culture-跨文化交际学
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❖ It rests ultimately upon the classical conception of what constitutes excellence in art, literature, manners and social institutions. (Lyons, 1995)
❖ " Culture is a shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs and attitudes that shapes and influences perception and behavior -- an abstract mental blueprint or mental code. "
❖ The minority cultures which lay within a larger dominant culture are often described as sub-cultures. As outlined in her book The Individual and Culture "The ‘whole' culture is a composite（[’kɔmpəzit] 混合体）of varying and overlapping sub-cultures." ... Anthropologists may also speak of the ‘personal culture' of a single individual.
❖
-- Dictionary of Modern Sociotems from the development and transmission of human belief in symbols”. "The language system is a series of symbols used to transmit cultural beliefs among members of a society“. "Messages about cultural expectations can be found in the media, government, religious institutions, educational systems, and the like.”
❖ Some sociologists view culture as "fragmented and diversified" (Lane 1984). This view takes a different approach to culture in that it relies on sub-cultures to come together to form one culture.
What does culture of poverty mean?
❖ "Culture of poverty" was developed by Oscar Lewis. Fatalism
❖ It can be also said that culture is the way people live in accordance to beliefs, language, history, or the way they dress.
❖
II. Definitions of Culture
❖
---- Dictionary of Modern Sociology
❖ "The patterned behavior resulting from social interaction"
❖
-- Francis Merill
❖ "That part of the total ’repertoire of human action (and its products), which is socially as opposed to genetically transmitted.
❖ Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity.
❖ In general, the term culture denotes the whole product of an individual, group or society of intelligent beings. It includes technology, art, science, as well as moral systems and the characteristic behaviors and habits of the selected
❖ This capacity has long been taken as a defining feature of the humans. However, primatologists have identified aspects of culture among human's closest relatives in the animal kingdom.
❖ intelligent entities. In particular, it has more detailed meanings in different domains of human activities.
❖ There is, first of all, the sense in which “culture” is more or less synonymous with ‘civilization’ and, in an older and extreme formulation of the contrast, opposed to ‘barbarism’. This is the sense that is operative, in English, in the adjective ‘cultured’.
❖ Anthropologists most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify（[‘kɔdifai] 把(法律)编成法典） and communicate their experiences symbolically.
❖ Without each of the individual cultures the whole concept of culture would be incomplete. According to Lane, "In contemporary society there is no agreement whether societies possess a dominant culture or ideology" .
❖
❖
---T. Parsons.
What is a subculture?
❖ "A subculture may arise when an attempt is made to resolve collectively experienced problems resulting from contradictions in the social structure, and they generate a form of collective identity from which an individual identity can be achieved."
❖ 2.1 From the perspective of sociology
❖ "The total, generally organized way of life, including values, norms, institutions, and artifacts, that is passed on from generation to generation by learning alone"
❖
" Culture is the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought. "
❖
❖
❖
-- Comparative Youth Culture by M. Brake
What is a subculture?
❖ Sometimes they refer to ‘a culture' as ‘a society' which is often imprecise, since it is extremely difficult to define an entire population as having distinctive cultural characteristics. Culture may also refer to a system of values, ideas, and behaviors which may be associated with a social or national group (e.g., African American Culture).
❖
-- Dictionary of Sociology, D. Mitchell
❖ “Sociocultural” Pertaining to the social and the cultural in human life, the two terms, society and culture, being combined into one so as to call attention to the functional inseparability of these two essential aspects of human existence“
❖ "Subcultures, such as teenagers, exist as cultural undercurrents in the general society which don't encroach（[in’krəutʃ] break in// infringe）upon the main culture, but are important to some members." (Davies, 1972)
❖
-- Boudon et. al 1989
❖ What is the dominant or common culture?
❖ Common Culture:
❖ "A commonly shared system of symbols, the meanings of which are understood on both sides with an approximation to agreement.
I. General Ideas about Culture
❖ "Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate,") generally refers to patterns of
❖ human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance.
❖ " Culture is a shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs and attitudes that shapes and influences perception and behavior -- an abstract mental blueprint or mental code. "
❖ The minority cultures which lay within a larger dominant culture are often described as sub-cultures. As outlined in her book The Individual and Culture "The ‘whole' culture is a composite（[’kɔmpəzit] 混合体）of varying and overlapping sub-cultures." ... Anthropologists may also speak of the ‘personal culture' of a single individual.
❖
-- Dictionary of Modern Sociotems from the development and transmission of human belief in symbols”. "The language system is a series of symbols used to transmit cultural beliefs among members of a society“. "Messages about cultural expectations can be found in the media, government, religious institutions, educational systems, and the like.”
❖ Some sociologists view culture as "fragmented and diversified" (Lane 1984). This view takes a different approach to culture in that it relies on sub-cultures to come together to form one culture.
What does culture of poverty mean?
❖ "Culture of poverty" was developed by Oscar Lewis. Fatalism
❖ It can be also said that culture is the way people live in accordance to beliefs, language, history, or the way they dress.
❖
II. Definitions of Culture
❖
---- Dictionary of Modern Sociology
❖ "The patterned behavior resulting from social interaction"
❖
-- Francis Merill
❖ "That part of the total ’repertoire of human action (and its products), which is socially as opposed to genetically transmitted.
❖ Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity.
❖ In general, the term culture denotes the whole product of an individual, group or society of intelligent beings. It includes technology, art, science, as well as moral systems and the characteristic behaviors and habits of the selected
❖ This capacity has long been taken as a defining feature of the humans. However, primatologists have identified aspects of culture among human's closest relatives in the animal kingdom.
❖ intelligent entities. In particular, it has more detailed meanings in different domains of human activities.
❖ There is, first of all, the sense in which “culture” is more or less synonymous with ‘civilization’ and, in an older and extreme formulation of the contrast, opposed to ‘barbarism’. This is the sense that is operative, in English, in the adjective ‘cultured’.
❖ Anthropologists most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify（[‘kɔdifai] 把(法律)编成法典） and communicate their experiences symbolically.
❖ Without each of the individual cultures the whole concept of culture would be incomplete. According to Lane, "In contemporary society there is no agreement whether societies possess a dominant culture or ideology" .
❖
❖
---T. Parsons.
What is a subculture?
❖ "A subculture may arise when an attempt is made to resolve collectively experienced problems resulting from contradictions in the social structure, and they generate a form of collective identity from which an individual identity can be achieved."
❖ 2.1 From the perspective of sociology
❖ "The total, generally organized way of life, including values, norms, institutions, and artifacts, that is passed on from generation to generation by learning alone"
❖
" Culture is the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought. "
❖
❖
❖
-- Comparative Youth Culture by M. Brake
What is a subculture?
❖ Sometimes they refer to ‘a culture' as ‘a society' which is often imprecise, since it is extremely difficult to define an entire population as having distinctive cultural characteristics. Culture may also refer to a system of values, ideas, and behaviors which may be associated with a social or national group (e.g., African American Culture).
❖
-- Dictionary of Sociology, D. Mitchell
❖ “Sociocultural” Pertaining to the social and the cultural in human life, the two terms, society and culture, being combined into one so as to call attention to the functional inseparability of these two essential aspects of human existence“
❖ "Subcultures, such as teenagers, exist as cultural undercurrents in the general society which don't encroach（[in’krəutʃ] break in// infringe）upon the main culture, but are important to some members." (Davies, 1972)
❖
-- Boudon et. al 1989
❖ What is the dominant or common culture?
❖ Common Culture:
❖ "A commonly shared system of symbols, the meanings of which are understood on both sides with an approximation to agreement.
I. General Ideas about Culture
❖ "Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate,") generally refers to patterns of
❖ human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance.