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第六张语用学pragmatics

第六张语用学pragmatics Chapter 6pragmatics一、定义1.语境Context The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language,it's generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.2.言语行为理论Speech act theory It's an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.it's aphilosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.it aims to answer the question"what do we do when using language?"The concept of causatives performatives,the locutionary act,the illocutionary act,the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.3.叙述句Constatives Constatives are statements that either state or describe,and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.；4.行为句Performatives Performatives are sentences that did not state afact or describe astate,and are not verifiable.5.言内行为Locutionary Act Alocutionary act is the act ofuttering words,phrases,clauses.it's the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.6.言外行为Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention it's the act performed in saying something.7.言后行为Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.it's the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.8.句子意义Sentence meaning It refers to asentence and is agrammatical concept,the meaning of asentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.9.话语意义Utterance meaning It refers to asentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.10.合作原则Cooperative Principle It's proposed and formulated by P.Grice,a pragmatic hypothesis,is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate,otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.11.会话含义Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice,it refers to the extra meaning not contained in thutterance,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker's knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。

《语言学》Chapter 6 Pragmatics习题兼答案

语言学Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as asentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”,“door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。

Chapter6pragmatics语言学整理的资料

Chapter 61.pragmatics:自测：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)术语：pragmatics语用学解释：语用学处理的是语言的实际意义，是在应用中的意义，而不是固有的意义。

术语：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。

解释：Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么，听者或读者读到的是什么。

并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。

6.Pragmatics 简明英语语言学戴炜栋

extralinguistic context
context of situation
time & space of the communication subject of communication formality of communication
relationship of participants
b. The patient is lying in bed when the nurse comes in. the window is open. The patient says: It’s cold in here.
Within context, the two utterances have different meanings. In (a), Cecilia most probably suggests, “let’s leave here and find a warmer place”, while in (b), the patient is suggesting to the nurse: “Close the window please”.
knowledge about the language
linguistic context
knowledge about the linguistic environment
common sense
Context
background knowledge social-cultural conventions speech conventions
linguistic and contextual
knowledge
knowledge
Semantics

普通语言学_pragmatics

3. Deixis, reference, anaphora
Anaphora
• When we establish a referent (Can I borrow your book?) and subsequently refer to the same object (Yeah, it’s on the table), we have a particular kind of referential relationship between book and it. The second (and any subsequent) referring expression is an example of anaphora and the first mention is called the antecedent. Thus, book is the antecedent and it is the anaphoric expression.
Context
• Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning. ( Yule,1996:3) • Pragmatics can be usefully defined as the study of how utterance have meanings in situations.( Leech,1983:x) • Pragmatics, as a topic in linguistics, is the study of the use of context to make inferences about meaning.( Fasold,1993:119, from Schiffrin) • Pragmatics is the study of the conditions of human language uses as these are determined by the context of society.( Mey,1993:42) • Pragmatics is concerned with the interpretation of linguistic meaning in context.

语言学概论复习重点

1.phonetics(语音学) A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. e.g:p. bilabial, stop.：（1）articulatory phonetics(发音语音学), from the speakers’ point of v iew（2）acoustic phonetics(声学语音学), from the hearers’ point of view（3）auditory phonetics(听觉语音学), from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.2.pragmatics(语用学)，a field of study to take care of that part of meaning of language in use.In many ways, pragmatics is the study of speakers intended meaning, or even the “invisible meaning”. Pragmatics can also be defined as the study of speaker meaning.Micropragmatics(微观语用学)：The research on the analyses of larger chunks of language, such as a whole conversation, an article or even a chapter of a novel or one act of a play in the user interaction concerning the mechanisms by which speakers encode their message in skilful ways and how hearers arrive at the intended meanings in spite of the differences between the literal meaning and the intended meaning is called macropragmatics. To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.” R eference(指称)，deixis（指示），anaphora(回指) and presupposition(预设)” are all topics in this field.3.phonology(音位学)：phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language（1）phonemes, the smallest phonological unit that can distinguish meaning(eg:sip\zip)2.minimal pairs and sets minimal pairs: a pair of words, identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same position minimal set：a group of words differential by one sound segment in the same position3. free variation(自由变体) when two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation (eg: either 的两种发音)Cooperative principle there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation this is what called cooperative principle. It means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.4.Syntax(句法) If we focus on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, we are studying what is known as the syntax of a language. It means the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Every sentence is a sequence of words, but not every sequence of words is a sentence.The prescriptive Approach（规定的方法）: This view ofgrammar as a set of rules for the “proper” use of a language is st ill to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.The Descriptive Approach（描述性的方法）: Linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach1.Structural analysis:its main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language.2.Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法): Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis.5.Variations of the same phonemes（音位变体）means any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.6. Descriptive and prescriptive grammars: descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in thelanguage.most modern linguistics are descriptive, it attempts to describe what people accurat ely say. Traditional grammars told people how to use a language. As traditional grammar trie d to lay down rules,they are often called prescriptive. To put it simple, description tells people what it is in a language while prescription tells people what should be in a language.Descripti ve---describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use(modern linguistic)Prescriptive---lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior in usinglanguage(traditional grammar)7. duality(二重性) L anguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.8. arbitrariness(任意性) one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.9.morphology(形态学) Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is thus the study of theinternal structure forms and classes of words.(unfriendly: unhappily, unkindly, unlonely)A morpheme（词素,形态素）is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. eg: tourists(tour,ist,s)Free morphemes（自由词素）: A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk, car, friend.Lexical morphemes（open class of word）：词汇语素(look, love, happy)Functional morphemes(closed class of words)：功能语素(but, when, the)Bound morphemes: bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)Derivational morphemes(派生词缀) which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.(-er, -ness, -ly)Inflectional morphemes(曲折词缀)：which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical functional of a word.(-’s, -s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est)10. assimilation(同化) sounds belonging to one word or one syllable (音节)can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables，this is called assimilation. 11. tone language(声调式语言)language in which the meaning of a word depends on the pitch at which it is uttered.Chinese is tone language while English is not. In English, tone is regarded as a phonological f eature distinguish meaning.12.diacritics(变音符号) a sign placed above or below a character or letter to indicate that it has a different phonetic phonetic value, is stresses, or for some other reason.13. root(词根) A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. A word may contain more than one root, in which case it is a compound word , eg: bookshop, blackbird14. Blending(混成构词法) A single new word can also be formed by combing two separate forms. This process is usually called blending. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word.15. Acronym(首字母组合词) some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words. Words of this kind are called acronym. Such as UNESCO, NATO16.Derivation(派生法), Which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. In contrast to compounding, a derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and abound morpheme.17. compounding（复合法). Words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver are formed by putting two words together. This way of building new words is called compounding. Compounding is a productive way of word formation. By means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form a compound.18. Stress(重音) when a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress.Nouns have first syllable stress, verbs second.19. syllable(音节) these units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole world, are called syllables.20. prototype(原型) the members of a particular community which are considered as the best examples of a lexical category are said to be prototype. According to prototype theory, people decide whether an en tity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with the prototype. For example, sparrow c an be said the prototype of birds.21. lexical gap(词汇空缺) the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull.22. semantic field (语义场) a set of words with an identifiable semantic connection23. sense and reference(意义和指称) sense and reference are two different, though related, aspects of meaning.Sense is to be defined in terms of relationships which hold between the linguistic elements themselves(mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic(语言内部的关系) relations eg: bachelor and married have the sense relationship of bachelor=never married Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements ( words, sentences ,etc) and the non-linguistic world of experience. Eg: things, actions, events and qualities.24. suffix(后缀) The suffix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.25. recursiveness(递归性)Recursion is the process a procedure goes through when one of the steps of the procedure involves invoking the procedure itself. Recursion in linguistics enables 'discrete infinity' by embedding phrases within phrases of the same type in a hierarchicalstructure.26. cohesion(衔接) cohesion is an important field of study in discourse(谈话，谈论) analysis. it refers to the grammatical and \or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.Five types of cohesive devices: reference, substitution(替代,替换), ellipsis(省略), conjunction, lexical cohesion27. coherence(连贯性) coherence refers to the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse.28. reflective meaning(反射意义) is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.(the nuclear family, the nuclear age)29. associative meaning(联想意义)Is the essential and inextricable part of what language is,and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communicatiIs the essential and inextricable part of what language is,and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication.It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.30. ambiguity (消解歧义)The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs.31. iconicity(象似性，形象性) iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy between the form of a sign (linguistic or otherwise) and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness. Iconicity of order (顺序的象似性)refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction. It reflects the consistency of language with human cognition and the objective world..eg: I came, I saw, I conquered.(a.He opened the bottle and poured himself a glass of wine. b. He poured himself a glass of wine and opened thebottle.)Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance.(a. I killed the chicken. B. I caused the chicken to die.) Iconicity of distance can also give a satisfactory explanation to the sequence of multi-adjectives before a noun.Iconicity of complexity. The phenomenon that linguistic complexity reflects conceptual complexity. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more from withmore meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning. This idea has long been an important aspect of markedness theory. Marked forms and structures are typically more complex than unmarked ones.(a. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met her. b. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met the girl from next door.)32. Allomorpheme(语素变体)some morphemes are realized by more than one morphemes depending on the context they occur. Allomorphemes are phonological variants of the same morpheme.33.Tree diagram: S=NP(Art+N)+VP(V+NP[Art+N])34. Illocutionary acts: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning.35. language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.36. linguistics: the scientific and systematic study of language. 37. elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.38.pragmatics:a branch of linguistics that studies language in use. 39. stem:the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.40.semetic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, or cause.。

专八语言学考点

语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。

2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。

3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。

5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。

6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。

7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。

三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章

Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

语言学--Pragmatics ppt课件

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• Speech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”
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6.2.3 Anaphora
• You need to know: definition of anaphora, antecedent, anaphor indirect anaphora and direct anaphora
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6.2.4 Presupposition
• a. Can I look at your Shakespeare? • b. Sure, it’s on the shelf over there. • You need to know • inference: process • reference: the act
9ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
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6.2.2 Deixis
• You need to know: definition of deixis five types of deixis
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definition of deixis

新版简明英语语言学 Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学

Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学知识点：1.*Definition: pragmatics; context2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory4.Searle’s classification of speech acts5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle考核目标：识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle一、定义1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。

语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。

(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。

)2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。

语言学Pragmatics相关考研真题

PragmaticsI. 名词解释1.（武汉大学2002，同济大学2000年考题）Compare and contrast the terms: illocutionary act and perlocutionary act考点分析：比较行事行为和取效行为的异同。

Answer: J.L. Austin suggests three basic senses in which in saying something one is doing something. They are locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act perform ed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Take the sentence You have left the door open.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context. The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker’s me ssage and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.II. 判断正误1.（上海外国语大学2000年考题）The Cooperative Principle, an important pragmatic principleproposed by P. Grice, aims to explain we mean more than we say.考点分析：合作原则的实质Answer: T2. (上海外国语大学2000年考题)A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.考点分析：考查句子和语句的区别Answer: T3. (上海外国语大学2000年考题) According to Searle’s classification of speech acts, “request”, “order”, “suggest”and “advice”all belong to the same general class because they are all intended by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.考点分析：考查某些词是否属于同一类言语行为。

英语语言学语用学 Pragmatics

语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述.
The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning.
6.1.2 pragmatics and semantics
related but different linguistic studies of meaning both study meaning
Semantics treats meaning as an abstract, self contained, intrinsic system, a property attached to language itself, which is not influenced by context.
研究语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的
It is a discipline of studying meaning not in isolation, but in context.
Pragmatics： the study of linguistic acts and the contexts in which they are performed
因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。
如 It is cold in here 这个句子，对传统语义学家来说，只是表达了“某一地点气温比较低” 这样的命题内容。而对语用学家来说，除了陈述一个客观的气温情况外，说话人很可能是为了请听话人做点什么，如关上窗户、打开暖气、借件衣服御寒等。

语言学_Chapter 6_Pragmatics

对所使用语言的掌握语言知识
对语言上文的了解百科全书式的知识（常识）
语境
背景知识
语言外知识情景知识
特定文化的社会规范特定文化的会话规则交际的时间、地点交际的主题交际的正式程度交际参与者的相互关系
相互知识Biblioteka • 1. Situational context
• • • •
refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events existent in the situation.
performed via utterances • 3 simultaneous act in a speech act
6.2.1 Austin’s model: Speech Acts （言语行为理论）
Austin (1962) distinguish two categories of utterances.
Annie: Cats were very happy today.
I think Annie means “Cats eat the cream.” What does Annie mean? Cats today were in high spirit.
Both are right. It is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning!

语言学名词解释

Chapter 6Pragmatics: it can be defined as the study of language in use. it deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.Deixis: in all languages there are many words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances. This aspect of pragmatics is called deixis, which means “pointing” via language.Reference:in pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or a writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.Inference: an inference is an additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what is meant.Anaphora: the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which is used in earlier text or conversation is called anaphora.Presupposion: a spesker said to you “when did you stop beating your wife”,the speaker has the assumption that you used to beat your wife and no longer do so. Such assumptions are called presupposion.Speech act theory: it was proposed by J.L.austin and has been developed by j.r. searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or describe things, but to “do” things, perform acts.Illocutionary acts: representatives directives commissives expressives declarations Indirect speech act: whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function, we have a indirect speech act.The cooperative principle: H.P.grice belives that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of the utterances. He suggests that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the CP. To put it simply, the cp means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.(quality quantity relation manner)Conversatonal implicatures: a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.The six maxims of the PP(tact generosity approbati on modesty agreement sympathy)Chapter 7Discourse：language above the sentence or above the clause.Discourse analysis: is also called discourse linguistics and discourse studies, or text linguistics. It is the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form a larger meaninful units such as paragraphs, interviews, conversations ,etc.Given information: it is the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee.New information: it is the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.Topic: the topic represents what the utterance is about and it is the one that thespeaker decides to take as the starting point.The comment is what is said about it. Cohesion: it refers to the grammatical and lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse.Cohesive devices include reference{endophora(anaphora and cataphora)and exophora}, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction(coordinators and subordinators) and lexical cohesion(repetition synonym and superordinate).Discourse markers: expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.conversational analysis: the analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are ans how conversation is used in oordinary life is called conversational analysis.(adjacency pairs, preference structure and presequences)Adjacency pairs:a sequence of two related utterance by two different speakers. The second part is always a response to the first.Presequences: the opening sequences that are used to set up some specific potential actions are called presequences.赞同Chapter8Sociolinguistics: when we study the language in relation to society. It is called sociolinguistics.Language varieties: language changes along social changes and it also changes from region to region, fron oone social group to another and from individual to individual. The products of such changes are called varieties of the language.lile the rise and fall of xiaojie.Standard language: the dominant and prestigious variety of language is often called standard language or standard variety or standard dialect., the variety of language which had the highest status in one community or a nation and which is based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of a language.RP andSAEorGA. Dialect: a variety of language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called dialect. Dialects can be classified into four types(regional or geographical dialects and temporal dialects and sociolects and idiolects)regional or geographical dialects: varieties of language spoken in a geographical areatemporal dialects:varieties of language used at a specific stages in the historical development.Sociolects: varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social class. Idiolects:varieties of language used by individual speaker, wirh peculiarities of pronunciation, vocabulary ans grammar.Register: most speakers of a language speak one way with friends, another on a job interview or presenting a report in class, another taling to children and still another with their parents. These varieties are classified according to use is called register.like(pickled, high, drunk and intoxicated)M.A.K.Halliday’s register theory is determined by three factor field and mode andtenorField of discours e refers to what is happening, including what is talking about.e.g. the fields of linguistics and religion and advertising.Mode of discourse refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation.e.g. speech and writingTenor of discourse refers to the relationa among the participants in a language activity.e.g. colloquial and formalPidgins and creolesPidgins: a pidgin is a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone ,but is learnt on contact situation such as trading. The process by which the pidgin develops is called pidginization.Creoles: when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trading language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole.Creoles have large number of native speakers and not restricted at all in their uses. Once a creole is in existence, it may continue almost without change, it may be extinct, it may be evolve into a normal language or gradually merge with its base language through decreolization.Language planning: the government carefully examine all the languages and dialects in the country and decide which is the standard official language. They also make plans for the regional use and development of other languages and dialects. This is now called language planning.Status planning(change) and corpus planning(develop)Diglossia:with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions. A situation of this kind is called diglossia.Bilingualism: ir refers to a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation. MultilingualisCode-switching:bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation. This phenomenon is called code-switching. There are two major kinds of code-switching: situational code-switching (no topic change is involved) and metaphorical code-switching.Taboo: a word that we are reluctant to use may be called a taboo word. Euphemisms: a moe acceptable substitute of a taboo word is called a euphemism.(euphemistic)It has been suggested that there are a great deal of extra politeness in female speech which makes use of the following linguistics devices1 frequent use of hedges2 abundant use of tag question3 gereater use of qualifiers and intensifiers than men4preference for ues of the standard form of language.Chapter10Cognitive linguistics: the approach that language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it is called congnitive linguistics. Categorization: the mental process of classification is called categorazation, which isone of the important capabilitied of the human mind.Category: the special term for this phenomemon is called category(dog and tree) The classical theory: the classical theory of categorization. It has four assumptions 1 a thing can not both be and not be, cannot both have the feature and not have it, and cannot both belong to a category and not belong to it.2 the features are binary 3 the categories have clear boundaries 4 all members of a category have equal status.The prototype theory: the best examples of one category are called prototype.(bird and color and fruit)Levels of categorization: s uperordinate levels basic levels and subordinate levels Basic-level categories are basic in three respects:1 perception 2 communication 3 knowledge organization(feature and attributes)Iconicity of order: it refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction.(open the bottle and pour wine) Iconicity of distance: that is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.(causation and multi-adjectives befoere a noun)Iconicity of complexity: the phenomenon that linguistic complexity reflects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity. Grammaticalization:the process whereby an independent words are shifted to the status of the grammatical elements is called grammaticalization.The difference of pragmatics and semanticsSemantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. it deals with how speaker uses the language in ways which cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and how the hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of the meaning that is not covered by semantics, pragmatics=meaning-semantics.新旧信息的区别：Sometimes, given information need not be introduced into a discourse by a second speaker, because it has been introduced in the previous sentence and can thus be assumed to be in the hear’s mind. A piece of information is sometimes taken as given information because of its close association with sth. that has just been mentioned in the discourse.(Kent returned my car. One of the wheel---) . Noun phrase carrying new information usually receive more stress than those carrying given information, and they are commomly expressed in a more elborate fashion.(There was a tall man with an old-fashioned hat on, quiet elegantly dressed. ). Given information is commonly expressed in more attenuated ways that are abbreviated or reduced. Sometimes given information is simply left out of a sentence altogether.(A:Who’s at th door? B:The mailman.)皮钦语A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and very reduced grammatical structure which may expand when it is used over a long time or for many purposes. Sometimes,a pidgin dies out of its own accord. At other times it increases in importance, and becomes used in more and more areas of life.Creoles: when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trading language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole.Creoles have large number of native speakers and not restricted at all in their uses. Once a creole is in existence, it may continue almost without change, it may be extinct, it may be evolve into a normal language or gradually merge with its base language through decreolization.对传统语言学的新认识：Cognitive linguistics provides many new angles for our insight into language. Its significant position in linguistics is evident. It seems to give us hope that some unsolved problems in language studies may be solved in cognitive linguistics.厕所委婉语：There are many euphemisms for toilet, such as wc,power room, men’s room, ladies’room, gentlemen,bathroom,restroom, wash room, washing room, loo, john and so on. In many cultures, people avoid referring to this place by toilet or lavatory because they are unpleasant to the ear. The use of euphemisms reflect social attitudes or social customs. We choose the words or expressions of euphemisms because they are more polite and pleasant to use without embarrassing others.女性更接近标准语：There are two possible reasons. One is that women are usually more status-conscious than men and they are aware of their lower status in society and as a result, they may use more standard speech forms in their attempt to claim equality or even achieve a higher social status. The other reason might be attributed to the education. Women are educated to behave like a lady when they are little girls and such education may influence their speech as well.隐喻转喻与传统隐喻转喻的区别及隐喻和转喻的相同点和不同点Traditionally, metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by saying that one thing is the other, as in “He is a tiger”. It is a property of words. In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is a property of concepts, and it is a powerful cognitive tool for our conceptualization of abstract categories. According to cognitive linguistics, metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain or cognitive domain in terms of another conceptual domain. According to the classical definition, metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word is substituted for another on the basis of some material, causal or conceptual relation. Some typical substitutions include author for work, abstract features for concrete entities. In the cognitive linguistic view, metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental process to another cognitive category, the target, within the same cognitive domain, or idealized cognitive model.The main claims made by cognitive linguists in the description of metaphor also apply to metonymy: (i) both are regarded as being conceptual in nature; (ii) both can be conventionalized; (iii) both are means of extending the resources of a language; (iv) both can be explained as mapping processes. Difference: metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains, while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain.。

语言学课件Chapter 6 Pragmatics

e.g. My bag is heavy.
Semantic analysis: BAG ( BEING HEAVY)
Pragmatic analysis: a statement; an indirect, polite request; a refusal
Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
话语是句子意义与语境的结合，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，体现了说话人的意g is much richer than sentence meaning.
It varies with the context in which the sentence is used.
Context consists of the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
It includes the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, which can be subdivided into the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which communication is taking place.
1) The room is messy.

语言学导论第6章Pragmatics

These acts are called speech acts. “What we do with language”
Speech act theories:
Austin’s model of speech acts Searle’s classification of speech acts Indirect speech acts
E.g.,
cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.) the relationship between the speaker and the hearer …
Pragmatics vs. Semantics
Semantics: (no context) the study of the literal meaning of a sentence
How these linguistic objects are used?
Pragmatics: language use in context
Roughly: the study of how to do things with words
Generally: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication
Indirect speech acts
Principle of conversation 会话原则
To converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate.

语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇)

语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇)：语言学名词解释第四版教程语言学教程第四版笔记语言学教程考试题语言学教程中文版pdf篇一：新编语言学教程名词解释(部分重点)(1) linguistics: （语言学）the scienti?c or systematic study of language.(2) language: （语言）a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: （任意性）the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign andwhat it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality:（双重性）the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence:（语言能力）knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use,i.e. performance.(6) performance:（语言运用）Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(11) synchronic linguistics: （共时语言学）the study of language and speech as they are used ata given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: （历时语言学）the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.(6) phoneme:（音位）the abstract element of a sound, identi?ed as being distinctive in aparticular language.(7) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8)phonology: （音位学）the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.(1) morphology:（形态学）the study of the structure of words.(2) morpheme:（词素）the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves agrammatical function.(3) free morpheme: （自由词素）a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: （黏着词素）a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph:（语素变体）the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the levelof parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and en are allallomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentencestructure.（句法学）(5) IC analysis:（Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法）the approach to divide thesentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining itsultimate constituents.(11) ideational function（概念功能）: the use of language as a means of giving structure to ourexperience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function（人际功能）: the use of language for maintaining social roles andinteracting with others.(13) textual function（语篇功能）: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which ?t the particular situation in which they are used.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.语义学(14) synonymy:(同义) the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexicalitems, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonymy:(反义关系) the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy:（上下义关系）the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy,where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant. (17) meronym:（整体部分关系）the sense relation between body and its parts which are notonly sections of the body but de?ned in terms of speci?c functions. For example, thehead is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(1) pragmatics:（语用学） a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis:（指示）the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations withrespect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(1) sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is, howsocial factors in?uence the structure and use of language.（社会语言学）(8) diglossia:（双语） a situation when two distinct varieties of the same languageare used, side by side, for two different sets of functions.(9) bilingualism:（双语现象）the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by agroup of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region ora nation.(11) taboo:（禁忌）a word or expression that is prohibited by thepolite society from generaluse.(12) euphemism:（委婉语）a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoidreference to certain acts or subjects, e. g. “powder room”for “toilet”.(1) cognitive linguistics: a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to thisapproach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.（认知语言学）篇二：]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》前四章名词解释胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax 句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dongtheory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal crytheory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals 喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatoryassimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条 a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relativeuninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound 向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme 语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphologicalconditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift 转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes) calque 仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative 离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction 向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituentcommand(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程篇三：胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1. design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucleimformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysisin linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than viaqppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought tobe,ying down rules for language use.8. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having twolevels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization.11. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enabletheir users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time andspace,at the moment of communication.12. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description ofparticular studies.14. macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines suchas psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches ofmacrolinguistics includepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,et15. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.17. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulationsare involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation andperseverative coarticulation.21. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocalcords.22. Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is calledbroad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show morephonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.25. Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.this an allophone of /t/inEnglish.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspiratedt.Boththand tare allophones of the phoneme/t/.26. Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.27. Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to theactual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where inthe vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or theobstruction of air.29. Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.30. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in thesame environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32. Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more thansingle sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.33. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression andcontent,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it islexical or grammatical.34. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39. allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the pluralmortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded.41. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it isadded to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and providedwith semantic interpretation.45. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.46. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slightadaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaningis fully borrowed.51. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived bydeleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.55. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another,so that the sounds become less alike,or different.57. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popularnation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous58. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study ofthe truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and theconnection between them.60. Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features ofone element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full andindependent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal isreceived,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someonehas said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in anordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.67. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required tounderstand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.68. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.69. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studiesthe understanding of language.70. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in ordeto make friends,influence people,convey information and so on. 71. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw abat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overallmacrostructure of the story.73. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules orcomponents,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.74. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is aproperty of propositions that they have truth values.76. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality oflinguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structuresrepresented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria ofsimplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.79. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.81. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished byD.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar. 82. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguagedetermines thought.84. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought aboutby nothing less than women’s place in society.86. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want tolook at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87. sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try tounderstand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship betweenspeakers’social starts and phonological variations.89. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by meansof syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a。

新编语言学教程chapter6pragmatics课堂

The previous word is called the antecedent, and the second word is called the anaphor or anaphoric expression.
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Direct anaphora (direct relation between the antecedent and the anaphor):
husband. >> Joan hadn 't been beating her husband. ? Iteratives The flying saucer came/ didn 't come again . >>The flying saucer came before.
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? Temporal clauses
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2.2 Deixis (p.144)
Deixis is the words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances.
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2. Micropragmatics (p.143) 2.1 Reference
The act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.
heads. >> There exists a man with two heads. ? Factive verbs John realized/ didn ' t realize that he was in debt. >>John was in debt.