语言学导论-第8章LanguageSociety

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语言学导论第八章

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Chapter 8 Language and Society
sociolinguistics社会语言学 --- the study of the relation between language and society
Preliminaries: 1.Find out the differences between male and female languages. 2.Try to discover the distinctions between the language of the younger generation and that of the older generation in China. 3.Think of some examples of code-mixing in the speech of Cantonese.
nguage and age c.jargon: doctor’s language lawyer’s language computational language (Part of a conversation between a judge and a sailor) … The judge: You mean you came into this court as a witness and don’t know what plaintiff means? … The sailor: You mean you came into the court and don’t know where abaft the binnacle is?
speech community言语社区 --- a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms

8语言学

奥运专题：上海特奥会、好运北京、倒计奥运专题：上海特奥会、好运北京、时一周年、无车日、奥运门票、祥云、时一周年、无车日、奥运门票、祥云、奥运测试赛、奥运火炬、微笑圈、运测试赛、奥运火炬、微笑圈、金镶玉
2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语 2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语
综合类：和谐社会、综合类：和谐社会、社会主义新农青藏铁路、自主创新、村、青藏铁路、自主创新、社会主义荣辱观（八荣八耻）、）、中非合作义荣辱观（八荣八耻）、中非合作论坛、长征精神、消费税、论坛、长征精神、消费税、非物质文化遗产、倒扁文化遗产、文化类：文博会、文化创意产业、文化类：文博会、文化创意产业、孔子、原生态、百家讲坛、于丹、孔子、原生态、百家讲坛、于丹、潜规则、易中天、草根文化、潜规则、易中天、草根文化、恶搞
The relatedness between language and society
----There ----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language interand society. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting) The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social user’ background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo； (“snow” Eskimo； English: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on; a society's kinship system is generally reflected in its kinship vocabulary ) As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r]: more correct in New York City than in England ).

语导课chapter8

Mode of discourse It mainly refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with "how" communication is carried out.
Example: a lecture on biology in a technical college
③ Register: a speech variety (style) that is appropriate for different situations (e.g. formal vs. casual). Different registers may be thought of as different grammars within a single person's brain.
② Sociolect a language variety caused by different social conditions. It is spoken by a group that share social features such as occupation, age, class, race, etc.
Tenor of discourse It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. It answers the question of 'to whom' the speaker is communicating.

语言学-language-and-societyppt课件

• 例如：一般中国人在家庭环境中使用家乡方言，在工作学习时使用普通话。
• 文体的差异主要是通过不同的发音、不同的语法结构或不同的词汇选择来实现的。
• 文体不仅可以指一个人对言语的习惯性使用，也可以指具有相同职业背景的人所共有的言语使用特征。
.
• As far as the situational variation in language use concerned, the diversity and richness of some stylistic variants available for a person to choose when engaged in different types of communicative events.
三句不离本行
.
How does language relate to society
• 2）The social environment can also be
reflected in language, and can often have an effect on the structure and the vocabulary.
※ Macro-studies ※ Micro-studies
.
Sociolinguistics
Macro(宏观)-studies —— the sociolinguistics of society (语言社会学) :
To know more about a given society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members
.
Language is not always used to exchange information as is generally assumed, but rather it is sometimes used to fulfill an important social function – to maintain social relationship between people.

自考本科英语语言学Chapter8LanguageAndSociety

Chapter 8 Language And Society1. Language is not only used to communicate meaning, but also used to establishand maintain social relationships.1. The relatedness between language and society2. The users of the same language in a sense all speak differently related to their语言和社会的关联social background.3. The structure of language vocabulary is different,reflects both the physical andsocial environments of a society.There are different words about snow in Eskimo.1.The scope of sociolinguistics 1. Speech community (linguistic community) : is widely used by sociolinguists to refer to社会语言学范围 2. Speech community and speech variety a community mainly based language. It’s generally defined as a group of people who言语社团和言语变体have the opportunity to interact with each other and there are exist various social groupsdefined not only by the speaker’s geographical background, but also by their educationalbackground, their occupation, gender, age, or ethnic affiliation.2. Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech usedby a speaker or a group of speakers. Linguistic features of a speech variety can be foundat the lexical, the phonological, the morphological, or the syntactical level of the languageThree types of speech variety: regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies1 Regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. (同一地理区域使用的)2.V arieties of language 2 sociolect: refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (特定社会阶层使用的)语言的各种变体 1. Dialectal varieties 3 language and gender.女性的语言比男性“更正确”原因在女性对自己身份更看重(more status-conscious)4 idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age5 language and age6 ethnic dialect; is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it’s mainly spoken by a lessprivileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination and segregation1. Field of discourse语场：指社会行为的类型，即正在进行的活动的领域和目的，包括谈话的主题。

Chapter 8 Language and Society

8.1.1 The relatedness between language and society
1. the definition of sociolinguistics
2. (optional) The inter-relationship between language and society: (1) Language is used to establish and maintain social relationships; (2) The language used by speakers is in part determined by their social backgrounds. And language reveals information about its speaker;
entirely social.
8.1.2 Speech community and speech variety 1. the definition of speech community 2. the definition of speech variety
8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies
1. macro-sociolinguistics vs. micro-sociolinguistics 2. (True or false) Macro-linguistics refers to a bird’s
eye view of the language used in society.
8.2.1 Dialectal varieties
5. The most striking difference in language use between

戴炜栋语言学-Language and Society

戴炜栋语言学-Language and Society●8.1 The scope of sociolinguistics社会语言学的范围●8.1.1 The relatedness between language andsociety 语言和社会的相关性●社会语言学是语言学的次领域,是研究语言和社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。

Sociolinguistics is the sub-field oflinguistics that studies the relation between language and society,between the uses oflanguage and the social structures in which the users of language live.●语言在交际的同时，也来维持社会关系One of them is that while language isprincipally used to communicate meaning,it is also used to establish and maintainsocial relationships.●语言，尤其是词汇结构，反应了一个社会的物质和社会环境language, especiallythe structure ofits lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of asociety.●8.1.2 Speech community and speech variety.言语社区和言语变体●言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as members ofsocialgroups. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called speechcommunity●言语变体：Speech variety,or refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by aspeaker or a group of speakers.●3 types of speech variety: regional dialects, sociolects, and registers●8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies社会语言学研究的两种途径●macro-sociolinguistics宏观社会语言学●We can look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it andhow it reflects the social differentiations, i.e. a bird'seye view of the languagesused in society.●micro-sociolinguistics微观社会语言学●The other approach is to look at society from the point of view of an individualmember within it, ora worm's eye view of language in use.●8.2 Varieties of language语言变体the notion of a language is not monolithic there exist types or varieties of the same language. Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.●8.2.1 Dialectal varieties方言变体●Regional dialect地域方言●A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the samegeographical region.●Sociolect社会方言●social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different socialconditions. Social-class dialect,or sociolect, refers to the linguistic varietycharacteristic of a particular social class.●can reveal identity and status●Language and gender 语言和性别●Women are on the whole more “correct” in their pronunciation than men are.●The female tends to have a wider range in their intonation,●female speaker use low-rise intonation with statesments much more frequently●adjectives of evaluation are used more frequently by females●girls can be used regardless of age of the addresse●Language and age语言和年龄● in many communities the language used by the older generation differs from thatused by the younger generation in certain ways. Certain linguistic features occur more frequently in the speech of one generation than in that of the other.● old people tend to be more conservative than the younger generation●Idiolect个人语言●Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elementsregarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.●also includes factors as voice quality, pitch and speech, tempo and rhythm.●Ethnic dialect 种族方言●eg.Black English●A prominent phonological feature of Black English is thesimplification ofconsonant clusters at the end of a word.●A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show itsillogicality is the deletion of the link verb "be".●copula verb deletion 双重否定结构●8.2.2 Register语域● A competent native speaker of a language is in possession of a variety of ways inusing the language. The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.个体的所有语言变体构成了他的语言变体库●语域：The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the typeofsituation is a register.●Halliday further distinguishes 3 social variables that determine the register: fieldof discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.决定语域的三个变体：语场，语旨，语式●语场：Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of thelanguage activity. It is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter ofcommunication.It answers the questio ns of "why"and "about what”communication takes place.●语旨：Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation inquestion,who the participants n the communication groups are andf. in whatrelationship)they stand to each other.●语式：Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.Thedistinction between speaking and writing.●8.2.3 Degree of formality正式度●Martin Joos: distinguishes 5 stages of formality, intimate,casual, consultative,formal, and frozen●8.3 Standard dialect.标准方言●The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language.标准方言是一门语言中叠加的，具有社会优越感的方言。

《语言学导论》重点整理

《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。

现代语言学第八章社会语言学精品PPT课件

ɔ
car 有卷舌
没卷舌
装饰n decor
decoration
英式 Can’t youdo any better than that?
美式 Is that all the better you can do？
什么是Regional variation 地域变异
• Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from. Regional variation of language is the most discernible可辨别的 and definable可定义的.
• 社会语言学(sociolinguistics)是一门语言学的分支学科，把语言置于社会环境中来研究语言。
• 社会是怎样给人分组的？Social group（贴标签）
什么是语言变异？
• Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to anther,and even from one individual 个人 to anther.
• 生活在同一地区的人，虽然使用同一种地方方言，但是他们也会有
意或无意选择符合他们社会身份的言语形式进行交际。
social dialect社会方言
• 社会方言(social dialect 或sociolect)指社会中属于同一阶级、阶层、或社会群体所使用的语言变体。社会方言通行于有着相同社会背景的群体之中。社会群体的多样化决定了社会方言的多样化。 Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes. The speakers of a social dialect usually share a similar social background.

《语言学导论》语言文化社会

Two points in his theory: 1) Language may determine our thinking patterns（语言决定论）; 2) similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be（语言相对主义）.
Example possibly supporting Linguistic relativity——Hopi
• In Hopi, there is something very special about its grammar.
• One of the features that separate it from other languages is that it does not use the same means to express time, and hence is called as a “timeless language”(没有时间的语言).
• 实验：给每个人发了一套卡片，卡片上绘制的内容表示着时间的流逝，例如其中有祖父从儿时到老年的不同年龄段的照片。然后，把卡片的顺序随机打乱后交给当地人，要求他们按正确的顺序将卡片排放在地上。
• 问题：Kuuk Thaayorre 会如何完成这个任务？
• 答案：从东往西。如果此人面朝南，卡片就从左往右排；如果他面朝北，卡片就从右往左排；如果他面朝东，卡片就朝着自己的方向排（即从上往下）。
语言对思维有重要影响的例证
① 对空间和时间的认知 ② 对性别的认知 ③ 对因果关系的认知

语言学导论课程教学大纲

《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲课程代码：ENGL2016课程类别：专业必修课授课对象：英语、英语教育开课学期：秋（第5学期）学分：2主讲教师：徐健等指定教材：戴炜栋、何兆熊等，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社，2002年第一版教学目的：教学目的：《英语语言学概论》是普通高校英语专业学生的必修课程，是进一步学习其它语言学分支课程的先决条件。

本课程旨在介绍语言学的基本理论和概念；培养学生对于人类语言主要特性和基本元素的感性和理性认识；使学员逐步形成对语言现象进行观察、思考以及抽象概括的能力；为部分同学将来进一步从事语言文学研究打好基础。

第一章Introduction课时：1周，共2课时教学内容第一节What Is Linguistics?第二节What is Language?思考题：1.What does “language” mean?2.“Language” is human-specific.” How would you interpret this statement?3.Would you say that language is arbitrary? What would language be like if it were notarbitrary?4.What is linguistics?5.What is the difference between descriptive linguistics and prescriptive linguistics?6.What is the difference between diachronic linguistics and synchronic linguistics?第二章Phonology课时：1周，共2课时教学内容第一节The Phonic Medium of Language第二节Phonetics第三节Phonology思考题：1.What is phonetics?2.In what ways do vowels differ from each other?3.What is difference between narrow transcription and broad transcription?4.What is a phoneme? How is it from a speech sound?5.What is an allophone? How is it related to a phoneme?6.How do we determine sentence stress?第三章Morphology课时：1周，共2课时教学内容第一节Morphology第二节Morphemes第三节Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes第四节Morphological Rules第五节Compounds思考题1.What is morphology?2.What is a morpheme?3.What are the major processes of word formation in English?4.What is a function word? And what is a lexical word?第四章Syntax课时：3周，共6课时教学内容第一节What Is Syntax?第二节Categories第三节Phrases Structure Rule第四节Phrases Elements第五节Sentences第六节Transformations思考题1.What is Immediate Components (IC) Analysis?2.How do you understand a construction in IC analysis?3.What is Transformational-Generative grammar?4.How do you understand the distinction between deep structure and surface structure?5.What is structural ambiguity? Is it possible for us to avoid this? And how?第五章Semantics课时：2周，共4课时第一节What Is Semantics?第二节Some Views Concerning the Study of Meaning第三节Lexical Meaning第四节Sense Relations between Sentences第五节Analysis of Meaning思考题1.What is your definition of meaning as a linguistic term?2.What is semantic triangle?3.What is the difference between reference and sense?4.How do you differentiate between hyponymy and part-whole relationship?5.Give examples to illustrate the difference between polysemy and homonymy.第六章Pragmatics课时：2周，共4课时第一节Some basic Notions第二节Speech Act Theory第三节Principle of Conversation思考题1.What is the difference between the sentence meaning and the speaker meaning?2.How do you understand the context of situation?3.Explain the difference between locution, illocution and perlocution.4.Give as many illocutions as possible for the utterance “It’s cold in here.”5.What is the Cooperative Principle?6.What is the Politeness Principle?第七章Language Change课时：1周，共2课时第一节Introduction第二节Sound Change第三节Morphological and Syntactic Change第四节Vocabulary Change第三节Some Recent Trends第三节Causes of Language Change思考题ment with examples on the following statement: “Words and expressions will beforced into use in spite of all the exertions of all the writers in the world.”2.Give at least two expels to show the influence of American English on British English.3.Find in any books, newspapers, or journals newly coined words in association withsocial and political needs, the Internet or computer language.4.With examples, give some plausible explanations for linguistic change.第八章Language and Society课时：1周，共2课时第一节The Scope of Sociolinguistics第二节Varieties of Language第三节Standard Dialect第四节Pidgin and Creole第五节Bilingualism and Diglossia思考题1.How is language related to society?2.What are the main social dialects?3.In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?4.What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own.5.What linguistic features of Black English do you know?6.What peculiar features does pidgin have?7.How do bilingualism and diglossia differ?第九章Language and Culture课时：2周，共4课时第一节Introduction第二节What Is Culture?第三节The Relationship between Language and Culture第四节Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis第五节Linguistic Evidence of Cultural Differences第六节The Significance of Cultural Teaching and Learning第七节Cultural Overlap and Diffusion第八节Intercultural Communication思考题1.Try to sum up the relation between language and culture.2.What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?3.Can you find some loan words in Chinese from other languages? Explain how they wereused in the original language and how they are used now?4.Please illustrate to what extent it is necessary to learn its culture when learning a foreignlanguage.5.What do you think of linguistic imperialism and cultural imperialism?第十章Language Acquisition课时：1周，共2课时第一节Introduction第二节Theories of Child Language Acquisition第三节Cognitive Factors in Child Language Development第四节Language Environment and the Critical Period Hypothesis第五节Stages in Child Language Development第六节Atypical Development思考题1.What is language acquisition device?2.Explain the term Critical Period Hypothesis.3.Which language acquisition theory do you think is more reasonable and convincing?Why?第十一章Second Language Acquisition课时：2周，共4课时第一节Introduction第二节Connection between First Language Acquisition and Second Language Acquisition第三节Contrastive Analysis第四节Error Analysis第五节Interlanguage第六节The Role of Native Language in Second Language Learning第七节Second Language Learning Models and Input Hypothesis第八节Individual Differences第九节Second Language Acquisition and Its Pedagogical Implications思考题1.To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning?2.Do you use Chinese in English learning and how?3.List the learning strategies you use frequently.4.Identify personality factors that may contribute to the success of learning a secondlanguage.第十二章Language and Brain课时：1周，共2课时第一节Introduction第二节Neurolinguistics第三节Psycholinguistics思考题1.What distinguishes the human brain from a non-human brain?2.Describe the major symptoms of Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia, and acquireddyslexia.3.What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the techniques used to investigatethe brain in terms of ethics, cost, intrusiveness and type of information yielded?4.Describe Levelt’s speech production model in your own words/参考书目1.Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (2002). An introduction to English morphology: Words and theirstructure. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.2.Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.3.Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1998). An introduction to language. New York: Holt, Rinehart &Winston.4.Halliday, M. A. K. & Matthiessen. C.M.I.M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar.Second Edition. London: Edward Amo1d.koff, G. & Johnson, M. (2003).Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress.6.Leech, G. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. London: Longman.7.Lyons, J. (1995). An introduction to semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.8.Van Valin, R. Jr. (2001). An introduction to syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.。

Unit 8 Language in society

Activity 1 language and identity
1) Language helps establish national identity 2) Language helps establish regional identity 3) Language helps establish status identity 4) Language helps establish gender identity
Honorifics(敬语 linguistic markers that 敬语): 敬语 signal respect to the person you are speaking to: "Hey ma, fix my jacket" "Mom, could you please do me a favor, and fix my jacket?"
Robin Lakoff identifies these ten features of women's language use. Women (allegedly): hedge (sort of, kind of); use (super) polite forms (would you please? I'd really appreciate...); use tag questions (...don't you?...isn't it?); speak in italics (emphatic so and very, intonational emphasis); use redundant qualifiers (just [adv.] charming, divine, sweet, adorable [adj.]); use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation (including ungrammatical forms, like between you and I [standard syntax = between you and me]); are poor at recounting jokes (this is a subjective judgement unless it is related to objective language data, generally agreed to be important in joke-telling - what are these?); use direct quotation; use special lexis (e.g. of colour); use intonation for questions in declarative contexts.

语言学导论-第8章LanguageSociety

Language and society
Language and society
Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 to study the relation
between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures
I ain’t afraid of no ghosts.
Register
“Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” (Halliday)
Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation
same geographical region same regional dialect
speak differently
Features: phonetic features: -n’ -- -ing grammatical level: I can’t eat nothing. accent: Received Pronunciation (RP) 标准发音 (upper class speech, high-status marker)
icebox- fridge 火星文：符号、繁体字、日文、韩文、冷僻字或汉字拆分后的部分等
非正规化文字符号组合而成（似乱码或错字，不规范，字面无法了解）
偶口以跟你作朋友吗？ 3Q 你是我的好麻吉！私今天没事做。海皮，粉，河蟹，小盆友，……
Dialectal varieties

新编语言学导论

新编语言学导论新编语言学导论是一门综合性的学科，研究语言的起源、结构、演化和使用等方面的问题。

本课程旨在向学生介绍语言学的基本概念、理论和研究方法，帮助学生建立对语言的深入理解和分析能力。

第一章：导论1.1 语言学的定义和研究领域1.2 语言学的历史发展和重要学派1.3 语言学的研究方法和数据来源第二章：语音学2.1 语音学的基本概念和研究对象2.2 语音的产生和感知2.3 语音的分类和描述2.4 语音变体和语音变体学第三章：音位学3.1 音位学的基本概念和研究对象3.2 音位的分类和描述3.3 音位的组合和变体3.4 音位学与音系学的关系第四章：词汇学4.1 词汇学的基本概念和研究对象4.2 词的构成和分类4.3 词的意义和语义关系4.4 词汇的演化和变化第五章：句法学5.1 句法学的基本概念和研究对象5.2 句子的结构和组成5.3 句子的语法关系和句法规则5.4 句法的演化和变化第六章：语义学6.1 语义学的基本概念和研究对象6.2 词义的分类和描述6.3 句义的组成和解释6.4 语义的演化和变化第七章：语用学7.1 语用学的基本概念和研究对象7.2 语用的层次和关系7.3 言语行为和语用推理7.4 语用的演化和变化第八章：社会语言学8.1 社会语言学的基本概念和研究对象8.2 语言变体和社会变量8.3 语言的社会意义和社会身份8.4 社会语言学的应用和研究方法第九章：心理语言学9.1 心理语言学的基本概念和研究对象9.2 语言的认知过程和心理机制9.3 语言的发展和习得9.4 心理语言学的应用和研究方法第十章：语言学研究的前沿和挑战10.1 当代语言学的研究热点和趋势10.2 语言学研究的跨学科合作10.3 语言学研究的伦理和道德问题10.4 语言学研究的未来发展方向本课程将通过理论讲解、案例分析和实践操作等多种教学方法，帮助学生理解和应用语言学的基本原理和方法，培养学生的批判性思维和研究能力，为进一步深入研究语言学或相关学科打下坚实的基础。

教案8_Chapter_VIII_Language_and_Society

教案8_Chapter_VIII_Language_and_SocietyChapter 8. Language & SocietyI. Teaching contentsIn this chapter the following items will be discussed:1.About the scope of sociolinguistics2.Varieties of languageDialectal varieties(方言变体)Register(语域)Degree of formality3. Standard dialect4. Pidgin and Creole (洋泾浜英语和克里奥耳语)5. Bilingualism and diglossia(双语和双言现象)II Teaching procedures1. Recommending some books & articles:[1] Fasold, R. 2000. The Sociolinguistics of Language.3rd ed. Foreign Language Teaching and Reach Press & Blackwell Publishers Ltd.[2] Wardhaugh, R. 2000. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 3rd ed. Foreign Language T eaching and Research Press & Blackwell Publishers Ltd. [3] 白解红，性别语言文化与语用研究[M]，湖南：湖南教育出版社，2000 [4] 戴绍铭，文化语言学导论[M]，北京：语文出版社，1996[4] 林学增，中英文化习俗比较[M]，北京：外语教育与文化出版社，1999[5] 刘在良，语言中的性别歧视现象[J]，山东外语教学，996（3）[6] 刘建达，语言中的性别歧视与解放[J]，山东外语教育，1998（1）[7] 刘世生，周玉芳，汉英词汇反映的妇女社会地位变迁[J]，外语教学，2002（7）[8] 赵蓉晖，语言与社会性别——俄语研究的新方向[J]，外语研究，2002（4）[9] 吴长镛，姚竹云，汉语中的性别歧视[J]，修辞学习，2002（6）[10] 王牧群，英语中的性别歧视现象及其文化内涵[J]，北京第二外国语学院学报，2002（5）2. Presenting some questions:1).How is language related to society?2).What are the main social dialects ? How do they jointly determine idiolect?3). In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?4).Illustrate with examples register used by Halliday?5). What peculiar features does pidgin have?6).What are the similarities and differences between bilingualism and diglossia?3. Detailed discussionAbout the scope of sociolinguistics1). What is sociolinguistics?Socialinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.What is speech community?(言语社区)A group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common.2)What is speech variety?(言语变体)A term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varietiesof one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.The Ambiguities and Obscurities of the Terms: Language & DialectHow many languages are there in the world?How many dialects are there in China?The Ambiguities and Obscurities of the Terms: Language & Dialect `Language‘ always the superordinate and `dialect' the subordinate terms. Language' as the superordinated term can be used without reference to dialects.`Dialect' is meaningless unless it is implied that it ―belongs‖ to a language. Hence every dialect is a language, but not every language is a dialect. About the Variety of language1). Varieties of language related to the user (dialectal varieties 方言变体)a. regional dialect (地域方言) : a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. It is associated with separation caused by physical conditions.geographical barriers;lack of communication;loyalty to one‘s n ative speech;physical and psychological resistance to change.b. social-class dialect/ sociolect (社会方言) : a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. It is associated with separation brought about by different social conditions. Accent is an important marker of sociolect.c. language & genderGender: biological category;grammatical category;social category.The study of language and gender was initiated in 1975 by three books: Marry Ritchie Key, Male/Female Language Robin Lakoff, Language and Women’s PlaceBarrie Thorne and Nancy Henley (Eds.) Language and Sex: Difference and DominanceDo the men and women who speak a particular language use it in different ways?Lakoff (1973, pp.50-2) says that, in each of the following pairs, it is quite clear which utterance is used by females:1a. Oh dear, you‘ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.1b. Shit, you‘ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.2a. What a terrific idea!2b. What a divine idea!4. Women use ―empty‖ adjectives (adorable, charming, divine, nice).5.Women use tag questions more than men (e.g., ―The weather is really nice today, isn‘t it‖?)6.Women use question intonation in statements to express uncerta inty (―My name is Tammy?‖)7.Women speak in ―italics‖ (use intensifiers more than men;e.g., ―I feel so happy‖).8.Women use hedges more than men do (―It‘s kinda nice‖).9.Women use (hyper-)correct grammar.10.Women don‘t tell jokes.How different?1.In the area of phonologyIn Gros Ventre, an Amerindian language of the northeastUnited States, women have palatalized velar stops where men have palatalized dental stops, e.g., female kjatsa ?bread‘ and male djatsa.2.In the area of morphology and vocabularyLakoff (1973), claims that women use color words like mauve, beige, aquamarine, lavender, and magenta but most men do not. She also maintains that adjectives such as adorable, charming, divine, lovely and sweet are commonly used by women but only very rarely by men. Women are also said to have their own vocabulary for emphasizing certain effects on them, words and expressions such as so good, such fun, exquisite, precious, darling, and fantastic.3.In the area of certain grammatical mattersLakoff says that women may answer a question with a statement that employs the rising intonation pattern usually associated with a question rather than the falling intonation pattern associated with making a firm statement. Women often add tag questions to statements, e.g., ?They caugh t the robber last week, didn‘t they?‘4.Other gender-linked differencesWomen and men may have different paralinguistic(副语言) systems and move and gesture differently. The suggestion has been made that these often require women to appear to be submissive to men.Women are said not to employ the profanities (亵渎) and obscenities men use, or, if they do, use them in different circumstances or are judged differently for using them.Women are also sometimes required to be silent in situations in which men may speak.Why different?John Gray: ?Men are from Mars, women are from Venus.‘Many of the differences may result from different socialization practices (Philips, Steele, and Tanz, 1987) Some possible explanations1.The ‘status’ explanation–based on the link between prestigious language and social statusIn several places in her chapter on ?Status and standard/nonstandardla nguage‘, Key (1975) suggests that women use favored linguistic forms as a way of achieving status through the use of linguistic features which is denied them in other aspects of life.In his overview of linguistic sex differentiation, Trudgill (1983) provides a series of related explanations:The social position of women in our society has traditionally been less secure than that of men. It may be, therefore, that it has been more necessary for women to secure and signal their social status linguistically and in other ways, and they may for this reason be more aware of the importance of this type of signal.Men in our society have traditionally been rated socially by their occupation, their earning power, and perhaps by their abilities – in other words, by what they do. Until recently, however, this has been much more difficult for women, and indeed women continue to suffer discrimination against them in many occupations. It may be, therefore, that they have had to be rated instead, to a greater extent than men, on how they appear. Since they have not been rated, to the same extent that men have, by their occupation or by their occupational success, other signals of status, including speech, have been correspondingly more important.2.The ‘network’ explanation–based on Milroy‘s work onsocial networks, which showed that the least prestigious forms were used by the people who were most tightly integrated into the local working-class social networks.According to this view, the extent to which a person uses a low-status form reflects the strength of their ties to the local networks, and gender differences are relevant because men generally have higher network strength than women.3.The ‘sophistication’ explanation– based on the idea that the modern urban societies to which our generalization applies are organized hierarchically between two crude social stereotypes, the ?rough‘ and thesophisticated‘.Four other social stereotypes defined by social class and gender: amiddle-class man and woman, and a working-class man and woman. According to this view of society, social behavior should be expected to be polarized between two models defined by the ?rough‘ working class male and the ?sophisticated‘ middle-class female.Strategies suggested for avoiding the use of the generic masculine pronoun:1. Drop the masculine pronoun.The average student is worried about grades.(The average student is worried about his grades.)We will hire the best person regardless of sex.(We will hire the best-qualified person regardless of his sex.)2. Rewrite the sentence in the plural rather than the singular.Students can select their own topics.(Each student can select his own topic.)Students can select their own topics.(Each student can select his own topic.)3. Substitute the pronoun one or one‘s for he or his.One should do one‘s best.(Everyone should do his best.)4. Use he or she, his or her (in speech or writing ) or s/he (in writing).Each student will do better if he or she [s/he] has a voice in the decision. (Each student will do better if he has a voice in the decision.)5. Use their when the subject is an indefinite pronoun.When everyone contributes their own ideas, the discussion will be a success.(When everyone contributes his own ideas, the discussion will be a success.)6. Use the unmarked categoryactress---actor, hostess---host,waitress---waiter, stewardess---flight attendant.d. language & ageThe most striking difference is found at the lexical level.Causes (complex):changing society;different social attitude;different value judgemente. idiolect (个人语言): the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the overall system of a particular language.In its widest sense, someone‘s idiolect includes their way of communicating, for example, their choice of utterances and the way they interpret the utterances made by others. In narrower sense, an idiolect may include those features, either is speech orwriting, which distinguish one individual from others, such as voice quality, pitch, and speech tempoand rhythm.f. ethnic dialect (种族方言): a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.Features of Black English:Phonological feature:simplicity of consonant clusters.Syntactic feature: deletion of the link verb‖be‖;the use of double negation.They mine. You crazy.He don‘t know nothing.2). Register : varieties related to use. (语域)According to Hallida y, ―Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.‖The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Three social variables that determine the register:Field of discourse( 语场): why; about what; non-technical; technical Tenor of discourse(语旨): to whomthe level of formalitythe level of technicalityMode of discourse(语式): how; speaking; writinglinguistic repertoire(语言变体库): the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual.The language or language varieties that a person knows and uses within his or her speech community in everyday communication.一个人所掌握的、并且用于本人言语社团的日常交际中的语言或语言变体。

英语语言学第八章语言与社会

Register 语域
▪ Register, in a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
▪ Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacherstudent, etc.)语旨
away, please? ▪ Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once. ▪ Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the
upper floor by way of the staircase.
▪ When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.

语言学第八章

Chapter 8
Language and Society
8.2 Varieties of language
Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers 8.2.1. Dialectal varieties 8.2.1.1 Regional dialect : is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. The change from one dialect to another is very often a gradual process Reason:1 geographical barriers 2 loyalty to one’s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change
Speech Community:
For general linguistics: speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language For sociolinguistics: speech community is a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes towards linguistic norms

新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society

新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-soc ietyChapter 8 Language and society语⾔和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regionaldialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核⽬标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应⽤：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应⽤：Halliday’s register theory⼀、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语⾔学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语⾔学是语⾔学中的⼀个次领域，它研究语⾔与社会的关系，以及语⾔的运⽤和语⾔使⽤者所在的社会结构之间的关系。

语言学概论第八章

1）Pidgin（皮钦语、皮琴语） 2）当地人没有学好的外语，是外语在当地语言的影响下出现的变种。
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4.洋泾浜的特点 1）从语言功能上看
只用于口头交际；使用范围狭窄。
2）从语言系统上看
*语音结构经过当地语音系统的改造。 *词汇成分数量有限，基本来自外语。
25
*语法是不同语言的混合，语法规则减少到
3.语言的混合
来源于不同语言的成分混合在一起，产生一种与这些语言都不相同的新的交际工具。
17
第三节语言接触的特殊形式
一、洋泾浜（皮钦语） 1.什么是“洋泾浜” 十七世纪以后在殖民地、半殖民地的通商
口岸的当地人和外来殖民者在打交道的过程中彼此在语言上妥协而产生的一种能使双方勉强沟通的临时性交际工具。
6
3.借词的特点
1）不同的语言对借词的接受程度不同 2）不同语言借词的方式不同
英语—音译汉语—意译、仿译 3）具有历史层次性
7
二、结构规则的借用
民家语：主语——宾语——谓语主语——谓语——宾语
壮语：受定成分＋限定成分限定成分＋受定成分
8
*结构规则的仿造
鲁迅是在文化战线上，代表全民族的大多数，向着敌人冲锋陷阵的最正确、最勇敢、最坚决、最忠实、最热忱的空前的民族英雄。
或分别使用共同语和方言的社会现象。
14
2.语言转用（语言替换）
1）什么是“语言转用” 一个民族的全体或部分成员放弃使用本
民族语言而转用另一民族语言的现象。
15
2）条件 *民族（部族、部落）的融合 *杂居局面的形成 *语言使用者在社会生活中的地位
16
3）发展趋势
*完成语言的融合。 *各个民族语言继续保持独立。

语言学导论-第8章LanguageSociety

语言学导论第八章

8语言学

语导课chapter8

语言学-language-and-societyppt课件

自考本科英语语言学Chapter8LanguageAndSociety

Chapter 8 Language and Society

戴炜栋语言学-Language and Society

《语言学导论》重点整理

现代语言学第八章社会语言学精品PPT课件

《语言学导论》语言 文化 社会

语言学导论课程教学大纲

Unit 8 Language in society

语言学导论-第8章LanguageSociety

新编语言学导论

教案8_Chapter_VIII_Language_and_Society

英语语言学 第八章 语言与社会

语言学 第八章

新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society

语言学概论第八章

《语言学导论》语言文化社会

英语语言学第八章语言与社会

语言学第八章