he speaks and understands his language.For Chomsky, a fundamental distinction between linguistic Competence and Performance should be made. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic Competence. And Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. In light with this, Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s Competence is stable but his Performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, and thus would involve imperfections such as slips of tongue, false starts, unnecessary pauses, and so on. Thus, the point is that a speaker’s Performance does not always match his Competence.Sauss ure’s distinction is somewhat similar with Chomsky’s in the sense that the both refer to the constant factor which underlies the utterances that constitute Parole/Performance. However, their difference is quite obvious. Saussure’s Langue is a social product, a set of conventions for aspeech community. Chomsky regards Competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at Language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.Li nguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s competence.。

语言学导论复习纲要

区分辅音：发音部位、阻碍方法、声带状况和气流节制。掌握英汉中元辅音的特征：元音差别： • 除了央元音/ə/之外几乎没有一个处在相同部位的。英语中的元音都是舌面音，没有舌尖元音和卷舌元音。 • • 英语元音分布比较均匀，而汉语元音分布不够均匀，高元音居多。英语中的元音有长短的差别（如 beat 和 bit，fool 和 full），而汉语没有。 • • 英语前元音没有圆唇音，而后元音多为圆唇音。汉语中的元音元音基本上在极限位置上，而英语中的语音并非如此。 • 辅音差别： • 英汉辅音在发音部分方面虽然有诸多相似之处，但它们的发音方法和发音机制有着细微的差别。 • 英语辅音有清浊之分，而汉语辅音的区别并不全在清浊，除了几个个别的浊音，如鼻音、边音，其余的擦音、塞音和塞擦音的区别在于送气与否。 • 此外，英语辅音时长较短，单念时不允许延长；汉语辅音无论是清是浊，无论送气不送气，单念时听起来较长，似乎后面跟了一个短暂的/ə/音。音位和音位变体： • • 音位：某种语言或方言中具有区别意义功能的最小语音单位。音位变体：属于同一个音位的各个音素叫音位变体。音位变体就是音位在语音环境中的实际发音。音系规则的描述方法：斜线表示变化产生的环境，横线（称为焦点线）表示目标音段的位置。例子如图：汉语还有鼻化元音。
原则与参数理论 XP 规则是一个普遍规则，语言之间的差别在于参数不同。 The fact that Japanese and English differs due to the parameter of variation among languages, or parameter, for short.
移位与疑问句移位的起因通常为话题化，就是根据不同的话题而将句子成分改变位置，通常是提前。比如一般疑问句中，会出现 I-to-C movement，（屈折语转为补足语；一个假设：A null C triggers the movement in English questions. ）；而特殊疑问句中会出现 Wh-movement（基于 I-to-C movement 的移位，形成补足语短语的标志） Principle C C-command: A node alpha c- commands a node beta iff: the mother of alpha dominates beta, and alpha does not dominate beta. Principle C: If a pronoun NP x c-commands a full NP y, x and y may not be coreferent. What do we get: Although syntactic structure is independent of meaning in many ways, they do interact in many ways.

语言学教程术语

语言学教程术语第一章语言学导论phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics 语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition 双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition 孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章语音trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords 声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator 积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatory assimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis 插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word 多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relative uninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme 黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphological conditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift 转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening 词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes)calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative宾格genitive属格dative 与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成concord/agreement 一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified 能指signifier所systematic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substitutability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression_r(referential-expression_r)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程empiricism经验主义（洛克，白板说）rationalism 理性主义（笛卡尔）mentalism心灵主义new empiricism新经验主义(Bloomfield)priori先天综合判断（康德Kant）Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派Syntactic structure (SS)早期转换句法时期Standard theory (ST)标准理论时期Extended Standard theory (EST)扩展的标准理论Revised Standard theory(REST)扩展的休正标准理论The theory of government and binding (GB theory)管辖和约束理论时期（管约论）Minimalist program (MP)最简方案时期Structural description结构描写式Performance system应用系统Modular theory模块理论Spell-out拼写Language faculty语言机制/官能Mental organ心智器官Knowledge of language 语言知识Meaning potential 意义潜势Context culture 文化语境Field语场Tenor语旨Mode语式pivot words轴心词mental construct心理构念theoretical cognitive psychology理论认知心理学psychological faculty心理官能autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主(arbitrariness任意性,systemacity系统性, self-containedness自足性)typological functionalism类型学功能主义extreme functionalism极端的功能主义external functionalism外部功能主义integrative functionalism一体化功能注主义exceptional case marking例外格标记specifier标定成分fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射two-segment category两节语类complement domain补足语区域minimal domain最小区域internal domain内部区域checking domain检验区域sisterhood姐妹关系minimizing chain link最小语链联结representational system表达系统strict cyclic principle严格的层级条件structure-preserving principle结构保存原则C-commanding condition成分统领条件articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统interface conditions中介条件full-interpretation完全解释原则procrastination逻辑形式操作优先原则greed句法操作自利原则the shortest linkage principle最短联接原则the shortest movement principle最短移位原则primary complement/modifier(referential NP)一级补语位/修饰语位(定指名词短语)secondary complement(non- referential NP) 二级补语位(非定指名词短语)empty category principle空范畴原则aspect checking特征验证aspect feature基本体貌特征ASPP is functional projection .ASPP 是功能投射.crossing branch交叉分支across the board extraction抽取跨界移动principles-and-parameters framework原则与参数语法head parameter 中心语参数logical form(LF)逻辑形式phonetic form(PF)语音形式phonological component音韵部分overt component显性部分covert component隐性部分core computation核心运算asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制linear correspondence axiom线形对应定理adjunction 加接determiner限定词concatenate联结linearization线性化functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设right-branching右向分支X’(V,N,A,P)词项X’’=XP=Xmax是X 的二阶投射结构Y’’=指示语specifier Z’’=补述语complement IP=屈折短语inflection phraseXP=general phrase structureCHL人类语言的运算系统=computational system for human languageLCA线性对应定理=linear correspondence axiom Xmin=X0=最小投射。

《语言学导论(1)》课件

短语和句子
短语是由词汇组成的固定搭配，句子由单词和短语组成，用于表达完整的意思。
四、语言的语法
什么是语法？
语法是研究句子构成和句子内部关系的学科，包括形态、句法和句子语义。
语法的分类
语法可以分为形态语法、句法语法和语义语法，各自研究不同的语言现象。
语法的规则
语法规则描述语言中单词和短语的组合方式，以及句子的结构和语义。
《语言学导论(1)》PPT课件
# 语言学导论(1) PPT课件
一、引论
什么是语言学？
语言学是研究语言的科学，涉及语言的结构、语音、语法、语义和语用等方面。
为什么要学习语言学？
学习语言学可以帮助我们更好地理解语言及其使用规律，并提升我们的语言表达能力。
二、语音学
语音学的概念和研究对象
语音学研究语音的产生、传播和接收，探索语音的各种特征及其规律。
言语交际原则
言语交际原则包括合作原则、准Βιβλιοθήκη 原则、追踪原则等，指导有效的交际沟通。
语用学的应用
语用学的应用领域包括教育、社会科学、人机交互等，帮助改进语言使用和交流。
七、总结
语言学的作用
语言学有助于深入理解语言及其运作规律，对语言教学和语言技能提升具有重要意义。
学习语言学的建议
学习语言学可以通过阅读经典著作、参与学术讨论和实践语言技能等方式进行。
展望语言学的未来
语言学将继续深入发展，结合技术的进步，突破更多语言现象的研究。
五、语义学
语义学的概念和研究对象
语义学研究词义和句义，探索语言中词汇和句子的意义及其逻辑关系。
词义和句义
词义指单词的意义，句义指句子的意义，两者都与语境有关。

语言学导论第一章答案

Chapter one Invitations to languageReference keysI 1. verbal 2. productivity.3 metalingual function 4. yo-he-ho 5. Pooh-pooh 6. contact 7. language 8. descriptive 10. diachronic linguistic 11. langue 12. competence 13. arbitrary vocal 14. scientific ,language 15. descriptive, prescriptive 16. Synchronic, diachronic 17. abstract, realization 18. knowledge, realization 19. arbitrariness 20. displacement 21 sounds, meaning 22. transmittedII. 1. B 2.B 3. C 4. A 5. C. 6.C 7.C 8.C 9.B 10.D 11. A 12.C III. 1.T 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.T 15.F 16.F 17.T18.T19.F20.TVI. Questions1.What are the attributes of language that must be included in thedefinition of language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It includes the following attributes: language has system; it is vocal and arbitrary; it is a human and social activity; it is non-instinctive and is related to culture; language changes with time.2. If language is partially defined as communication, can we all say the voices that dogs make are languages? Why or why not?No.It is observed that dogs may use barking to express anxiety, submission and threats, but it is very different from human language inmany aspects. Firstly, human language has two systems: the system of sound and the system of meaning. So language is a system by which sounds and meanings are related. But dogs’ voice has not the two sets of structures. Second, The creative use language is unique to human beings. But dogs can not segment speech sounds, nor can they form an infinite set of utterance from a finite set of units by use of limited rules. Third, Dogs’ voice is only emotional response to particular stimuli, and have no way to express their feelings yesterday or their imaginations tomorrow. But human beings can talk about things at present, in the past or in the future, and things real or imagined.3. Point our three major differences between linguistics and traditional grammar.略4.What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted.略5.One of he main features of our human language is arbitrariness. Can you briefly explain what feature it refers to? Support your argument with examples.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have different words for the sameobject is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language,. It is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the “arbitrariness” of language is “ a rose by any name would smell as sweet”。

语言学导论第一章ppt课件.ppt

Is it significant for human languages to have duality of structure?
What would happen if human language had only one system of structure?
Does the traffic light system have duality, why?
认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“ 精准扶贫”项目
2. design features of human language ▪ arbitrariness(任意性):
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. e.g.书(汉)----book(英)
▪ duality of structure(结构的二重性):
Human language is a system consisting of two sets of structures or two levels.
the higher level: a structure of meaningful units (morphemes or words)
quack-quack bang roar cuckoo
crash
ding dong ka cha pu tong
*compounds:
rainbow bittersweet
pickpocket
* pictograph (象形文字) /hieroglyph(象形符号)
休
从
北

语言学导论 Unit 1 Preliminaries about language

we humans lived without language?
• There are some 6,800 known languages spoken
in the 200 countries of the world. In 2003, the total number of languages in the world was estimated to be 6,809, of which 2,261 have writing systems (the others are only spoken). What if there were only one language the world over? (Pபைடு நூலகம் 11 No. 2)
language.
• Both Jane and John like
Shakespeare’s language. • the language of bees
• Language contributes to the success of
our everyday life and the survival of human beings.
another by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
• Question: Can we deny that human language has a
genetic basis? What is the implication of the story about “wolf child”? What about those patients with neurological lesions in areas like Broca area (named after a French scientist) and Wernicke area (named after a German scientist) [aphasia] ?

语言学理论与流派教案大纲

语言学理论与流派教案大纲第一章：语言学导论1.1 语言与语言学定义语言语言学的研究范围与方法语言学的重要性1.2 语言学分支语音学词汇学语法学语义学社会语言学心理语言学应用语言学第二章：结构主义语言学2.1 结构主义语言学概述结构主义语言学的起源与发展结构主义语言学的基本概念2.2 语言的结构语言的层次结构语言的符号系统语言的规则与原则2.3 结构主义语言学代表人物费尔迪南·德·索绪尔鲁思·哈里森克劳德·列维-斯特劳斯第三章：功能主义语言学3.1 功能主义语言学概述功能主义语言学的起源与发展功能主义语言学的基本概念3.2 语言的功能交际功能表达功能认知功能3.3 功能主义语言学代表人物罗杰·费尔盾迈克尔·阿诺德约翰·菲尔莫尔第四章：转换语言学4.1 转换语言学概述转换语言学的起源与发展转换语言学的基本概念4.2 语言的能力短语结构规则转换规则词汇规则4.3 转换语言学代表人物诺姆·乔姆斯基约翰·霍奇金森马克·拉宾纳第五章：认知语言学5.1 认知语言学概述认知语言学的起源与发展认知语言学的基本概念5.2 认知语言学的理论基础认知心理学语言习得理论概念结构理论5.3 认知语言学代表人物乔治·莱考夫约翰·泰勒尤里·施密特第六章：语用学与交际语言学6.1 语用学概述语用学的定义与研究范围语用学的重要性与实际应用6.2 交际语言学的基本理论交际语言学的起源与发展语言交际的过程与要素6.3 语用学与交际语言学的代表人物约翰·范德·沃尔赫伯特·帕克塞尔玛·舍尔第七章：社会语言学7.1 社会语言学概述社会语言学的起源与发展社会语言学的基本概念7.2 社会语言学的主要理论言语社区理论语言态度与身份认同语言变异与变化7.3 社会语言学的代表人物丹尼尔·朱克拉里·阿尔德海德珍妮特·费尔第八章：心理语言学8.1 心理语言学概述心理语言学的起源与发展心理语言学的基本概念8.2 语言的认知过程语言的理解与产生语言的习得与遗忘语言与思维的关系8.3 心理语言学的代表人物乔治·米勒认知心理学与语言斯蒂芬·平克第九章：应用语言学9.1 应用语言学概述应用语言学的定义与研究范围应用语言学的重要性与实际应用9.2 语言教学理论与方法直接法视听法交际法9.3 应用语言学的代表人物约瑟夫·奥尔曼斯蒂芬·克拉森罗杰·天使第十章：语言学发展趋势与展望10.1 语言学的发展趋势跨学科研究语言学与技术的结合全球化背景下的语言学10.2 语言学的重要性与挑战语言学在现代社会的作用语言学面临的挑战与应对策略10.3 语言学未来的发展方向探索人类语言能力语言学与其他领域的融合促进语言学的普及与教育重点和难点解析重点环节一：语言与语言学语言的定义：语言是人类交流与思维的重要工具，是一种系统化的符号活动。

语言学课后练习

语言学教程(修订版) 练习参考答案修订版第一章语言学导论 1第二章语音 3第三章词汇 8第四章句法 11第五章语义 15第六章语言与思维 18第七章语言、文化与社会 20第八章语用 21第九章语言与文学 24第十章语言与计算机 25第十一章语言学与外语教学 28第十二章现代语言学的学派与理论 30第一章语言学导论1. Define the following terms:1) design features: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2) function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).Language functions include informative function (also ideational function), interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3) etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviorsly inconsequential, differentiations, just as was often the case with phonetic vs. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4) emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5) synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixedinstant(usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6) diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7) prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.8) descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9) arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, whichrefers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning(2) At the syntactic level(3) Arbitrariness and convention (convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning)10) duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.11) displacement: one design feature of human language, which means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.12) phatic communion: one function of human language, which refersto the social interaction of language.13) metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.14) macrolinguistics: The interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.15) competence: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16) performance: the actual use of language in concretesituations.(Chomsky, 1965:3)17) langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18) parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of language that each gives.After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussingwhich points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?Not really. Onomatopoeia is at most suggestive of the natural sounds they try to capture. They are arbitrary as signifiers.Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. For example, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)Yes. Changing the order of the two clauses may change the meaningof the sentence, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators such as “before” or “after” will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combinedfreely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, red—stop, green—go and yellow—get ready to go or stop.7. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.8. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication.It is decided by their shared design features.9. Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？10. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I. (B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to? (B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything. (B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal andI is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.11. Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories.It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.12. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidlyin China and why? (up to you)13. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?Ethnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state changes within the individual, such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness.14. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a varietyof different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an accountof the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquir ing the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.附：1. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…2. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor bu t honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings?When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking.A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.3. There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking,for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.第二章语音1. Define the following terms:1) articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.2) coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is know as anticipatory coarticulation.If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.3) Voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds.When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be “voiced”. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be “voiceless”. When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop [?]4) Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.5) consonant: consonants are sound segments produced byconstricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.6) phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.7) vowel: vowels are sound segments produced without obstruction of the vocal tract, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.8) allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.9) manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.10) place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.11) distinctive features: a term of phonology, i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another. (suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s)12) complementary distribution: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.13) IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 2005.14) suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.2. Answer the following questions.1) What organs are involved in speech production?Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in theoral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered toallow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the “Adam’s Apple”. The larynx contains the vocal folds, also known as “vocal cords” or “vocal bands”, a nd the ventricular folds. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam’s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.2) How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips andits final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. The former is known as the Manner of Articulationand the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract foran instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between thelips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation aredistinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this space would involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positionsfor vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue canachieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowestposition the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or close -mid, and mid-low or open-mid).3) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds inthem, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.4) What is assimilation?The change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3. Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1) [e]2) [?]3) [?]4) [d]5) [p]6) [k]7) [l]8) [?]9) [u?]10) [?]1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel注：lax:短音，tense: 长音4. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B Cbite [b??t] bide [ba?d] tie [ta?]rice [r??s] rise [ra?z] by [ba?]type [t??p] bribe [bra?b] sigh [sa?]wife [w??f] wives [wa?vz] die [da?]tyke [t??k] time [ta?m] why [wa?]nine [na?n]tile [ta?l]tire [ta?r]writhe [ra?e]1) How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B be characterized?All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([ - voiced ]) and all the sounds that end the words in column B arevoiced([ + voiced ]).2) How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B?The words in column C are all open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) Are [??] and [a?] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [??]appear before voiceless consonants and [a?] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?Life [l??f] lives[la?vz]5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice (d) fly (e) mine(a) [tra?l] (b) [b??k] (c) [l??s] (d) [fla?] (e) [ma?n]6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to the phonetic transcriptions of the words given above./a?/ →[??] / _____[–voice][a?] in other places5. What is the rule that underlies the past tense forms of the regular verbs in English? Collect some data and state the rule.d→ id/t /[ - voiced ]d elsewherecons: continual. 附：Low(1) /p/→[p]/[s]__________/p/在[s]后发音为[p][p] elsewhere/p/在其它地方发音为[p](2) /l/→[l]/__________V/l/在元音前发音为[l] (alveolar)[?]/V__________/l/在元音后发音为[?] (lateral)(3) f, v; , ; s, z;Fricatives and affricatives in English may be assimilated in voicing.(4) /v/→[f]voiced fricative →voiceless/__________voiceless在清音间前摩擦音变为清音(5) Nasalization rule[ - nasal] →[ + nasal]/__________ [ + nasal](6) Dentalization rule[ - dental] →[ + dental]/__________ [ + dental](7) Velarization rule[ - velar] →[ + velar]/__________[ + velar](8) → [n]/[]__________Va在元音前发音为[n] (an)(9) a. The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.b. The /z/ appears after voiced sounds. (All vowels are voiced.)c. The /z/ appears after sibilants.(10) z → s /[ - voice, C]__________ (Devoicing浊音变清音)(11) → /sibilant__________ z (Epenthesis插音)(12) a. // + // b.// + // c.// + //N/A N/A Epenthesiss N/A N/A Devoicingbdz kesz Output(13)a. [ - voiced, - cont] → [ - spread]/s______b. [ + spread]spread: aspirated.(14) Syllabic structure of clasp(15) Sonority scale:Most sonorous醒目的 5 Vowels4 Approximants3 Nasals2 FricativesLost sonorous 1 Stops(16) clasp(18) *lkaps。

新编语言学导论

新编语言学导论新编语言学导论是一门综合性的学科，研究语言的起源、结构、演化和使用等方面的问题。

本课程旨在向学生介绍语言学的基本概念、理论和研究方法，帮助学生建立对语言的深入理解和分析能力。

第一章：导论1.1 语言学的定义和研究领域1.2 语言学的历史发展和重要学派1.3 语言学的研究方法和数据来源第二章：语音学2.1 语音学的基本概念和研究对象2.2 语音的产生和感知2.3 语音的分类和描述2.4 语音变体和语音变体学第三章：音位学3.1 音位学的基本概念和研究对象3.2 音位的分类和描述3.3 音位的组合和变体3.4 音位学与音系学的关系第四章：词汇学4.1 词汇学的基本概念和研究对象4.2 词的构成和分类4.3 词的意义和语义关系4.4 词汇的演化和变化第五章：句法学5.1 句法学的基本概念和研究对象5.2 句子的结构和组成5.3 句子的语法关系和句法规则5.4 句法的演化和变化第六章：语义学6.1 语义学的基本概念和研究对象6.2 词义的分类和描述6.3 句义的组成和解释6.4 语义的演化和变化第七章：语用学7.1 语用学的基本概念和研究对象7.2 语用的层次和关系7.3 言语行为和语用推理7.4 语用的演化和变化第八章：社会语言学8.1 社会语言学的基本概念和研究对象8.2 语言变体和社会变量8.3 语言的社会意义和社会身份8.4 社会语言学的应用和研究方法第九章：心理语言学9.1 心理语言学的基本概念和研究对象9.2 语言的认知过程和心理机制9.3 语言的发展和习得9.4 心理语言学的应用和研究方法第十章：语言学研究的前沿和挑战10.1 当代语言学的研究热点和趋势10.2 语言学研究的跨学科合作10.3 语言学研究的伦理和道德问题10.4 语言学研究的未来发展方向本课程将通过理论讲解、案例分析和实践操作等多种教学方法，帮助学生理解和应用语言学的基本原理和方法，培养学生的批判性思维和研究能力，为进一步深入研究语言学或相关学科打下坚实的基础。

英语语言学导论

Chapter 1 Introduction介绍1.语言定义What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. This explains why “iblk” is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why “Been he wounded has” is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word “pen” and the thing we write with. Different languages have different words for the same object. Words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.2. 语言特征Design Features of LanguageDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Charles Hockett (American) in 1960 : (5 of 13)①Arbitrariness 任意性: There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.) On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrary, such like onomatopoeic words and some compound words.②Productivity 多产性: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.③Duality 双重性: Language is a system, which consists of two levels. The basic level is a structure of sounds, and the higher level is the units of meaning.④Displacement 移位性: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑤Cultural transmission 文化传承性: Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3.语言功能Function of LanguageThree main functions : the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.①The descriptive function: also referred to differently as the cognitive, or referential, or propositional function, is assumed to be the primary function of language.It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.②The expressive function: also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.③The social function: also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Roman Jakobson (Russian-born) :He identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.①Addresser, Emotive 情感功能The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.②Addressee, Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.③Context, Referential 信息功能The addresser conveys a message of information.④Message, Poetic 诗性功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.⑤Contact, Phatic communication 寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.⑥Code.Metalinguistic 元语言，纯理功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. “Let me tell you what the word ‘linguist’ means.”M.A.K. Halliday (British) in the early 1970s :He explored the functions of child language, and found that as a child grew into an adult the7 functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract system of functions.①Ideational 经验功能: The ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions.②Interpersonal 人际功能: The interpersonal function is to establish or maintain socialrelationships between people.③Textual 语篇功能: The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.4.语言学定义What is LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.)(It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.)5.语言学范围the scope of linguisticsRelatively independent branches within the area of linguistics, and also the core of linguistics:①Phonetics语音学: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication.②Phonology音位学: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.③Morphology形态学: The study of the way in which symbols are arranged and combined to form words.④Syntax 句法学: the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.⑤Semantics语义学: In most general terms language is used to convey meaning. The study of meaning is known as semantics.⑥Pragmatics语用学: Language communication does not occur in a vacuum, it always occurs in a context. The study of meaning in the context of language use is called pragmatics. Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study: sociolinguistics社会语言学psycholinguistics 语言心理学applied linguistics 应用语言学。