曼昆经济学原理第16章
曼昆经济学原理课后答案 Chapter 16-21
Chapter 16Problems and Applications1. a. Tap water is a perfectly competitive market because there are manytaps and the product does not differ across sellers.b. Bottled water is a monopolistically competitive market. There aremany sellers of bottled water, but each firm tries to differentiate itsown brand from the rest.c. The cola market is an oligopoly. There are only a few firms that controla large portion of the market.d. The beer market is an oligopoly. There are only a few firms thatcontrol a large portion of the market.2. a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production sothey could raise the price.b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each countryhas an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline inthe price of oil because of increased production.c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so that theycould act as a monopoly.3. a. If there were many suppliers of diamonds, price would equal marginalcost ($1,000), so the quantity would be 12,000.b. With only one supplier of diamonds, quantity would be set wheremarginal cost equals marginal revenue. The following table derivesmarginal revenue:With marginal cost of $1,000 per diamond, or $1 million per thousanddiamonds, the monopoly will maximize profits at a price of $7,000 anda quantity of 6,000. Additional production beyond this point wouldlead to a situation where marginal revenue is lower than marginal cost.c. If Russia and South Africa formed a cartel, they would set price andquantity like a monopolist, so the price would be $7,000 and thequantity would be 6,000. If they split the market evenly, they wouldshare total revenue of $42 million and costs of $6 million, for a totalprofit of $36 million. So each would produce 3,000 diamonds and get aprofit of $18 million. If Russia produced 3,000 diamonds and SouthAfrica produced 4,000, the price would decline to $6,000. SouthAfrica’s revenue would rise to $24 million, costs would be $4 million,so profits would be $20 million, which is an increase of $2 million.d. Cartel agreements are often not successful because one party has astrong incentive to cheat to make more profit. In this case, each couldincrease profit by $2 million by producing an extra 1,000 diamonds.However, if both countries did this, profits would decline for both ofthem.4. a. Buyers who are oligopolists try to decrease the prices of goods theybuy.b. The owners of baseball teams would like to keep players’ salaries low.This goal is difficult to achieve because each team has an incentive tocheat on any agreement, because they will be able to attract betterplayers by offering higher salaries.c. The salary cap would have formalized the collusion on salaries andhelped to prevent any team from cheating.5. a. If Mexico imposes low tariffs, then the United States is better off withhigh tariffs, because it gets $30 billion with high tariffs and only $25billion with low tariffs. If Mexico imposes high tariffs, then the UnitedStates is better off with high tariffs, because it gets $20 billion withhigh tariffs and only $10 billion with low tariffs. So the United Stateshas a dominant strategy of high tariffs.If the United States imposes low tariffs, then Mexico is better off withhigh tariffs, because it gets $30 billion with high tariffs and only $25billion with low tariffs. If the United States imposes high tariffs, thenMexico is better off with high tariffs, because it gets $20 billion withhigh tariffs and only $10 billion with low tariffs. So Mexico has adominant strategy of high tariffs.b. A Nash equilibrium is a situation in which economic actors interactingwith one another each choose their best strategy given the strategiesothers have chosen. The Nash equilibrium in this case is for eachcountry to have high tariffs.c. The NAFTA agreement represents cooperation between the twocountries. Each country reduces tariffs and both are better off as aresult.d. The payoffs in the upper left and lower right parts of the box do reflecta nati on’s welfare. Trade is beneficial and tariffs are a barrier to trade.However, the payoffs in the upper right and lower left parts of the boxare not valid. A tariff hurts domestic consumers and helps domesticproducers, but total surplus declines, as we saw in Chapter 9. So itwould be more accurate for these two areas of the box to show thatboth countries’ welfare will decline if they imposed high tariffs,whether or not the other country had high or low tariffs.6. a. The payoffs are:b. The likely outcome is that both of you will shirk. If your classmateworks, you’re better off shirking, because you would rather have 30units of happiness rather than 15. If your classmate shirks, you arebetter off shirking because you would rather have 10 units of happinessrather than 5. So your dominant strategy is to shirk. Your classmatefaces the same payoffs, so he or she will also shirk.c. If you are likely to work with the same person again, you have agreater incentive to work, so that your classmate will work, and you will both be better off. In repeated games, cooperation is more likely.d. The payoff matrix would become:Work is a dominant strategy for this new classmate. Therefore, the Nash equilibrium will be for you to shirk and your classmate to work.You would get a B and thus would prefer this classmate to the first.However, he would prefer someone with a dominant strategy of working as well so that he could get an A.7. a. The decision box for this game is:b. If Braniff sets a low price, American will set a low price. If Braniff setsa high price, American will set a low price. So American has adominant strategy to set a low price.If American sets a low price, Braniff will set a low price. If Americansets a high price, Braniff will set a low price. So Braniff has adominant strategy to set a low price.Because both have a dominant strategy to set a low price, the Nashequilibrium is for both to set a low price.c. A better outcome would be for both airlines to set a high price; theywould both get higher profits. That outcome could only be achieved bycooperation (collusion). If that happened, consumers would losebecause prices would be higher and quantity would be lower.8. a. If Jones has 10 cows and Smith has 10 for a total of 20 cows, each cowproduces $4,000 of milk. Because a cow costs $1,000, profits would be$3,000 per cow, or $30,000 for each farmer.If one farmer had 10 cows and the other farmer had 20 cows for a totalof 30 cows, each cow produces $3,000 of milk. Profits per cow wouldbe $2,000, so the farmer with 10 cows makes $20,000; the farmer with20 cows makes $40,000.If both farmers have 20 cows for a total of 40 cows, each cow produces$2,000 of milk. Profit per cow is $1,000, so each farmer’s profit is$20,000. The results are shown in the table:b. If Jones had 10 cows, Smith would want 20 cows. If Jones had 20cows, Smith would be indifferent (get the same profit) if he had 10 or20 cows. So Smith has a dominant strategy of having 20 cows.If Smith had 10 cows, Jones would want 20 cows. If Smith had 20cows, Jones would be indifferent (get the same profit) if he had 10 or20 cows. So Jones has a dominant strategy of having 20 cows.The Nash equilibrium is for each farmer to have 20 cows, because thatis the dominant strategy for each. They each make profits of $20,000.But they would both be better off if they cooperated and each had only10 cows; then profit would be $30,000 each.c. The problem illustrates how a common field may be overused,reducing the profits of producers. Because people tend to overusecommon fields, it is more efficient for people to own their own portionof the field. Thus, over time, common fields have been divided up andowned privately.9. a. If Kona enters, Big Brew would want to maintain a high price. If Konadoes not enter, Big Brew would want to maintain a high price. Thus,Big Brew has a dominant strategy of maintaining a high price.If Big Brew maintains a high price, Kona would enter. If Big Brewmaintains a low price, Kona would not enter. Kona does not have adominant strategy.b. Because Big Brew has a dominant strategy of maintaining a high price,Kona should enter.c. There is only one Nash equilibrium. Big Brew will maintain a highprice and Kona will enter.d. Little Kona should not believe this threat from Big Brew because it isnot in Big Brew’s interest to carry out the threat. If Little Kona enters,Big Brew can set a high price, in which case it makes $3 million, orBig Brew can set a low price, in which case it makes $1 million. Thusthe threat is an empty one, which Little Kona should ignore; LittleKona should enter the market.e. If the two firms could successfully collude, they would agree that BigBrew would maintain a high price and Kona would remain out of themarket. They could then split a profit of $7 million.10. Neither player has a dominant strategy in this game. Jeff should hit left ifSteve guesses right and Jeff should hit right if Steve guesses left. Steve should guess left if Jeff hits left and Steve should guess right if Jeff hits right. Thus, if Jeff stuck with a particular strategy (left or right), Steve would be able to guess it easily after a few points. A better strategy for Jeff is to randomly choose whether to hit the ball left or right, sometimes hitting left and other times hitting right.11. a. Using Table 1 in the chapter, if 80 gallons are produced, the pricewould be $40 and profit would be $3,200. Divided three ways, Johnwould get $3,200/3 = $1,066.67. Each seller would sell 80/3 = 26.67gallons.b. If Jack and Jill stick to the agreement, John will benefit fromincreasing output by 10 units. The price would fall to $30. Jack’s totalprofit would increase to (36.67)($30) = $1,100.10.c. The Nash equilibrium will be (n+1)/n = 3/4 of the competitive output.Thus, output will be 90 gallons, which is greater than the output whenthere were only two sellers. The price will now be $30. Chapter 17Problems and Applications1. a. The market for #2 pencils is perfectly competitive because pencils byany manufacturer are identical and there are a large number ofmanufacturers.b. The market for copper is perfectly competitive, because all copper isidentical and there are a large number of producers.c. The market for local telephone service is monopolistic because it is anatural monopoly—it is cheaper for one firm to supply all the output.d. The market for peanut butter is monopolistically competitive becausedifferent brand names exist with different quality characteristics.e. The market for lipstick is monopolistically competitive becauselipstick from different firms differs slightly, but there are a largenumber of firms that can enter or exit without restriction.2. a. A firm in monopolistic competition sells a differentiated product from itscompetitors.b. A firm in monopolistic competition has marginal revenue less than price.c. Neither a firm in monopolistic competition nor in perfect competitionearns economic profit in the long run.d. A firm in perfect competition produces at minimum average total cost inthe long run.e. Both a firm in monopolistic competition and a firm in perfectcompetition equate marginal revenue and marginal cost.f. A firm in monopolistic competition charges a price above marginal cost.3. a. Both a firm in monopolistic competition and a monopoly firm face adownward-sloping demand curve.b. Both a firm in monopolistic competition and a monopoly firm havemarginal revenue that is less than price.c. A firm in monopolistic competition faces the entry of new firms sellingsimilar products.d. A monopoly firm earns economic profit in the long run.e. Both a firm in monopolistic competition and a monopoly firm equatemarginal revenue and marginal cost.f. Neither a firm in monopolistic competition nor a monopoly firmproduce the socially efficient quantity of output.4. a. The firm is not maximizing profit. For a firm in monopolisticcompetition, price is greater than marginal revenue. If price is belowmarginal cost, marginal revenue must be less than marginal cost. Thus,the firm should reduce its output to increase its profit.b. The firm may be maximizing profit if marginal revenue is equal tomarginal cost. However, the firm is not in long-run equilibriumbecause price is less than average total cost. In this case, firms will exitthe industry and the demand facing the remaining firms will rise untileconomic profit is zero.c. The firm is not maximizing profit. For a firm in monopolisticcompetition, price is greater than marginal revenue. If price is equal tomarginal cost, marginal revenue must be less than marginal cost. Thus,the firm should reduce its output to increase its profit.d. The firm could be maximizing profit if marginal revenue is equal tomarginal cost. The firm is in long-run equilibrium because price isequal to average total cost. Therefore, the firm is earning zeroeconomic profit.5. a. Figure 4 illustrates the market for Sparkle toothpaste in long-runequilibrium. The profit-maximizing level of output is Q M and the priceis P M.Figure 4b. Sparkle's profit is zero, because at quantity Q M, price equals averagetotal cost.c. The consumer surplus from the purchase of Sparkle toothpaste is areasA + B. The efficient level of output occurs where the demand curveintersects the marginal-cost curve, at Q C. The deadweight loss is area C,the area above marginal cost and below demand, from Q M to Q C.d. If the government forced Sparkle to produce the efficient level ofoutput, the firm would lose money because average total cost wouldexceed price, so the firm would shut down. If that happened, Sparkle'scustomers would earn no consumer surplus.6. By sending Christmas cards to their customers, monopolistically competitivefirms are advertising themselves. Because they are in a position in which price exceeds marginal cost, they would like to add customers, as shown in Figure 5.Because the price, P M, exceeds marginal cost, MC M, any additional customer who pays the existing price increases the firm's profits.Figure 57. a. A family-owned restaurant would be more likely to advertise than afamily-owned farm because the output of the farm is sold in a perfectlycompetitive market, in which there is no reason to advertise, while theoutput of the restaurant is sold in a monopolistically competitivemarket.b. A manufacturer of cars is more likely to advertise than a manufacturerof forklifts because there is little difference between different brands ofindustrial products like forklifts, while there are greater perceiveddifferences between consumer products like cars. The possible returnto advertising is greater in the case of cars than in the case of forklifts.c. A company that invented a very comfortable razor is likely to advertisemore than a company that invented a less comfortable razor that coststhe same amount to make because the company with the verycomfortable razor will get many repeat sales over time to cover thecost of the advertising, while the company with the less comfortablerazor will not.8. a. Perdue created a brand name for chicken by advertising. By doing so,he was able to differentiate his product from other chicken, gainingmarket power.b. Society gained to the extent that Perdue has a great incentive tomaintain the quality of his chicken. Society lost to the extent that themarket for chicken became less competitive, with the associateddeadweight loss.9. a. Figure 6 shows Tylenol's demand, marginal revenue, and marginal costcurves. Tylenol's price is P T, its marginal cost is MC T, and its markupover marginal cost is P T− MC T.Figure 6b. Figure 7 shows the demand, marginal revenue, and marginal costcurves for a maker of acetaminophen. The diagrams differ in that theacetaminophen maker faces a horizontal demand curve, while themaker of Tylenol faces a downward-sloping demand curve. Theacetaminophen maker has no markup of price over marginal cost,while the maker of Tylenol has a positive markup, because it has somemarket power.Figure 7c. The maker of Tylenol has a bigger incentive for careful quality control,because if quality were poor, the value of its brand name would deteriorate, sales would decline, and its advertising would be worthless.Chapter 21Problems and Applications1. a. Figure 10 shows the effect of the frost on Jennifer's budget constraint.Because the price of coffee rises, her budget constraint swivels fromBC1 to BC2.b. If the substitution effect outweighs the income effect for croissants,Jennifer buys more croissants and less coffee, as shown in Figure 10.She moves from point A to point B.Figure 10c. If the income effect outweighs the substitution effect for croissants,Jennifer buys fewer croissants and less coffee, moving from point A topoint B in Figure 11.Figure 112. a. Skis and ski bindings are complements. Coke and Pepsi are substitutes.b. Indifference curves between Coke and Pepsi are fairly straight, becausethere is little to distinguish them, so they are nearly perfect substitutes.Indifference curves between skis and ski bindings are very bowed,because they are complements.c. A consumer will respond more to a change in the relative price of Cokeand Pepsi, possibly switching completely from one to the other if theprice changes.3. a. Cheese and crackers cannot both be inferior goods, because if Mario'sincome rises he must consume more of something.b. If the price of cheese falls, the substitution effect means Mario willconsume more cheese and fewer crackers. The income effect meansMario will consume more cheese (because cheese is a normal good)and fewer crackers (because crackers are an inferior good). So, botheffects lead Mario to consume more cheese and fewer crackers.Figure 124. a. Figure 12 shows Jim's budget constraint. The vertical intercept is 50quarts of milk, because if Jim spent all his money on milk he wouldbuy $100/$2 = 50 quarts of it. The horizontal intercept is 25 dozencookies, because if Jim spent all his money on cookies he would buy$100/$4 = 25 dozen cookies.b.If Jim's salary rises by 10 percent to $110 and the prices of milk andcookies rise by 10 percent to $2.20 and $4.40, Jim's budget constraintwould be unchanged. Note that $110/$2.20 = 50 and $110/$4.40 = 25,so the intercepts of the new budget constraint would be the same as theold budget constraint. Because the budget constraint is unchanged,Jim's optimal consumption is unchanged.Figure 13 Figure 145. a. Budget constraint BC1 in Figure 13 shows the budget constraint if youpay no taxes. Budget constraint BC2 shows the budget constraint with a15 percent tax.b.Figure 14 shows indifference curves for which a person will workmore as a result of the tax because the income effect (less leisure)outweighs the substitution effect (more leisure), so there is less leisureoverall. Figure 15 shows indifference curves for which a person willwork fewer hours as a result of the tax because the income effect (lessleisure) is smaller than the substitution effect (more leisure), so there ismore leisure overall. Figure 16 shows indifference curves for which aperson will work the same number of hours after the tax because theincome effect (less leisure) equals the substitution effect (more leisure),so there is the same amount of leisure overall.Figure 15 Figure 166. Figure 17 shows Sarah's budget constraints and indifference curves if sheearns $6 (BC1), $8 (BC2), and $10 (BC3) per hour. At a wage of $6 per hour, she works 100 –L6 hours; at a wage of $8 per hour, she works 100 –L8 hours;and at a wage of $10 per hour, she works 100 –L10 hours. Because the labor supply curve is upward sloping when the wage is between $6 and $8 per hour, L6 > L8; because the labor supply curve is backward sloping when the wage is between $8 and $10 per hour, L10 > L8.Figure 17 Figure 187. Figure 18 shows the indifference curve between leisure and consumption thatdetermines how much a person works. An increase in the wage leads to both an income effect and a substitution effect. The higher wage makes the budget constraint steeper, so the substitution effect increases consumption and reducesleisure. But the higher wage has an income effect that increases both consumption and leisure if both are normal goods. The only way that consumption could decrease when the wage increased would be if consumption is an inferior good and if the negative income effect outweighs the positive substitution effect. This could happen for a person who really placed an exceptionally high value on leisure.Figure 19 Figure 208. a. Figure 19 shows the situation in which your salary increases from$30,000 to $40,000. With numbers shown in thousands of dollars in thefigure, your initial budget constraint, BC1, has a horizontal intercept of30, because you could spend all your income when young. The verticalintercept is 31.5, because if you spent nothing when young and savedall your income, earning 5 percent interest, you would have $31,500 tospend when old. If your salary increases to $40,000, your budgetconstraint shifts out in a parallel fashion, with intercepts of 40 and 42,respectively. This is an income effect only, so if consumption whenyoung and old are both normal goods, you will spend more in bothperiods.b. If the interest rate on your bank account rises to 8 percent, your budgetconstraint rotates. If you spend all your income when young, you willspend just $30,000, as before. But if you save all your income, yourold-age consumption increases to $30,000 x 1.08 = $32,400, comparedto $31,500 before. As Figure 20 indicates, the steeper budget line leadsyou to substitute future consumption for current consumption. But theincome effect of the higher return on your saving leads you to want toincrease both future and current consumption if both are normal goods.The result is that your consumption when old certainly rises and yourconsumption when young could increase or decrease, depending onwhether the income or substitution effect dominates.9. The decline in the interest rate on savings has both income and substitutioneffects, because it causes the budget constraint to rotate. Because consumption when old effectively becomes more expensive relative to consumption when young, there is a substitution effect that increases consumption when young and decreases consumption when old. The lower interest rate also leads to a negative income effect, causing both consumption when young and consumption when old to decline if both are normal goods. Combining both effects, consumption when old definitely declines and consumption when young might rise or fall, depending on whether the income or substitution effect is stronger.10. a. Figure 21 shows the budget constraint. The initial budget line is shownas BL1. If all hours are spent raising children, 10 children can be raised.If all hours are spent working, $2,000,000 can be earned forconsumption. The individual maximizes utility by choosing K1children and a consumption level of C1.Figure 21b. If the wage rises, the budget line rotates to BL2in Figure 21. Thebudget line is now steeper indicating the higher opportunity cost ofraising a child. The substitution of this increase in the wage will meana rise in consumption and a decline in the number of children.Assuming that both children and consumption are normal goods, theincome effect of the increased wage will mean a rise in both childrenand consumption. The full effect on consumption is positive, but theend effect on children depends on the relative sizes of the income andsubstitution effects.c. If the number of children declines as incomes rise, the substitutioneffect must outweigh the income effect.11. If consumers do not buy less of a good when their incomes rise, the good inquestion must be a normal good. For a normal good, the income and substitution effects both imply that the consumer will buy less if the price rises.Figure 2212. a. Figure 22 shows the effects of the welfare program. Without theprogram, the budget constraint would begin on the horizontal axis atpoint L max when the family earns no labor income and would have aslope equal to the wage rate. The program provides income of a certainamount if the family earns no labor income, shown as the point A onthe figure. Then, if income is earned, the welfare payment is reduced,so the slope of the budget line is less than the slope of the budget linewithout welfare. At the point where the two budget lines meet, thewelfare program provides no further support.b. The figure shows how indifference curves could be shaped, indicatinga reduction in the number of hours worked by the family because ofthe welfare program. Because the welfare budget constraint is flatter,there is a substitution effect away from consumption and towardleisure. Because the welfare budget constraint is farther from the origin,there is an income effect that increases both consumption and leisure,if both are normal goods. The overall effect is that the change inconsumption is ambiguous and the family will want to have moreleisure; hence, it will reduce its labor supply.c. There is no doubt that the family's well-being is increased, because thewelfare program gives them consumption and leisure opportunities thatwere not available before and they end up on a higher indifferencecurve.13. a. A lower tax rate would give rise to income and substitution effects on aperson's choice of consumption and leisure. The income effect wouldincrease both consumption and leisure, if both goods were normalgoods, because the reduction in the tax rate leaves more after-taxincome. The lower tax rate would increase the slope of the budgetconstraint, so the substitution effect would increase consumption anddecrease leisure. The net result is an increase in consumption and anambiguous effect on leisure, and thus an ambiguous effect on laborsupply.b. An increase in the amount on which no tax is owed would be a pureincome effect. If both consumption and leisure are normal goods, bothwould increase, so labor supply would decrease.14. a. If a person's utility depends on the lowest level of consumption duringher two periods of life, then her indifference curves betweenconsumption when young and consumption when old will be rightangles, with the angle occurring where consumption in the two periodsare equal, as shown in Figure 23.b. The budget constraint, BC1, is shown in the figure. Note that theoptimum occurs where the budget constraint just hits one of theright-angled indifference curves.c. An increase in the interest rate shifts the budget constraint to BC2.Because (at the optimum) consumption when young must equalconsumption when old, the person increases consumption in bothperiods. Thus the person saves less even though the interest rateincreased. In this case, there is no substitution effect from the higherinterest rate, because of the shape of the indifference curves. The onlyeffect is an income effect, leading the person to increase consumptionin both periods.。
2020版曼昆版宏观经济学(第十版)课件第16章
2020/9/26
16.1 政策应该是积极的还是消极的?
联邦政府的政策制定者把经济稳定作为他们的一项主要职责。当国会或 总统考虑财政政策的重大变动时,或者当美联储考虑货币政策的重大变动时,讨 论的首要议题是该变动会如何影响通货膨胀与失业,以及总需求是需要刺激还 是需要抑制。
在许多经济学家看来,支持积极的政府政策的论据明显且简单。衰退是高失 业、低收入和经济困苦增加的时期。
关于按规则实施还是斟酌处置的争论不同于关于积极政策还是消极政策的争论。 政策可以根据规则实施,但仍然既可以是消极的,也可以是积极的。例如,一个消极的政 策规则可能规定货币供给每年稳定增长3%。一个积极的政策规则可能规定
货币增长=3% +(失业率-6%) 在这一规则下,如果失业率是6%,货币 供给按3%增长,但失业率超过6%的每1个百分 点都使得货币供给多增长1个百分点。这一规则力图通过在经济衰退时提高货币增长 来稳定经济。
2020/9/26
卢卡斯批判的一个重要例子产生于对反通货膨胀的分析。正如你可能 从第14章回忆起来的,降低通货膨胀的成本通常用牺牲率衡量,它是通货膨胀 每降低1个百分点所必须放弃的GDP百分点数。由于牺牲率的估计值往往很 大,它们使一些经济学家认为,政策制定者应该学会忍受通货膨胀,而不是以 高代价来降低通货膨胀。
一、对政策制定者和政治程序的不信任
人大经济学考研必备：曼昆《经济学原理》(第16章)
人大经济学考研必备：曼昆《经济学原理》（第16章）为什么?因为从主观上讲。
垄断企业当中占有的份额如此之大以至它的需求曲线和市场的需求曲线的走向有类似之处——我的意见——而竞争企业在市场当中占有的份额非常的小，基本上它的产量不会影响的市场的价格，所以对它的需求是一个平行的直线。
但是可以分析出来。
它的需求曲线富有完全的弹性。
2. 垄断者的利润。
小tips: 专利到期并没有使垄断者失去全部的市场势力。
一些消费者仍然忠于有品牌的药品。
这使得以前垄断者至少可以收取比新的竞争者略高一点的价格。
第三节垄断的福利代价1. 无畏损失。
显然从下图可以看出，边际成本和需求的交点处是有效的产量水平。
但是我们的垄断价格却是边际收益和边际成本的交点。
这样就会带来无谓损失。
垄断引起的无畏损失类似税收引起的无畏损失。
第四节对垄断的公共政策决策者会有以下的四种方法：努力是垄断行业更有竞争性——用反托拉斯法增强竞争。
——问题：政府是否能够进行必要而有相当准确的成本-收益分析。
——例子：美国电话电报公司的分解。
美孚石油公司的分解。
管制垄断者的行动——问题：企业亏损：政府补贴企业允许收取高于边际成本的价格。
不能激励垄断者降低成本：允许企业从降低成本党忠义更高利润的形势得到利益。
——例子：水厂，电力公司等等把一些私人垄断变为公共企业——公有制——问题：投票机制不如利润机制可靠。
——例子：。
无所作为——或者解释成什么也不做。
因为前几个政策都有缺点。
这个前提是市场失灵带来的损失比这些政策带来的损失都要小。
第五节价格歧视定义：以不同的价格向不同的顾客出售同一种物品的经营做法。
分析：只有在垄断经营当中才有价格歧视的出现。
为什么，因为在竞争市场当中，没有一个企业愿意向任何一个顾客收取低价格。
也没有任何一个人愿意接受任何企业收取的高价格。
——因为它可以通过低价格从其他的企业那里得到。
价格歧视的例子：1. 电影票——儿童票，老人票等等。
(儿童和老人的支付意愿低，由此成功地实现价格歧视)2. 飞机票价。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第16章垄断竞争)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（第16章垄断竞争）Borntowin经济学考研交流群<<第16章垄断竞争16.1复习笔记1．垄断竞争（1）概述垄断竞争指既有某些竞争特点，又有某些垄断特点的一种市场结构。
垄断竞争市场的特征：①许多卖者：有许多企业争夺相同的顾客群体；②产品差别：每个企业生产的一种产品至少与其他企业生产的这种产品略有不同；③自由进入：企业可以无限制地进入（或退出）一个市场。
（2）垄断竞争厂商的需求曲线由于垄断竞争厂商可以在一定程度上控制自己的产品价格，垄断竞争厂商所面临的需求曲线也是向右下方倾斜的。
市场中的竞争因素又使得垄断竞争厂商面临的需求曲线具有较大的弹性。
因此，垄断竞争厂商向右下方倾斜的需求曲线是比较平坦的，相对地比较接近完全竞争厂商的产品价格和销售量之间的关系。
（3）垄断竞争企业遵循垄断者的利润最大化规律：它选择边际收益（MR）等于边际成本（MC）的产量，然后用其需求曲线找出与这种产量相一致的价格。
2．垄断竞争市场的均衡（1）垄断竞争市场的短期均衡在短期内，垄断竞争厂商是在现有的生产规模下，通过对产量和价格的同时调整来实现MR=SMC的均衡条件的。
短期均衡时，垄断竞争性厂商可能获得最大的利润，可能利润为零，也可能蒙受最小损失。
（2）垄断竞争市场的长期均衡垄断竞争企业厂商的长期均衡表现为以下两个特点：①与垄断一样，价格高于边际成本，因为利润最大化要求：MCMR。
而且，因为需求曲线向右下方倾斜，MR曲线在需求曲线下方。
②与竞争一样，价格等于平均成本，因此经济利润等于零。
经济利润为零是因为垄断竞争市场与垄断不同，垄断竞争厂商可以自由进入。
3．垄断竞争与完全竞争垄断竞争下长期均衡在两个方面不同于完全竞争下的长期均衡：（1）过剩的生产能力垄断竞争企业在其平均成本曲线向右下方倾斜的部分进行生产。
因此，他们生产的产量小于在企业的有效规模（ATC最低）时能生产的产量。
曼昆-十大经济学原理,中英文对照
曼昆-十大经济学原理,中英文对照第一篇：曼昆-十大经济学原理,中英文对照十大经济学原理。
曼昆在《经济学原理》一书中提出了十大经济学原理，他们分别是：十大经济学原理一：人们面临权衡取舍。
人们为了获得一件东西，必须放弃另一件东西。
决策需要对目标进行比较。
People Face Trade offs.To get one thing, you have to give up something else.Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another.例子：这样的例子很多，典型的是在“大炮与黄油”之间的选择，军事上所占的资源越多，可供民用消费和投资的资源就会越少。
同样，政府用于生产公共品的资源越多，剩下的用于生产私人品的资源就越少；我们用来消费的食品越多，则用来消费的衣服就越少；学生用于学习的时间越多，那么用于休息的时间就越少。
十大经济学原理二：某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西。
决策者必须要考虑其行为的显性成本和隐性成本。
The Cost of Something is what You Give Up to Get It.Decision-makers have to consider both the obvious and implicit costs of their actions.例子：某公司决定在一个公园附近开采金矿的成本。
开采者称由于公园的门票收入几乎不受影响，因此金矿开采的成本很低。
但可以发现伴随着金矿开采带来的噪声、水和空气的污染、环境的恶化等，是否真的不会影响公园的风景价值？尽管货币价值成本可能会很小，但是考虑到环境和自然生态价值会丧失，因此机会成本事实上可能很大。
十大经济学原理三：理性人考虑边际量。
理性的决策者当且仅当行动的边际收益超过边际成本时才采取行动。
Rational People Think at Margin.A rational decision-makertakes action if and only if the marginal benefit of the action exceeds the marginal cost.例子：“边际量”是指某个经济变量在一定的影响因素下发生的变动量。
曼昆经济学原理答案16—20
第十六章寡头复习题1．如果一个卖者集团可以形成一个卡特尔，它们想确定的产量和价格是什么?答:如果一个卖者集团可以形成一个卡特尔，它们想确定的产量和价格是对整个卡特尔来说利润最大化的产量与价格。
2．比较寡头与垄断的产量与价格。
答:如果寡头们可以联合起来统一行动的话，寡头与垄断的产量和价格相等。
当寡头企业个别选择利润最大化的产量时，它们的产量大于垄断的产量水平,小于竞争的产量水平。
寡头价格小于垄断价格，大于竞争价格。
3．比较寡头与竞争市场的产量与价格。
答：寡头价格高于竞争价格。
寡头产量低于竞争产量。
4．一个寡头市场上的企业数量如何影响市场结果？答：随着寡头市场上卖者数量增加，寡头市场就越来越像竞争市场,价格接近于边际成本,生产量接近于有效率的水平。
5．什么是囚犯两难处境?它与寡头有什么关系？答：囚犯两难处境是指两个被捕获的囚犯之间的一种特殊“博弈”，说明为什么甚至在合作对双方有利时,保持合作也是困难的.囚犯两难处境的故事包含着一个一般性的结论，这个结论适用于任何一个力图维持其成员合作的集团。
同一市场上的寡头在力图达到垄断结果时的博弈类似于两个处于两难处境的囚犯的博弈.6．举出寡头之外的两个例子，说明囚犯的两难处境如何有助于解释行为?答：例一，共有资源的使用.设想两个渔民—-杰瑞和麦克，他们共同拥有一个湖泊，湖泊中价值2万美元的鱼类资源归他们共有。
造一条渔船要花1 000美元。
两人各有一条渔船，每人将得到一半的鱼类资源，可以赚9 000美元(1万美元收益减1 000美元成本），两人都可以造第二条渔船。
如果某个人在三条渔船中拥有两条，他就得到三分之二的鱼类资源,这将带来11 333美元的利润。
但如果两人都造第二条船,又是平分鱼类资源,而且两人的利润都下降，是8 000美元。
表16－1表示杰瑞和麦克的博弈。
表16－1 共有资源博弈例二，广告博弈。
考虑两家化妆品公司——甲和乙，面临决策。
如果两家都不向用户赠送免费试用的化妆品,它们平分市场。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》第6版课后习题详解(1~2章)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第 6 版课后习题详解第一篇导言第1章经济学十大原理一、看法题1.稀缺性稀缺性是指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供应老是不足的，也就是资源的有限性与人类的欲念无穷性之间的矛盾。
2.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给互相竞争的用途，以令人类的欲念获取最大限度知足的科学。
此中微观经济学是以单个经济主体为研究对象，研究单个经济主风光对既定资源拘束时如何进行选择的科学；宏观经济学则以整个公民经济为研究对象，主要着眼于经济总量的研究。
3.效率效率是指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入比值或许是效益与成本比值，比值大效率高，比值小效率低。
它与产出或利润大小成正比，与投入或成本成反比。
4.同等同等是指人与人的利益关系及利益关系的原则、制度、做法、行为等都符合社会发展的需要，即经济成就在社会成员中公正分派的特征。
它是一个历史范围，按其所产生的社会历史条件和社会性质的不一样而不一样，不存在永久的公正；它也是一个客观范围，只管在不一样的社会形态中内涵不一样对其的理解不一样，但都是社会存在的反应，拥有客观性。
5.时机成本时机成本是指将一种资源用于某种用途，而未用于其余用途所放弃的最大预期利润。
其存在的前提条件是：①资源是稀缺的；②资源拥有多种用途；③资源的投向不受限制。
6.理性人理性人是指系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标的人，是经济研究中所假定的、在必定条件下拥有典型理性行为的经济活动主体。
7.边沿改动边沿改动是指对行动计划的细小增量调整。
8.激励激励是指惹起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
9.市场经济市场经济是指由家庭和公司在市场上的互相交易决定资源配置的经济，而资源配置本质上就是决定社会生产什么、生产多少、如何生产以及为谁生产的过程。
10.产权产权是指个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力，也能够理解为人们对其所交易东西的所有权，即人们在交易活动中使自己或别人在经济利益上得益或受损的权利。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)【核心讲义】(第16章 垄断竞争)
第16章垄断竞争跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、在垄断和完全竞争之间1．垄断竞争的含义很多行业介于完全竞争和垄断的极端情况之间的某个位置，称为不完全竞争。
不完全竞争市场包括两种类型：寡头和垄断竞争。
（1）寡头（oligopoly）是指只有少数几个提供相似或相同产品的卖者的市场结构。
（2）垄断竞争（monopolistic competition）是指存在许多出售相似但不相同产品的企业的市场结构。
在垄断竞争的市场上，每家企业都垄断着自己生产的产品，但许多其他企业也生产争夺同样顾客的相似但不相同的产品。
2．垄断竞争的特征（1）许多卖者：有许多企业争夺相同的顾客群体。
（2）产品差别：每个企业生产的一种产品至少与其他企业生产的这种产品略有不同。
因此每个企业不是价格接受者，而是面临一条向右下方倾斜的需求曲线。
（3）自由进入和退出：企业可以无限制地进入或退出一个市场。
因此，市场上企业的数量要一直调整到经济利润为零时为止。
3．寡头和垄断竞争的区别寡头和垄断竞争是完全不同的。
寡头市场上只有几个卖者，卖者数量少使得激烈的竞争不大可能产生，而且更使得卖者之间的策略相互作用显得极为重要。
而在垄断竞争之下，有许多卖者，其中每一个卖者与市场相比都很小。
垄断竞争市场不同于完全竞争的理想状态，因为每个卖者都提供略有差别的产品。
4．市场结构的四种类型图16-1总结了市场结构的四种类型。
对于任何市场来说所要提的第一个问题是市场上有多少家企业。
如果只有一家企业，市场就是垄断的。
如果只有几家企业，市场就是寡头。
经济学原理第5版宏观16章(曼昆)
未根据通货膨胀的影响校正的利率 存款或债务的美元价值的增长率
名义利率：
根据通货膨胀的影响校正过的利率 存款或债务的实际购买力的增长率
真实利率:
单击此处添加正文，文字是您思想的提炼，为了演示发布的良好效果，请言简意赅地阐述您的观点。您的内容已经简明扼要，字字珠玑，但信息却千丝万缕、错综复杂，需要用更多的文字来表述；但请您尽可能提炼思想的精髓，否则容易造成观者的阅读压力，适得其反。正如我们都希望改变世界，希望给别人带去光明，但更多时候我们只需要播下一颗种子，自然有微风吹拂，雨露滋养。恰如其分地表达观点，往往事半功倍。当您的内容到达这个限度时，或许已经不纯粹作用于演示，极大可能运用于阅读领域；无论是传播观点、知识分享还是汇报工作，内容的详尽固然重要，但请一定注意信息框架的清晰，这样才能使内容层次分明，页面简洁易读。如果您的内容确实非常重要又难以精简，也请使用分段处理，对内容进行简单的梳理和提炼，这样会使逻辑框架相对清晰。
4
我们怎样用通货膨胀来校正利率？
5
0
消费物价指数 (CPI)
MEASURING THE COST OF LIVING
衡量普通消费者的生活成本 消费物价指数：是普通消费者所购买的物品与劳务的总费用。 在许多合同与社会保障中作为生活费用调整的依据
0
如何计算消费物价指数
MEASURING THE COST OF LIVING
$4
$4
$120
2005
$5
$5
$150
2006
$9
$6
$210
A. 计算2006年家庭购买篮子的费用 B. 以2005年6月家庭篮子费用来计算增长率，并与CPI通货膨胀率比较
0
主动学习 2 替代偏向
曼昆经济学原理16
u Only a few sellers, each offering a similar or identical product to the others.
u Monopolistic Competition
u Many firms selling products that are similar but not identical.
ä Few sellers offering similar or identical products
ä Interdependent firms ä Best off cooperating and acting like a
monopolist by producing a small quantity of output and charging a price above marginal cost
Oligopoly 寡头
Chapter 16
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
BETWEEN MONOPOLY AND PERFECT COMPETITION
在垄断和完全竞争之间
Imperfect competition refers to those market structures that fall between perfect competition and pure monopoly. 不完全竞争——介于完全竞争和纯垄断 之间的市场结构。
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
曼昆经济学原理笔记完整版
第一章经济学十大原理个人做出决策的四个原理：1) 人们面临权衡取舍（做出决策的时候人们不得不在不同的目标之间做出取舍）2) 某种东西的成本是为了得到它而放弃的东西（比如读大学，要考虑到不能工作带来的工资损失）3) 理性人考虑边际量（比如应该读到什么时候才能拿到最好的工资，博士，硕士呵呵）4) 人们会对激励做出反应（比如去超市买东西很便宜，于是我们去买，结果买了很多的不需要的东西，反倒花了更多的钱）经济相互交易的三个原理：5) 贸易能使每个人的状况更好（想想如果没有贸易，我们还处于自然经济的状况，那么我们需要做所有的事情，需要去做冰箱，彩电……不可能吧。
没有贸易就没有竞争了，那么我们就可能在某一领域被人们垄断，想想封闭的中国，我们可能不能得到很多的先进的科技，但是我们现在和很多的国家贸易，这样我们可以享用更多的先进的技术）6) 市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法（这个东西从我学过的邓小平理论当中可以反复地看到，无形的手，价格！）7) 政府有的时候可以改善市场结果（我们需要政府来维持这个社会的治安……，抄一句：促进效率和促进公平〈尽管很多的时候他们是一对矛盾，有的时候政府也不一定能做到这一点〉市场失灵）整体经济如何运行的三个原理：8) 一国的生活水平取决于它生产的物品与劳务的能力（就是劳动生产率，你工作一个小时，那么你能够创造出多少的财富。
那么我们要提高生活水平，我们就需要去得到良好教育，现在我就在这么做，呵呵，拥有生产工具——我现在需要一台电脑，速度要快些，屏幕要液晶的更好，以及获取最好技术的机会——这我需要向导师和图书馆，师兄多多请教了，还要自己去争取机会！）9) 当政府发行了过多的货币时，物价上升（这个好理解，不就是通货膨胀么）10)社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍（菲利普斯曲线——增加货币的供应量，可以至少短期的失业率〈其实我还是不懂为什么？〉，但是会造成通货膨胀）第二章象经济学家一样思考第一节作为科学家的经济学家υ 为什么我们会把经济学家作为一个科学家来看待呢？经济学家同样的需要去观察世界，冷静地建立并且检验有关世界如何运行的各种理论。
(NEW)曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解
目 录第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理第2章 像经济学家一样思考第3章 相互依存性与贸易的好处第2篇 市场如何运行第4章 供给与需求的市场力量第5章 弹性及其应用第6章 供给、需求与政府政策第3篇 市场和福利第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率第8章 应用：赋税的代价第9章 应用：国际贸易第4篇 公共部门经济学第10章 外部性第11章 公共物品和公共资源第12章 税制的设计第5篇 企业行为与产业组织第13章 生产成本第14章 竞争市场上的企业第15章 垄 断第16章 垄断竞争第17章 寡 头第6篇 劳动市场经济学第18章 生产要素市场第19章 收入与歧视第20章 收入不平等与贫困第7篇 深入研究的论题第21章 消费者选择理论第22章 微观经济学前沿第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第8版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第8版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解目录第1篇导言第1章经济学十大原理1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解1.3 名校考研真题详解第2章像经济学家一样思考2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解2.3 名校考研真题详解第3章相互依存性与贸易的好处3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解3.3 名校考研真题详解第2篇市场如何运行第4章供给与需求的市场力量4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解4.3 名校考研真题详解第5章弹性及其应用5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解5.3 名校考研真题详解第6章供给、需求与政府政策6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解6.3 名校考研真题详解第3篇市场和福利第7章消费者、生产者与市场效率7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解7.3 名校考研真题详解第8章应用：税收的代价8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解8.3 名校考研真题详解第9章应用：国际贸易9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解9.3 名校考研真题详解第4篇公共部门经济学第10章外部性10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解10.3 名校考研真题详解第11章公共物品和公共资源11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解11.3 名校考研真题详解第12章税制的设计12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解12.3 名校考研真题详解第5篇企业行为与产业组织第13章生产成本13.1 复习笔记13.2 课后习题详解13.3 名校考研真题详解第14章竞争市场上的企业14.1 复习笔记14.2 课后习题详解14.3 名校考研真题详解第15章垄断15.1 复习笔记15.2 课后习题详解15.3 名校考研真题详解第16章垄断竞争16.1 复习笔记16.2 课后习题详解16.3 名校考研真题详解第17章寡头17.1 复习笔记17.2 课后习题详解17.3 名校考研真题详解第6篇劳动市场经济学第18章生产要素市场18.1 复习笔记18.2 课后习题详解18.3 名校考研真题详解第19章收入与歧视19.1 复习笔记19.2 课后习题详解19.3 名校考研真题详解第20章收入不平等与贫困20.1 复习笔记20.2 课后习题详解20.3 名校考研真题详解第7篇深入研究的论题第21章消费者选择理论21.1 复习笔记21.2 课后习题详解21.3 名校考研真题详解第22章微观经济学前沿22.1 复习笔记22.2 课后习题详解22.3 名校考研真题详解内容简介本书遵循曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第8版）教材的章目编排，共分7篇22章，每章由三部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记，总结本章的重难点内容；第二部分是课（章）后习题详解，对第8版的所有习题都进行了详解的分析和解答；第三部分为名校考研真题详解，精选近年考研真题，并提供了详细的解答。
经济学原理第5版宏观16章(曼昆)-PPT精选文档
主动学习 1
计算 CPI
CPI篮子： {10 磅牛肉, 20 磅鸡肉} 在2019年CPI篮子的费用 是120 美元，以2019年为 基年
牛肉价 鸡肉价 格 格
2019
2019 2019
$4
$5 $9
$4
$5 $6
A. 计算2019年的CPI
B. 2019年到2019年以CPI计算的通货膨胀率是多少
7
主动学习 1
参考答案
CPI 篮子: {10 磅牛肉, 20 磅鸡肉} 2019
2019
牛肉价 鸡肉价 格 格
$4
$5
$4
$5
2019年CPI篮子的费用是 2019 $9 $6 120 美元，以2019年为基 年 B.2019年到2019年以CPI计算的通货膨胀率是多少 2019年CPI篮子的费用 = ($9 x 10) + ($6 x 20) = $210
6
主动学习 1
参考答案
CPI 篮子: {10 磅牛肉, 20 磅鸡肉} 2019年CPI 的篮子费用是 120 美元，以2019年为基 年。 A. 计算2019年的 CPI : 2019
2019 2019
牛肉价 鸡肉价 格 格
$4
$5 $9
$4
$5 $6
2019年CPI篮子的费用 = ($5 x 10) + ($5 x 20) = $150 2019的CPI = 100 x ($150/$120) = 125
2019年的CPI = 100 x ($210/$120) = 175
CPI通货膨胀率 = (175 – 125)/125 = 40%
8
CPI的篮子中有些什么?
4% 3% 6% 6% 6% 43% 住房 交通 食物和饮料 医疗 休闲活动 15% 教育与通信 服装 17%
曼昆《经济学原理》(微观经济学分册)整理
第1章经济学十大原理1.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
稀缺性是指社会拥有的资源是有限的，因此不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与服务。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，就存在着资源的有限性和人类欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。
因此，经济学家研究人们如何做出决策，如何相互影响以及分析影响整个经济的力量和趋势。
经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
2.人们如何做出决策由于-个经济的行为反映了组成这个经济的个人的行为，所以我们的经济学学习就应该从个人做出决策的四个原理开始：原理一：人们而临权衡取舍为了得到一件喜爱的东西，通常就不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。
做出决策要求人们在一个目标与另-个目标之间权衡取舍。
效率（efficient）：是指社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大的利益。
平等（equality）：是指将这些利益平均地分配给社会成员。
原理二：某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西在很多情况下，某种行动的成本并不像乍看时那明显。
一种东西的机会成本是为了得到这种东曲所放弃的东西。
机会成本（opportunity）：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
原理三：理性人考虑边际量经济学家通常假设，人是理性的。
在机会成本为既定的条件下，理性人（rational people）系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标。
边际变动（marginal change）：对现有行动计划的微小增量调整。
理性人通常比较边际收益（marginal benefit）与边际成本（marginal cost）来做决策。
当且仅当一种行为的边际收益大于边际成本，一个理性决策者才会采取这种行为。
原理四：人们会对激胁做出反应激励（incentive）是引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西（如惩罚或奖励的预期）。
由于理性人通过比较成本与收益做出决策，所以，他们会对激励做出反应。
当成本或收益变动时，他们的行为也会随之发生改变。
曼昆_微观经济学_原理_第五版_课后习题答案
第三篇市场和福利第十六章垄断竞争问题与应用1．在垄断、寡头、垄断竞争和完全竞争中，你如何给以下每一种饮料的市场分类:A．自来水Ｂ．瓶装水Ｃ．可乐Ｄ．啤酒答：·自来水市场是完全竞争市场，因为与许多水龙头，而且各个厂商的产品是无差异的。
·瓶装水市场是垄断竞争市场。
在这一市场上有许多生产瓶装水的厂商，而且每一厂商产出的瓶装水在品牌和包装上都有不同，即产品有一些差异。
·可乐市场是寡头市场。
在这一市场上只有有限的几家厂商控制大部分的市场分额。
·啤酒市场是寡头市场。
在这一市场上只有有限的几家厂商控制大部分的市场分额。
2．把下列市场分为完全竞争、垄断或垄断竞争，并解释你的回答。
A．2号木杆铅笔。
B．铜。
C．本地电话服务。
D．花生酱。
E．唇膏。
答：·花生酱市场是垄断竞争市场。
因为存在不同的质量特征和不同品牌。
·2 号铅笔、唇膏，属于垄断竞争市场。
因为市场有许多生产企业，但每个企业所提供的产品是略有不同的，而且企业可以自由进出市场。
·铜、本地电话服务，属于垄断市场。
因为在这两种市场上，只有惟一的一个生产者，而且产品没有相近替代品，其他企业想进入这个市场几乎是不可能的。
3．说出下面每一个特征描述的是完全竞争企业、垄断竞争企业，两者既是，还是两者都不是。
A．出售的产品与其竞争对手的产品有有差别答：该特征描述的是垄断竞争企业。
在垄断竞争市场上，企业出售与其竞争对手不同的产品。
B．边际收益低于价格答：该特征描述的是垄断竞争企业。
在垄断竞争市场上，企业边际收益低于价格。
C．在长期中获得经济利润答：该特征描述的既不是完全竞争企业，也不是垄断竞争企业。
在完全竞争和垄断竞争市场上，企业都不可能在长期中获得经济利润。
D．长期中生产最低平均总成本处的产量答：该特征描述的是完全竞争企业。
长期中，完全竞争市场中的企业生产最低平均总成本处的产量。
E．边际收益与边际成本相等答：该特征描述的既是完全竞争企业，也是垄断竞争企业。
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只有少数几个卖者的市场
n 寡头市场的特征
ä 只有少数几个卖者提供相似或相同的 产品。
ä 企业之间的行为相互影响。 ä 寡头集体合作起来并像一个垄断者那样行
ä Few sellers offering similar or identical products
ä Interdependent firms ä Best off cooperating and acting like a
monopolist by producing a small quantity of output and charging a price above marginal cost
事——生产少量产品并收取高于其边际成 本的价格，它们的状况会最好。
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
A Duopoly Example 双头的例子
由于寡头市场只有几个卖者，所以寡头的关 键特征是合作与利己之间的冲突。
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
MARKETS WITH ONLY A FEW SELLERS
n Characteristics of an Oligopoly Market
不完全竞争 产业中的企业有竞争对手，但 同时又没有面临使它们成为价格接受者的 激烈竞争。
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Types of Imperfectly Competitive Markets
（Chap14）
• Tap water • Cable TV
• Tennis balls • Crude oil
• Novels • Movies
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• Wheat • Milk
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
不完全竞争市场的类型
u 寡头
u 只有少数几个卖者的市场结构，每个卖者 都提供与其它企业相似或相同的产品。
u 垄断竞争
u 很多企业出售相似但不相同的产品。
Many firms
Typห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ of Products?
Differentiated products
Identical products
Monopoly （Chap15）
Oligopoly (Chap16)
Monopolistic Competition
(Chap17)
Perfect Competition
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
BETWEEN MONOPOLY AND PERFECT COMPETITION
在垄断和完全竞争之间
Imperfect competition includes industries in which firms have competitors but do not face so much competition that they are price takers.
图1. 市场结构的四种类型
企业数量?
许多企业
一家 企业
几家 企业
有差别产量
产品类型？
相同产品
垄断 （15章）
寡头 （16章）
垄断竞争 （17章）
完全竞争 （14章）
• 自来水 • 有线电视
• 网球 • 原油
•小说 • 电影
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• 小麦 • 牛奶
Markets With Only a Few Sellers 只有少数几个卖者的市场
Because of the few sellers, the key feature of oligopoly is the tension between cooperation and self-interest.
Oligopoly 寡头
Chapter 16
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
BETWEEN MONOPOLY AND PERFECT COMPETITION
在垄断和完全竞争之间
Imperfect competition refers to those market structures that fall between perfect competition and pure monopoly. 不完全竞争——介于完全竞争和纯垄断 之间的市场结构。
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Figure 1 The Four Types of Market Structure
Number of Firms?
One firm
Few firms
u Oligopoly
u Only a few sellers, each offering a similar or identical product to the others.
u Monopolistic Competition
u Many firms selling products that are similar but not identical.