语言学第三章笔记和习题

Chapter 3 Morphology
Lexicon is the collection of all the words of a Ianguage. It is synonymous with “vocabulary ”Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,., the an alysis and creati on of words.
Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in Ianguage. The features of word
Wordis meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and unin terruptible.
Morphology refers to the study of the in ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
The total nu mber of words stored in the brain is called the lexic on. _________
Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning.
Morphology is a branch of lin guistics, whereas lexic on is a comp onent of Ian guage in stead of a branch of lin guistics.
Open class word and closed class word
Open class words----content words of a Ian guage to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, . beatnik(a membeiof the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intern et, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chin ese.
Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles,
prepositi on and pronouns.
Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage is called a morpheme.
Words are composed of morphemes. Words may con sist of one morpheme or more morphemes,.
1- morpheme 2- m orpheme 3- m orpheme 4- m orpheme 5- m orpheme 7-morpheme boy, desire
boy+ish, desir(e)+ble
boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity
gen tle+ma n+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity un+ge ntle+ma n+li+ness an ti+dis+establish+me nt+ari+a n+ism
Morph: whe n people wish to dist in guish the sound of a morpheme from the en tire morpheme, they may sued the term. It is the pho netic realizati on of a morpheme
Allomorph: A morpheme may be represe nted by differe nt forms, called allomorphs. It is the phon etic varia nt of a morpheme.
Some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as “ dog, bark, cat ” ,etc. In other
in sta nces, there may be some variati on, that is, a morphememay have alter nate shapes or ph on etic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morphememaybe represented by:
map----maps_ [s]
dog----dogs _[z]
watch----watches [iz]
mouse----mice [ai]
ox----oxen_[ n]
tooth----teeth
sheep——sheep_
Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.
Affix
Prefix ---- morphemes that occur on ly before others,.
un-, dis, an ti-, ir-, etc.
Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others,.
-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.
Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.
A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.
Free morpheme & bound morpheme
Free morpheme----is one that may con stitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dan ce, etc.
Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not sta nd by themselves, such as -s in dogs , al in national , dis - in disclose , ed in “recorded ” , etc.
Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.
Other morphemes are n ever used in depe nden tly in speech and writ ing. They are always
attached to free morphemesto form new words. These morphemesare called bound morphemes. The distinction between a free morphemesand a bound morphemeis whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.
Free morphemesare the roots of words, while bound morphemesare the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).
Derivatio nal morpheme & in flect ional morphem e
Derivati onal morphemes---- the morphemes which cha nge the category, or grammatical class of words, . modern---moder ni ze, length---len gthe n, fool---foolish, etc.
Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemeswhich are for the most part purely grammatical markers,
sig nifying such con cepts as ten se, nu mber, case and so on; they n ever cha nge their syn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meanin g,.
a) number: tables apples cars _ _
b) pers on, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talked
c) case: Joh n/John 's
Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.
Derivati onal morphemes are bound morphemes added to exist ing forms to con struct new words.
En glish affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.
Some Ian guages have in fixes, bound morphemes which are in serted into other morphemes.
Noun+ -' s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3 rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]
In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a word
In flecti onal morphemes in flue nee the whole category;
Derivati onal morphemes are opposite
Order: root (stem) + derivati onal + in flect ional
Con clusi on: classificati on of morphemes
Morphemes
Free morphemes
Bound morphemes
In flexi onal
Derivati on al: affixes
Prefixes
Suffixes
Morphological rules
The rules that govern the formation of words, . the “ un- + ---- ” rule.
un fair un thi nkable un acceptable …
Compo unding is ano ther way to form new words,.
Ian dlady rain bow un dertake …
The process of putt ing affixes to existi ng forms to create new words is called derivati on Words thus formed are called derivatives.
Compo unds
Noun compo unds
daybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)
callgirl (V+N) wi ndmill (N+N)
Verb compo unds
brainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)
Adjective compo unds
ma neat ing (N+Vi ng) heartfelt (N+Ved)
dutyfree (N+adj.)
Prepositi on compo unds
into (P+P)
throughout (P+P)
Some points about compo unds
Whenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwill be in this category, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue- black …
When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compo un d, . head- stro ng, pickpocket …
Compo un dsiave differe nt stress patter ns from the non-compo un dedword seque nee, . red coat, gree n house…
The meaning of a compo und is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.
Formati on of new words
1. 1 nflectio n: it is the mani festatio n of grammatical relati on ships through the additi on of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.
2. Derivati on
Derivation forms a word by addi ng an affix to a free morpheme.
Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend , we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of addi ng more tha n one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. ________ Derivati on is also con stra ined by pho no logical factors.
Some En glish suffixes also cha nge the word stress.
3. Compounding
Compounding is ano ther com mon way to form words. It is the comb in ati on of free morphemes.
The majority of En glish compo un dsare the comb in ati on of words from the three classes -nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.
In compo un ds, the rightmost morpheme determ ines the part of speech of the word.
The meaning of compo unds is not always the sum of meaning of the comp onen ts.
4. Conv ersi on (inven ti on)
Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.
Conv ersi on is usually found in words containing one morpheme.
5. Clipp ing (abbreviati ons) front, back, front and back
Clipping is a process that shorte ns a polysyllabic word by delet ing one or more syllables.
Clipped words are in itially used in spoke n En glish on in formal occasi ons.
Someclipped words have becomewidely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus) , vet (veterinarian) , gym (gymnasium), fridge
(refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.
6. Blending
Blending is a process that creates newwords by putting together non-morphemic parts of existi ng words. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morni ng, replaci ng both breakfast and lun ch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an
interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students —“ plike ” (a kind of mach ine that is like both a pla ne and a bike).
7. Back-formati on
Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television . Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix —sion in English indicating nouns. Then people
consider the - sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb
televise .
Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.
Acro nyms can be read as a word and are usually Ion ger tha n abbreviati ons, which are read letter by letter.
This type of word formatio n is com mon in n ames of orga ni zati ons and scie ntific termi no logy.
Eponyms are words that origi nate from proper n ames of in dividuals or places. For example, the word san dwich is a comm onnoun orig in at ing from the fourth Earl of San dwich, who put his food
betwee n two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambli ng.
10. Coi nage
Coin age is a process of inventing words not based on exist ing morphemes.
This way of word formatio n is especially com mon in cases where in dustry requires
a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola .
11. Borrowing: English in its development has managedto widen its vocabulary by Borrowing
words from other Ianguages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other Ianguages have all played an
active role in this process, such as “atom, electricity ” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin,
“violin, pizza ” from Italian.
12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3 : Morphology
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
I. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are the smallest meanin gful un its of Ian guage.
3. Just as a phon eme is the basic unit in the study of phono logy, so is a morpheme the basic unit
in the study of morphology.
4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.
5. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.
6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such
as nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.
7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.
9. There are rules that gover n which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed accordi ng to the morphological rules are acceptable words.
10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.
II. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:
11. M ___ is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.
12. The affix “- ish ” in the word boyish conveys a g ______ meaning.
13. B __________ m orphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb ined
with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d _________ affixes.
15. D ______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.
16. A s _____ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may
case change its part of speech.
17. C ________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.
19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d _____________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes
to stems to form new words.
20. A s _____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational
affix can be added.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
21. The morpheme“vision ” in the common word “television ” is a(n) ___________ .
A. bound morpheme
B. bound form
C. inflectional morpheme
D. free morpheme
22. The compound word “bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _______________________ .
A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components
B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes
C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.
D. None of the above.
23. The part of speech of the compoundsis generally determined by the part of speech of _______________ .
A. the first element
B. the second element
C. either the first or the second element
D. both the first and the second elements.
24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
A. Free morphemes
B. Bound morphemes
C. Bound words
D. Words
25. _______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules
by which words are formed.
A. Syntax
C. Morphology
D. Morpheme
26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______ .
A. lexical
B. morphemic
C. grammatical
D. semantic
27. Bound morphemes are those that __________ .
A. have to be used independently
B. can not be combined with other morphemes
C. can either be free or bound
D. have to be combined with other morphemes.
28. __ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the
original word.
A. Prefixes
B. Suffixes
C. Roots
D. Affixes
29. _______ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.
A. Words
B. Morphemes
C. Phonemes
D. Sentences
30. “-s ” in the word “books ” is ____________ .
A. a derivative affix
B. a stem
C. an inflectional affix
D. a root
43.
What are the main features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.
Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3
IV. Define the following terms:
31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections
33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.
34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
35. free morpheme: Free morphemesare the morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.
36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently
but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes
manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an
existing form to create a word.
39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they
usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.
42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
V. Anwser the following questions:
IV. Define the following terms:
31. morphology 33. derivational morphology 35. free morpheme 37. root 39. prefix 41. derivation V. Answer the following questions:
32. inflectional morphology 34. morpheme 36. bound morpheme 38. affix 40. suffix 42. Compounding Morphology
43. What are the main features of the English compounds?
Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.
44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.
Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book- ” in the word “bookish ”.
Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish ” in “bookish ”. Bound
morphemescan be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in th e word
“generate ”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “ -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are ad ded to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform ”. Derivational affixes can also be divided
into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as word “dislike ”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “friendless
“dis- ” in the -less ” in the word。