词汇学笔记(名词解释为主)
词汇学笔记
词汇学笔记NOTES OF ENGLISH LEXICOLOGYIntroduction0.1The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyLexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of word.English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular.0.2It’s Relation to Other DisciplinesLexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.Stylistics is the study of style.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference.0.3Methods of StudyThere are two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.0.4 Aims and Significance of the courseChapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What Is a WordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and Meaning1.3 Sound and FormThe three reasons for the differences between sound and from.㈠the internal reason is that the English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound.㈡the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.㈢some of the differences were created by the early scribes.1.4 VocabularyThe term “vocabulary” is use d in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for the words used in a particular historical period.1.5 Classification of Words 词汇的分类1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇The 5 characteristics of basic word stock: 基本词汇的5大特点①All national character 全民性② Stability 稳定性③ Productivity 多产性④ Polysemy 多义性⑤ Collocability 搭配性The 7 types of nonbasic word stock words: 非基本词汇的7大种类① Terminology 术语② Jargon 行话③ Slang 俚语④ Argot 黑话⑤ Dialectal words 方言词⑥ Archaisms 古语词⑦ Neologisms 新词1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words 功能词和实义词①Functional words 功能词② Content words 实义词1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words 本地词和外来词The 2 characteristics of native words: 本地词的另2大特点（包括基本词汇的5大特点）① Ne utral in style 文体中性② Frequent in use 使用频繁The 4 types of borrowings: 外来词的4大类型① Denizens 同化词② Aliens 异形词③ Translation- loans 翻译借词④ Semantic- loans 语义借词Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系ScandinavianEastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, AlbanianArmenianAlbanianBalto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianIndo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany(the last three derived from deadlanguage Sanskrit) Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, GermanicGreek (derived from Hellenic)Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, BretonItalic: Portuguese, Spanish, French,Italian, Roumanian(Latin Romance language)Germanic: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish(Northern European Language)GermanDutchFlemishEnglish 北欧日耳曼语系东部：巴尔特-斯拉夫语系，印度伊朗语系，亚美尼亚，阿尔巴尼亚亚美尼亚阿尔巴尼亚巴尔特-斯拉夫语系：普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄罗斯语印度伊朗语系：波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语（后三种语言源于已消失的梵文）西部：凯尔特语系，意大利语族，古希腊语言，日耳曼语系希腊语(源于古希腊语言)凯尔特语系：苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布列塔尼语意大利语族：葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语（拉丁语）日耳曼语系：挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语，瑞典语（北欧语言）德语荷兰语佛兰芒语英语2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocabulary 英语词汇的历史概况2.2.1 Old English( 450-1150 ) 古英语2.2.2 Middle English( 1150-1500 ) 中古英语If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.2.2.3 Modern English(1500-up to now) 现代英语①Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语② Late Modern English (1700- up to now) 后期现代英语2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式：创词，旧词新义，借词English vocabulary develops through 3 channels: creation, semantic changes, borrowingCreation创词refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic changes旧词新义means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrowing借词has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contribute to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation I3.1 Morphemes 词素Morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.3.2 Allomorphs 词素变体Morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word are known as allomorphs.3.3 Types of Morphemes 词素的分类① free morphemes = free root 自由词素② bound morphemes 粘附词素3.3.1 Free Morphemes自由词素= 自由根词Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.3.3.2 Bound Morphemes 粘附词素：粘附词根，词缀：内部曲折词缀，派生词缀：前缀，后缀Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.Bound morphemes include 2 types: bound root and affix.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning , it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Affixes include: inflectional and derivational affixesInflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional.Derivational affixes: are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.Derivational affixes include: prefix and suffix.3.4 Root and Stem 词根和词干A root词根is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem词干can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Chapter 4 Word Formation II4.1 Affixation词缀法Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes can be classified into 9 groups on a semantic basis.①Negative prefixes 表示否定意义的前缀②Reversative prefixes表示逆向意义的前缀③Pejorative prefixes 表示贬义的前缀④Prefixes of degree or size 表示程度、大小等意义的前缀⑤Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀⑥Locative prefixes 表示方位意义的前缀⑦Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序等意义的前缀⑧Number prefixes 表示数字的前缀⑨Miscellaneous 其他种类意义的前缀4.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Suffixes can be grouped into 3 types on a grammatical basis: noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes and verb suffixes1. Noun suffixes include: denominal nouns, deverbal nouns, de-adjective nouns, noun and adjevtive suffixesDenominal nouns: a. Concrete:-eer, -er, -ess, -ette, -let 由n.转化来的名词b. Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ery(-ry), -hood, -ing, -ism, -shipDeverbal nouns: a. nouns denoting people:-ant, -ee, -ent, -er(or), 由v.转化来的名词b. nouns denoting acting, result, process, state: -age, -al, -ance,-ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing, -ment,De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness, 由a. 转化来的名词Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese, -an, -ist n.和a.后缀2.Adjective suffixes include: denominal suffixes, deverbal suffixes.加在n.后的a.后缀，加在v.后的a. 后缀Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, -al(-ial, -ical),-esque, -ic, -ous(-eous, -ious),Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive(-ative, -sive),3. Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise a.后缀4. Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize(-ise) v. 后缀4.2 Compounding 复合构词法Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特点The 3 characteristics of compounds.① Phonetic features 语音特点② Semantic features 语义特点③ Grammatical features 语法特点4.2.2 Formations of Compounds 复合词的构成There are 3 major classes of compounds① Noun compounds 名词复合词② Adjective compounds 形容词复合词③ Verb compounds 动词复合词4.3 Conversion 转类法There are 3 types of words that produced by conversion: nouns, verbs, adjectives,1. Conversion to noun 转换成n.的转类词① Verb to noun② Adjective to noun③ Miscellaneous conversion2. Conversion to verbs 转换成v.的转类词① Noun to verb② Adjective to verb③ Miscellaneous conversion3. Conversion to adjectives 转换成a.的转类词4.4 Blending 拼缀法Head + tail 词头+词尾Head + head 词头+词头Head + word 词头+词Word + tail 词+词尾4.5 Clipping 截短法There are 4 common types of clipping:① Front clipping 首部截短② Back clipping 尾部截短③ Front and back clipping 首尾部截短④ Phrase clipping 短语截短4.6Acronymy 首字母拼音法Words formed this way can be divided into: initialisms or acronyms.4.6.1 Initialisms 首字母缩略法Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.Letters represent full words: A.D., VOA, UFO, p./c.Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts ofa word: TV, ID, GHQ4.6.2 Acronyms 首字母拼写法Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.: NA TO, AIDS, V-Day4.7 Back-formation 逆生法1. Abstract nouns 抽象名词2. Human nouns 人物名词3. Compound nouns and others 复合词及其它4. Adjectives 形容词4.8 Words from Proper Names 专有名词转化而来的普通名词1. Names of people 人名2. Names of places 地名3. Names of books 书名4. Tradenames 商标名Chapter 5 Word MeaningWord is the combination of form and meaning. By form we mean both its pronunciation and spelling.5.1 The Meanings of ‘Meaning’意义的意义5.1.1 Reference 所指Reference is the relationship between language and the word.5.1.2 Concept 概念Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5.1.3 Sense 意义The meaning of …meaning ? is perhaps what is termed …sense?.5.2 Motivation 理据Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.5.2.1 Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据Some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.5.2.2 Morphological Motivation 形态理据Compound and derived words are multi-morphological words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.5.2.3 Semantic Motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.5.2.4 Etymological Motivation 语源理据The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins.5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的种类5.3.1 Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 语法意义和词汇意义Grammatical meanings refers o that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept of relationships such as part of speech of word (n. v. a. ad.), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word meaning.Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.5.3.2Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning 概念意义和联想意义Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meaning.联想意义：内涵意义，文体意义，感情意义，搭配意义Chapter 6 Sense Rations and Semantic FieldSemantically, all words are related in one way or another.6.1 Polysemy 多义关系Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages.6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 多义关系的两个研究方法：历时方法，共时方法The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.1. Diachronic approach历时方法In diachronic approach, other meanings apart from the primary meaning of a word were acquired by: extension, narrowing, analogy, transfer.2. Synchronic approach共时方法Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning.6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 语义发展的两种模式：辐射型，连锁型The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as: radiation and concatenation.Radiation辐射型is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Concatenation连锁型is the semantic process in the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which theterm had at the beginning.6.2 Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的种类1. Perfect homonyms 完全同形同音异义词2. Homographs 同形异音异义词3. Homophones 同音异形异义词Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的来源There are various sources of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing, shortening.1. Change in sound and spelling 语言和拼写变化2. Borrowing 借用3. Shortening 缩略法6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemant 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their etymology, the second principal consideration is semantic relatedness.6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的修辞特点As homonyms are identical in sound of spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.6.3 Synonymy 同义关系Synonyms is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages.6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词的定义（异形异音同义）Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 同义词的类别：绝对同义词，相对同义词Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.Absolute synonyms绝对同义词also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.Relative synonyms相对同义词also called near-synonyms are similar or near the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning of different degrees of a given quality.6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 同义词的来源①Borrowing 借词② Dialects and regional English 方言词③ Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语④ Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 同义词的区别：外延上，内涵上，应用上The differences between synonyms boil down to 3 areas: denotation, connotation, and applicationDifference in denotation, synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.Difference in connotation, by connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words.Difference in application, many words are synonyms in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.6.4 Antonymy 反义关系6.4.1 Types of Antonyms 反义词的类别Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning1. Contradictory terms, 互为矛盾的反义词these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning.2. Contrary terms, 相对反义词antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.3. Relative terms, 表示相互关系的反义词this third type consists of relational opposites such as parent/child.6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 反义词的一些特点1. Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.In a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.反义词是按语义相反的情况进行划分的。
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
词汇学名词解释
词汇学1、Compounding（合成法）Compounding is a word-formation process of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.e.g. blackboard, air-conditioning, flowerpot2、Derivation（派⽣生法）= affixation（词缀法）A word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix,or both, to the base.e.g. belittle, debug, anti-war3、Conversion（词性转移法）Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.e.g. attack (v. & n.), compound (v. & n.), permit (v. & n.)4、Initialisms（⾸首字⺟母连写词）Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter.e.g. BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), VIP (a very important people)5、Acronyms（⾸首字⺟母拼⾳音词）Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term.e.g. OPEC, BASIC, SAM, TEFL, UNESCO6、Clipping（剪裁法）The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone, gym from gymnastics, taxi from taxicab7、Blending（混合法）Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of whichare not in their full forms.e.g. newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)8、Back formation（逆构法）Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorterword is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.e.g.the verb resurrect was formed from the noun resurrection by removing the supposed derivative suffix -ion, and the verb edit formed from editor by dropping the suffix -or.9、Words from proper names（专有名词构词法）The words that coined from the different proper names. Such as the names of people, the names of places, the names of books, or the names of brands.e.g. watt, hertz, Nicotine10、Reduplication（复制法）Reduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition (1)of one word like go-go; (2)of two almost identical words with a change in the vowel’s such as ping-pong; (3) of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, as in teenyweeny.11、Coinage（新造的字）Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.e.g. fruice = fruit +juice, slanguage =slang + language12、Classification of English words according to different criteriaA. By origin:1) native words2) loan wordsB. By level of usage :1)common words2)literary words3)colloquial words4)slang words5)technical wordsC. By notion:1)function words（虚词）2)content words （实词）13、inflectional morpheme (or inflectional affixes) （曲折词缀）An inflectional aifix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed.e.g. “s” in chairs, pens ; “es” in boxes, tomatoes; “en” in oxen14、root（词根）(1) 书：A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.e.g. work, boy, moon, walk(2) ⽹网：A root is a form which is not further analysable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme.15、stem（词⼲干）Stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.e.g. in the word undesirables, the stem is undesirable;in the word desired, the stem is desire16、base（词基）Base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.e.g. in the word desirable, desire is the base to which a suffix -able is added.17、echoic words or onomatopoeic words（拟声词或象声词）Words motivated phonetically are called echoi words or onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation suggests the meaning.e.g. the woof-woof of a dog, the miaow of a cat18、homonyms（异义词）In the English language, there are many pairs or groups of words, which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike, or both.e.g. lead (n. & v.), sow (n. & v.), tear (n. & v.)19、complementary antonyms（互补性反义词）Complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary semantic opposition. In a complementary pair the contrast between the two terms is absolute.e.g. alive and dead, single and married20、synchronic dictionary（共时词典）Synchronic dictionaries describe the vocabulary of a certain period or at a certain stage of the development of the language, providing the from, meaning, usage, etc., of the words of the period.e.g. COD, WCD21、allomorph（同位异形体）An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.e.g. the allomorphs -ion/-tion/-sion/-ation are the positional variants of the same suffix22、prefixation（前缀）Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combining form to the base.e.g. de-, be-, en-23、semantic motivation（语义动机）Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association.e.g.When we speak of a stony heart we are comparing the heart with a stone; when we say the leg of a table, we are comparing the tables leg with one of the lower limbs of a human being.24、affective meaning（情感意义）Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.e.g. Aha! Alas! and Hurrah!25、hyponymy（上下义关系）Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is “included” in the la tter.e.g. a cat is a hyponym of animal, flute of instrument, chair of furniture26、semantic field（语义场）（1）书：Semantic field theory "took the view that the vocabulary of a given language is not simply a listing of independent items (as the headwords in a dictionary would suggest), but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways."（2）⽹网：Semantic field theory is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. The words of a semantic field are joined together by a common concept, and they are likely to have a number of collocations in common.e.g.The words red, green, white etc. make up the semantic field of colors;the words father, mother, son etc. make up the semantic field of kinship27、componential analysis（成分分析法）The analysis of word meanings is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components.e.g. cow : [+ Bovine + Adult - Male]man : [+Human + Adult + Male]。
自考英语词汇学名词解释(54个全)
词汇学名词解释1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。
英语词汇学重点名词解释
英语词汇学重点名词解释Word a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a giving sound and meaning and syntactic function.Native w ords are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes. They are neutral in style and frequent in use.Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into English language. In other words they have come to comfort to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.Semantic-loans refers to words whose meanings are borrowed and whose forms are not borrowed. Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing material, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meetthe new need.Mopheme the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.Free mophemes are independent of other mophemes and have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammarical units in sentences. They are identical with root words.Bound mophemes A mopheme that occurs with at least one other mopheme.Stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Inflectional affix is an affix that indicates grammatical relationships.Derivational affix is an affix that forms new words with a stem or a root.Affixation It is also called derivation, is the formation of new words by adding affix to stems.Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.Conversion the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.Blending the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Clipping to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.Initialisms are words pronunced letter by letter.Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the lieral sense and figurative sense of the word..Morphological motivation accounts for the connection between the meaning of the word and the me aning of each morpheme in the word.Onomatopoeic motivation indicates the relationship between sound and meaning of a word . I ts sound suggests its meaning.Grammarical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammarical concept or relationships.Conceptual meaning the meaning giveb in the dictionary forms the core of word meaning.Connotation (Connotative meaning ) refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.Collocative meaning the word meaning which is suggested by t he words before or after the word in discussion.Reference is the relationship between language and the world.Concept Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Radiation a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre secondary meaning proceed out of it in every direction like rays.Concatenation a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Polysemy words that have two or more than two sense.Homonymy words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or meaning.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and in spelling, but different in meaning.Synonym one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.Primary meaning is the only first meaning that a word had when it was created.Extension (Generalization) A process by which a word which originally had a specialized me aning has now become generalized.Narrowing (Specialication) It is also called specialication. It is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.Degradation is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense..Amelioration ( Elevation ) is also called elevation, a term referring to the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance..Transfer words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Linguistic context refers to the words, clauses, sentenses in which a word appears.Extra-linguistic context is also called non-linguistic context, which includes people, time, place, even the whole cultural background..Lexical context refers to the word occur together with the word in question.Grammatical context In some cases, the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.Metonymy the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it.Synecdoche is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.Idioms strictly speaking, idioms are expr essions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements.Idioms nominal in nature idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences.Specialized dictionary is a dictionary concentrationg on a particular area of language or knowledge. Unabridged dictionary As the name indicates, an unabridged dictionary is an unshortened one. Theoretically, it is a complete record of all the words in use ( actually no dictionariy can contain all the words in the language ).Desk dictionaries are medium-sized ones containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. As they are dictionaries that one finds most used on desks, th ey are called desk dictionaries.。
自考英语词汇学名词解释(54个全)
词汇学名词解释1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. T ake -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word- formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。
《词汇学》名词解释总汇
《词汇学》名词解释总汇1.Conversion（转换）is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation.2.Neologisms（新词用法）are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technological changes in human society.3. Lexicology（词汇学）is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage.4.the elevation of meaning（词义的升格）refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.5.Acronyms（首字母拼音词）words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. They differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequencesof letters.6.Hyponymy (上下义关系)deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items).7.Analogy（类比）is a process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language.8.Motivation（理据）deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. 9.Metaphor（隐喻）is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison. It is a simile without like or as.10.Antonymy (反义关系)is concerned with semantic opposition. It can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.11.Suffix（后缀）: an affix attached to the end of a base (root or stem)12. synecdoche（提喻）means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part.13. prefix（前缀）: an affix attached to the beginning of a base (root or stem)14. initialism（首字母连写词）: a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter. 15.morpheme(词素): the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not dividable or analyzable into smaller forms.16.the degradation of meaning（词义的降格）: is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.17.Derivational affixes (派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes。
词汇学知识点总结
词汇学知识点总结词汇学是研究词汇的学科，它是语言学的一个重要分支，涉及了语言的构成、变化和使用等方面。
词汇学对于语言的理解和应用具有重要的意义，它不仅可以帮助我们更好地掌握语言知识，还可以帮助我们提高语言运用能力。
在这篇文章中，我们将对词汇学的知识点进行总结，帮助读者更好地理解和掌握这一学科。
一、词的定义和分类词是语言中的最小意义单位，是构成句子和表达意思的基本单位。
按照在句子中的功能和语法特征，词可以分为实词和虚词两大类。
实词包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等，它们能够表示具体的事物或抽象的概念；虚词包括代词、连词、介词、助词等，它们通常用来连接或修饰实词，没有明确的词义。
二、词汇的构成词汇的构成是指词的组成方式和形态特征。
在词汇的构成中，我们可以看到一些常见的构词法，如前缀、后缀、派生、合成、转化等。
通过这些构词法，我们可以对词汇进行灵活组合和创造，丰富语言的表达能力。
1.前缀前缀是指加在词根前面的一个字，可以改变词的词义或语法特征。
比如，“un-”表示否定，“re-”表示再次，“pre-”表示在前面等。
2.后缀后缀是指加在词根后面的一个字，同样可以改变词的词义或语法特征。
比如，“-ing”表示进行时，“-ful”表示充满的意思，“-ment”表示名词化等。
3.派生派生是指通过词根和词缀的组合来创造和衍生新的词。
比如，“happy”是一个形容词，通过加上“-ness”后缀就可以派生出名词“happiness”。
4.合成合成是指两个或多个词汇组合在一起，形成一个新的词。
比如，“blackboard”由“black”和“board”两个实词组合而成。
5.转化转化是指一个词汇的词类发生改变，但词形不变。
比如，“work”可以作为动词，也可以作为名词，它的词形都不发生变化。
词汇的构成方式是多种多样的，通过学习这些构词法，我们可以更好地理解和掌握词汇的形态特征，有助于提高我们的语言表达能力。
三、词汇的语义特征语义是指词汇所携带的意义，它是语言交流和理解的基础。
词汇学名词解释
词汇学名词解释1.Slang:俚语word of this group belong to the sub-standard language (a category that seems to stand between the standard general words and informal ones available to everyone) eg roger(understand),catch(talk to)2.Archaisms:古语词archaisms are words or form that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. eg thou(you).wilt(will)3.Neologisms:新词语this category refer to newly-created words or expressions or words that have taken on new meanings. eg the pill=an oral contraceptive4.Denizens:同化词denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the english language.in the words they have come to conform to english way of pronunciation and spelling. eg pork from porc(F) .cup from cuppa(L)5.Aliens:非同化词aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Eg decor(F)6.translation loans:译借词translation loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the english language but modelled on the patterns taken from anther language. eg ketchup from fanqiejiang(CH dial) lama from lama(Tib)7.semantic loans:借义词words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form but to the meaning.in the other words ,english has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language. eg Pioneer once signified ‘explorer’ only or ‘person doing pioneering work’, and it now has taken on the new meaning of a member of the Young Pioneer’8.Free versus bound morphemes:自由语素粘着语素Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free .free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentence.eg they are identicalWith words,for example,man,earth,wind,car and anger.collect,ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes.all the rest re-,-ion,-ist,-ic,ex- and -er are bound as none of them freestanding units9.Derivational versus inflectional morphemes:①morphemes wich are u sed to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes.eg clear+ance,life+like.②.Inflection morphemes:曲折语素indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers.inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines,fridges,desks,radio and potatoes.10.affix:词缀affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Eg prefixes:pre-,ex-,and de- suffixes:-less,-dom,-ic,-s,-ed)11.Affixation:词缀法affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to base. Affixation fall into two subcategories:prefixation and suffixation.①prefixation前缀法is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to base.non-means not:non-smoker,non-classical.②suffixation:后缀法is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.eg -ful:meaning’amount’contained’一mouthful,handful./doc/be11048396.html,pounding:(复合法）compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. eg these example show that compounds can be writtensolid(silkworm),hyphenated(honey-bee) and open(tear gas).13.Conversion转类法conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Eg simple (adj)一simplify(v)简化14.Blending:拼缀法blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. eg smog is the result of putting smoke and fog together.15.Clipping：截短法another common way of making a word is to shorten,or clip a longer word,known as clipping. eg plane and exam are sometimes use in place of aeroplane.16.Acronymy:首字母拼写法acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms. Eg. V oa voice of america17.back-formation:逆生法back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. eg diagnosis一diagnose，donation一donate18.Sound reduplication(语音重叠法）sound reduplication is the formation compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change. eg flip一flop人字拖,fingle一fangle标立异/doc/be11048396.html,monization of proper names:专用名词普遍化when proper names are changed into words in use,the process is called commonization. eg ‘ohm from German physicist ohm .20.Onomatopoeic motivation:拟声理据in modern Englishone may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating,the natural sounds or noises.bang,ping一pong,haha.21.Morphological motivation:形态理据compounds and derived words are muti-morphemic words and the meaning many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. eg air mail means ‘to mail by air’22.Semantic motivation：语义理据semantic motivation is the mental associations bases on the conceptual meaning of a word.in other word,it is the figurative sense of the word. eg when we say the mouth of a river,we associate ‘the open ing part of the river’with ‘the mouth of a human being or an animal’23.Etymological motivation：词源理据the origins of words often throw light on their meanings. eg the word laconic meaning ‘brief ‘ or ‘short’ is derived form lacons.24.t ypes of homonyms①hom onyms：同形同音异义词perfect homonyms also known as absolute homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling. eg bear n(a large heavy animal) bear v (to put up with)②homographs:同形异义词are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. eg sow v(to scatter seeds)一sow n (female adult pig)③homophones:同音异义词are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Eg dear n(a love person) ;deer n (a kind of animal).25.Extension of meaning:词义的扩大extension of meaning refers to the process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. eg journal一daily paper一periodical26.Narrowing of meaning：(词义的缩小）narrowing of meaning is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. eg girl一young person of either sex 一female young person27.Elevation of meaning:(词义的升华)elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. eg angel一messenger一messenger of God. 28.Degradation of meaning:(词义的降格)degradation is a process whereby words of good originfall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. eg silly一happy一foolish.29.Transference of meaning:(词义的转移）words which were used to designated one thing later changed to mean something else.30.Euphemism:（委婉语）people tend to avoid mentioning taboo and specific unpleasantnesses directly and try to employ pleasant terms to express the ideas.。
英语词汇学名词解释
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇”1.W ord --- A word is a minima l free form of a langua ge that has a givensoundand meanin g and syntac tic funtio n.2. Morphe me --- A morphe me is the minima l signif icant elemen t in the compos ition of words.3. Free morphe mes or Conten t morphe mes (Free root)--- They are morphe mes that may consti tutewordsby themse lves: cat, walk.4. BoundMorphe mes or Gramma tical morphe mes--- They are morphe mes that must appear with at leastone othermorphe me, either boundor free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Boundroot --- A boundroot is that part of the word that carrie s the fundam ental meanin g just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a boundform and has to combin e with othermorphe mes to make words.Take -dict- for exampl e: it convey s the meanin g of "say or speak"as a Latinroot, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predic t meanin g "tell before hand".6. Affixe s --- Affixe s are formsthat are attach ed to wordsor word elemen ts to modify meanin g or funtio n.7. Inflec tiona l morphe mes or Inflec tiona l affixe s --- Affixe s attach es to the end of wordsto indica te gramma tical relati onshi ps are inflec tiona l ,thus knownas inflec tiona l morphe mes.Thereis the regula r plural suffix-s(-es) whichis addedto nounssuch as machin es, desks.8. Deriva tiona l morphe mes or Deriva tiona l affixe s--- Deriva tiona l affixe s are affixe s addedto othermorphe mes to create new words.9. Prefix es --- Prefix es are affixe s that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffix es --- suffix es are affixe s that come afterthe word, for instan ce, blood+y. Deriva tiona l morphe mes/ deriva tiona l affixe s --- A proces s of formin g new wordsby the additi on of a word elemen t. Such as prefix, suffix, combin g form to an alread y existi ng word.Prefix ation---- is the format ion of new wordsby adding prefix or combin g form to the base. (It modify the lexica l meanin g of the base)Suffix ation--- is the format ion of a new word by adding a suffix or combin g form to the base and usuall y changi ng the word-classof the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adject ive)11. Roo t --- A root is the basicform of a word whichcannot be furthe r analys ed withou t totalloss of identi ty.12.Opaque Words--Wordsthat are formed by one conten t morphe me only and cannot be analys ed into partsare called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13.Transp arent Words--Wordsthat consis t of more than one morphe mes and can be segmen ted into partsare called transp arent words:workab le(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphe mes are abstra ct units, whichare realiz ed in speech by discre te unitsknownas morphs. They are actual spoken, minima l carrie rs of meanin g.15. Allomo rps--Some morphe mes are realiz ed by more than one morphaccord ing to theirpositi on in a word. Such altern ative morphs are knownas allomo rphs.For instan ce, the morphe me of plural ity {-s} has a number of allomo rphsin differ ent soundcontex t, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match/iz/.16.Deriva tionor Affixa tion--Affixa tionis genera lly define d as the format ion of wordsby adding word-formin g or deriva tiona l affixe s to stems.This proces s is also knownas deriva tion.17.Prefix ation--Prefix ation is the format ion of new wordsby adding prefix es to stems.18.Suffix ation--Suffix ation is the format ion of new wordsby adding suffix es to stems.19. Compou nding（Compos iton）--Compou nding is a proces s of word-format ion by whichtwo indepe ndent wordsare put togeth er to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighte d.20. Conver sion--Conver sionis the format ion of new wordsby conver tingwordsof one classto anothe r class.This proces s of creati ng new wordswithou t adding any affixe s is also called zero-deriva tion. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-format ion-- is a proces s of word-format ion by whicha word is create d by the deleti on of a suppos ed affix. E.g. editor entere d the langua ge before edit.22. Abbrev iatio n ( shorte ning)-- is a proces s of word-format ion by whichthe syllab les of wordsare abbrev iated or shorte ned.23. Abbrev iatio n includ es four types: I. Clippe d wordsII. Initia lisms III. Acrony ms IV. Blends.I. Clippe d words--are thosecreate d by clippi ng part of a word, leavin g only a pieceof the old word. E.g. teleph one-->phone, profes siona l-->pro.II. Initia lisms--are wordsformed from the initia l letter s of wordsand pronou ncedas letter s. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=Intern ation al Moneta ry Fund.III. Acrony ms--are wordsformed from the initia l letter s of word and pronou ncedas words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=NorthAtlant ic Treaty Organi zatio n.IV.Blends--are wordsthat are combin ed by partsof otherwords. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polyse my--The same word may have two or more differ ent meanin gs. This is knownas "polyse my". The word "flight", for exampl e, may mean "passin g throug h the air", "powerof flying", "air of journe y", etc.*Two approa chesto polyse my: Diachr onicand Synchr onicDiachr onica lly, we studythe growth or change in the semant ic struct ure of a word , or how the semant ic struct ure of a word has develo ped from primar y meanin g to the presen t polyse mic state.Synchr onica lly,we are intere stedin the compar ative valueof indivi dualmeanin gs and the interr elati on betwee n the centra l meanin g and the second ary meanin gs.*Two proces ses leadin g to polyse my: Radiat ion and concat enati onRadiat ion: Semant icall y, radiat ion is the proces s in whichthe primar y or centra l meanin g stands at the center whilesecond ary meanin gs radiat e from it in everydirect ion like rays.Concat enati on: is a semant ic proces s in whichthe meanin g of a word movesgradua lly away from its firstsenseby succes siveshifts, like the linksof a chain, untill thereis no connec tionbetwee n the sensethat is finall y develo ped and the primar y meanin g.25. Homony ms--are genera lly define d as wordsdiffer ent in meanin g but either identi cal both in soundand spelli ng or identi cal『a.同一的，完全相同的』 only in soundor spelli ng.26. Perfec t Homony ms--are wordsidenti cal both in soundand spelli ng,but differ ent in meanin g。
词汇学笔记整理
Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book,
a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.
adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to
represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do
double duty or work together in combination.
Classification of Words (本课的一个重点, 年年考试都考)
What is the classification of words? How to classify words in
linguistics?
Three criteria :
1) By use of frequency
,you
What are the characteristics of basic word stock?
1) All national character
2) Stability
3) Productivity
4) Polysemy
5) Collocability
要把握住‘All national character’的词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通的词
词汇学笔记
一词汇学的分科与研究方法（一）词汇学的分科与研究对象⏹1．词汇学的分科：词汇学是以词和词汇为研究对象的一门语言学科。
⏹ 1.1普通词汇学：以多种语言中的词汇现象为研究对象，目标是总结出一般性的规律。
⏹ 1.2具体语言词汇学：以一种语言中的词汇现象为研究对象（可从时间角度再次划分；古代汉语词汇学、汉语词汇学、汉语词汇史）⏹（1）历时词汇学：研究词汇在语言发展过程中的演变规律（关注变化、对比；汉语词汇史）⏹（2）历史比较词汇学（历时内容）：运用历史比较法研究有亲属关系的多种语言中的词汇问题（考察不同语言词汇的共源关系和各自不同的演变规律；汉藏词汇比较研究）⏹（3）描写词汇学（静态词汇学）：与历时词汇学相对，采用共时的研究方法对某一时期（一般指现阶段）语言的词汇系统和词汇现象加以分析描写⏹2．现代汉语描写词汇学的研究对象：词的性质（造词法、构词法）、词义系统（特征、类聚、类型、发展）、词义范围、词义的发展演变、词汇的构成和演变（二）词汇学的研究方法⏹ 1.静态描写（立足于材料和事实的本身）（最基础的，共时的）→归纳总结（最重要的）⏹ 2.定量统计⏹ 2.1古汉语词汇研究⏹ 2.2现代汉语词汇研究⏹ 3.文化分析⏹ 3.1从词汇材料入手研究其所体现的文化内涵⏹ 3.2从文化角度解释某些词汇现象①用中国传统的价值观对汉语词语的排序加以解释（帝王、婆媳、大小；夫妻、兄嫂、弟妹、父母、公婆；皮毛、本末、城乡、纲目；岁月、国家、眼镜；兄弟、弟兄——可分语音角度分析）②中国传统美学的平衡对衬、对双音和成语四字格加以解释③用汉民族传统思维和整体、感悟、具象辩证这些特征来解释（“思有所重，词有周全”，相对或偏义的联合式）4．古今结合（共时与历时相结合）5．对比分析6．问卷调查二、离合词问题考察（一）离合词的性质⏹ 1.什么是离合词：既可合在一起，又可拆开使用的词⏹（1）动补式：完成、起来、说服（肯定：得；否定：不）→插入的词固定⏹（2）动宾式：理发→插入的词不固定⏹ 2.离合词的性质⏹（1）离合词是词：大部分的离合词以合的形式出现，整体的凝固的形式⏹（2）离合词是短语⏹（3）合则为词，分则为短语（二）动宾式离合词的偏误类型与原因分析⏹ 1.偏误类型⏹（1）离合词带宾语问题例如：*我结婚他。
词汇学 名词解释(部分)
Types of meaningTypes of lexical changes1.Elevation:词义升格Definition: words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importanceSome words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant.For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---delightful, pleasantMarshal: a keeper of horses---a high ranking army officerSo elevation refers that the meaning of word changes from the neutral/negative to positive.2.Old English:It refers to the English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The oldEnglish is made up of different sources of languages spoken then –that of Anglo-Saxons, that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of Latin elements used for common peopl e’s life.3.Bound morpheme:It is the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot occur as separate words. They have no independent semantic meaning; instead, they have:➢Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful➢Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-edFor an exact example, in the word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a bound morpheme.4.Hyponymy:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, or to say, the relationship between general lexical items and specific lexical items. That is to say, when X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. For example, “fiction”is the superordinate of “novel”, “novelette”and “short story”, which are the hyponyms of “fiction”.Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness in expression.5.Collocation:Collocation is the habitual juxtaposition of linearly arranged words which occurs multiple times to become set expressions.Collocations have four features:➢They are non-arbitrary and predictable. For example, we can say “have tea” but not “have engine oil”➢They are stable and rigid. Collocations are strong enough to exclude other synonymous words. For example, we can say “strong wind and heavy rain” but not “strong rain and heavy wind”.➢They are culturally-loaded. Collocation reflects the English culture and cultural heritage, such as “the Trojan horse” and “Pandora’s box”.➢They are Language-specific.Collocations can be classified into: (in terms of collocational strength.)weak collocations, (collocations that have a wide variety of collocates. Collocational range is wide.E.g. white/red/green/long/small shirt)strong collocations,(Collocations are strong but not unique.E.g. moved to tears) frozen collocations (Collocations that are fixed and irreplaceable, E.g. foot the bill *foot the coffee)Collocations are non-arbitrary, which means that they are motivated. There are four kinds of motivations:Grammatical motivation, (Collocations serve particular grammatical functions in certain grammatical structures.)Semantic motivation, (The meaning of the collocation depends on the collocated components.)Pragmatic motivation, (Collocations are pragmatically driven and pragmatically shaped. E.g.Buckle up, keep space, )Cognitive motivation. (Metaphorical expression beyond literal interpretation.E.g. red-carpet treatment, political honeymoon, bubble economy, soft landing)Collocation is one important aspect of vocabulary development.It offers the most natural way of language use.It provides alternative ways of language use, which may be more colorful, expressive or precise.It helps to improve the style in writing.6.Morpheme:A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. Morpheme can be lexical or grammatical.A free morpheme has complete meaning and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.A bound morpheme cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words.An inflectional morpheme is a morpheme that is used to inflect a word. e.g. white can be inflected with the morphemes -r (whiter) and -est (whitest)A derivational morpheme is a morpheme that is used to create derivations of words. e.g. white can form the derivation whiten by adding the -n morpheme.7.Stylistic meaning:Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form stylistic meaning of words. In some dictionaries ,these stylistic features are clearly marked as “formal”, “informal”, “ literary”, “archaic”, “slang” and so on. This stylistic difference is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and the stylistic meaning.8.Analogy:Analogy refers to the process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language.E.g. youthquake, airbag, earthriseearthquake, handbag, sunrisepounding:It is a type of word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. It is also a productive device at every period of the English language. Forms of compounds are solid, hyphenated, open. According to the grammatical property, there are three types of compounds: noun compounds, adjective compounds, verb compounds. For instance, sleeping-bag= sleeping + bag (the bag for sleeping).Today the largest number of new words are formed by compounding.10.Word:A word is defined as a minimum free form of language with a unity of sound and meaning, capable of preforming a given syntactic function. A word contains three elements: form, structural function and meaning. Broadly speaking, all the words in a language together constitute what is known as vocabulary. It is very important to a language.Without words, nothing can be conveyed.11.Superordinate: in the case of hyponymy, superordinate is the upper word standing for thetotality or the group. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.12.Subordinate: in the case of hyponymy, subordinate is the lower word standing for amember of the group.13.Semantic components: They are the features in a word as far as its concept is concerned.Father –a word with the conceptual features of “adult”, “male”, “humanity”, and “animate”.All the 4 features are its semantic components.14.Derivation:Derivation is the formation of word by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. For example, when the verb “care”add a suffixe “-ful”, a new word ”careful” is formed.This process is also known as affixation. New words formed in this way are called derivatives. According to the position affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subcategories: prefixation and suffixation.15.Inflection:The process of changing word form for the sake of grammaticality, withoutchanging its meaning.16.Back formation:Backformation is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix from a longer form already present in the language. It is also called reverse derivation. The process of word-formation by changing from one form into another for m, as in “edit” from “editor”(initial word).17.Connotative meaning:For people with different cultural backgrounds, a word might evoke different associations.It is the extended meaning of a word. When a word is enlarged in meaning, its meaning is no longe r limited to the original sense. For instance, “torch” in certain context indicates the hope or the ambition/spirit based on its original sense.The connotative meaning of a word refers to the feeling that a word invokes. This differs from its dictionary definition, which is called its "denotative" meaning. Two words can have similar denotations but very different connotations. For example, the words "miserly" and "thrifty" are both adjectives that describe a person who goes to certain lengths to save money. However, "miserly" has strong negative connotations, while "thrifty" evokes positive feelings in a reader.18.Affective meaning:the meaning of a word as decided by the person who uses it withhis/her personal emotion. Positive or negative sense belongs to affective meaning.It refers to the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. You may address sb as an “idiot” to convey your despise, or describe sth as “marvelous”to express your positive evalution. This meaning can be conveyed into three types by the choice of words: commendatory, derogatory and neutral.Extension:It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized, or has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept.For example, the original meaning of manuscript is the handwriting( writing by hand only), but nowadays, it refers to any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word-processorA large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended in the course of development.19.Degradation:It is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. It is the reverse of elevation.For example, “sad” formerly refers to full, satisfied, but now comes to be described “sorrowful”.20.Specialization: the meaning is limited and reduced to certain sense. It is also called“narrowing”.。
词汇学 名词解释
1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information.“Language is man’s way of communication with his fellow man and. It is language alone which separate him from the lower animals”2.What is linguistics?Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human communication.4.What is lexicology?Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.5.What is the Vocabulary?Broadly speaking, all the words in a language together constitute what is known as vocabulary. The term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may also refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. There is a total English vocabulary of more than 1 million.11. What Is a Word?A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.词是具有一定的声音、意义和语法功能，能独立运用的最小的语言单位。
自考_00832_英语词汇学-自考本科词汇学重点笔记
自考本科词汇学重点笔记Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),styl istics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost ar bitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words 虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words: 1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound rootbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory) 3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music) 6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It‟s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. …The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.‟Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather Types of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker‟s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning. Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondarymeanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from itsfirst sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, eachof the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiationprecedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other. Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见) 3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listedas separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning inall aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, butembrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one‟s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy,work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Somewords share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. Theyform different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of …fruits‟)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy. 2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy 5)antonymy 6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details 8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced 2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）slang （俚语）2）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out] （3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one‟s pen （4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one‟s bread （5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die) （7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber‟s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster‟s Third New International Dictionary>（2）Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000]（3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。
英语词汇学各章节重点、词汇解释、阅读及试卷
英语词汇学各章节重点、词汇解释、阅读及试卷大学英语词汇学复习要点1.外来词分为四类：1 Denizens ,cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens garage , décor 3) Translation –loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream.2.Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)多义关系及两种研究方法:Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.3.Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word ina certain historical period of time.4.Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created.5.Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time.6.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonymsare those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.7.同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.8.同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English,figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.9.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions10.如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application11.What are the characteristics of antonyms?12.1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.4) Contrary termsare gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.13.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomesa subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes14.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).15.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less16.definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.17.语境的种类:非语言语境。
英语词汇学笔记
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.(1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentencesound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”sound and form: the sound should be similar to the formVocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyThe 3 Stages of Development of E Vocabulary: Old English vocabulary, Middle EV, Modern EVClassification of English Words According to Different CriteriaThe basic word stock: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words (cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words (on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Loan WordsNative words: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks)Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词) (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtowChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language FamilyThe Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of LanguagesThe Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian) etc.The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary@1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000)2 Middle English Period (1150-1500)3 Modern English Period (1500-now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lostModes of V Development(Modern E): 1)creation 2)semantic change 3) borrowingChapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(语素):the minimal meaningful unit(the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words) Allomorph(语素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of MorphemeFree Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent)Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root (2)Affix(词缀)1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectional morphemes):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀) A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffixAn adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.free=free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）1) Root 2) StemThe differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Individualistic UndesirablesIndividualist (stem) undesirable (stem)Individual (stem) desirable (stem)dividual (stem) desire (root, stem)Chapter 4 Word-Formation IIAffixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem. Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.2)''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.3)'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.4)'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.5)'表示方向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.6)locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7)'表示时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.8)'表示数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.9)'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixesCompounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid(airmail) hyphenated(air-conditioning) open(air force, air raid) Formation of compoundsnoun compounds e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower potadjective compounds e.g. acid + head = acid-headverb compounds e.g. house + keep = housekeepConversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.Blending混成法Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRANClipping截缩法Clipping: to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone.1).Front clippings (phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings (dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings (flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings (pop from popular music)Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.Initialism首字母缩写词法: initialisms are pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)Acronym首字母拼读词法:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.(greed from greedy)Words From Proper Name专有名词转成法Names of people, places, book, and trade names (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:It is beyond language is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据） 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）3)Semantic motivation（词义理据） 4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）Types of meaningGrammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicate the grammatical concept(become important only in actual context) Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaningLexical meaning has 2 components: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义) Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义)Associative meaning(关联意义):[connotative隐含意义,Stylistic风格意义,Affective感情意义, Collocative搭配意义]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy: diachronic approach(历时方法) synchronic approach (共时方法)Two processed of development: radiation （辐射型）and concatenation （连锁型）Homonymy（同形/同音异义关系）It refers words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）2）Homophones（同音异义词）3)Homographs（同形异义词）Origins of homonyms1）change in sound and spelling 2）borrowing 3）Shortening(缩略)The differences between polysemes（多义词） and homonyms（同音同形异义词） ).1)Homonymy refer to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has sevral distinguishable meaning.2)Homonymy are from different sources. Polysemy are from the same source.3)The various meanings of polysemy are correlated and connected to one central meaning.Meanings of different homonymy have nothing to do with one another.values: Polysemic and homonymous word are stlyistically useful to achieve humour or irony（反话，讽刺）,or to heighten（提高） dramatic effect.Synonymy (同义关系):one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning : absolute synonyms and relative synonymsSources of synonyms(同义词) are :1)Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsAntonymy (反义关系)It is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词):these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning, such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees. (single/married)2)contrary terms （对立反义词）:antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(old/young)3)relative terms（关系反义词）：（parent/child）sell/buySome of the characteristics of antonyms反义关系的特点1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion4)contrary terms are gradable antonymsThe uses of antonymsTo express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(idiom:now and never) To form anithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together.(proverbs and sayings:easy come , easy go)Hyponymy(上下义关系)Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (118)Semantic Field(词义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theorye.g.(apple, pear, peach,date,mango,orange,lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 6 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes 词义变化的种类（extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation and transfer）Extension or generalization词义的扩大:is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo.[companion (old)one who shares bread (ex)a company]Narrowing or specialization词义的缩小：is the opposite of widening meaning. When a common words is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed. [meat (old)food (na)flesh of animals]Elevation or amelioration of meaning词义的升华: the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [knight (old)servant (el)rank below baronet从男爵] Degeneration or pejoration词义的贬降:A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or no-affective words come to used in derogatory sense.[silly (old)happy (de)foolish]Transfer词义的转移:Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.（140）Causes of Semantic Change词义变化的原因Extra-linguistic factors 1411 Historical reason2 Class reason (elevation or degradation)3 Psychological reasonLinguistic factors：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 意义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of contextLinguistic context：It refers to the words,clauses,sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph,a whole chapter and even the entire book.1) Lexical context：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question.2) Grammatical context：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.Extra-linguistic context：In a broad sense,it includes the physical situaion as well.it embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.The role of context语境的作用Elimination of ambiguity消除歧义1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguityIndication of referents限定所指Provision of clues for inferring word meaning 提供线索以猜测词义Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc.They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of IdiomsSemantic unity 语意的整体性 words in the idiom they have lost their individual identityStructural stability结构的稳定性: the constituents要素of idioms cannot be replaced, inverted or changed, deleted or added to, not even an article.The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms1 idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)2 idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms:习语的使用（stylistic features, rhetoric features and their occasional variations）Stylistic features 文体色彩〔colloquialisms（俗语）, slang 俚语,literary expressions〕The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meaningRhetorical features 修辞色彩(phonetic manipulation 语音处理，lexical manipulation and figures of speech) phonetic manipulation 语音处理 : alliteration头韵、 rhyme押韵lexical manipulation：reiteration（duplication of synonyms同义字重复） [scream and shout]repetition [out and out]、juxtaposition (of antonyms)反义词并列 [here and there]figures of speech : Simile（明喻）、Metaphor（隐喻）、Metonymy（换喻）、synecdoche(提喻)、PersonificationChapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）Types of dictionaries:Monolingual & bilingual dictionariesMonolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE,CCELD). The headword or entries are defined & illustrated in the same language.Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionariesLinguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的Encyclopedic dictionary:encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.Encyclopedic Dictionary: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionariesUnabridged D: basic information about a word: its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary>Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000]Pocket D: about 50,000 entries or fewerSpecialized dictionaries:concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.Use of the dictionary1 read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary2 read the guide to the use of the dictionaryThree good general dictionaries 3本常用字典Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition(1987)朗文当代英语词典新版Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD) (1987)科林斯合作英语词典A Chinese-English dictionary (revised edition) (CED)(1995)汉英字典修订版( 增加：English dictionaries can be divided into 11 types according to different specialized purposes. General Dictionaries for Current English通用现代词典,Dictionaries Complied on History Principles按照历史原则编纂的词典,Etymological Dictionaries词源词典,Pronouncing Dictionaries发音词典,Dictionaries of Synonyms同义词词典,Dictionaries of Idioms and Proverbs习语和谚语词典,Dictionaries of Slang俚语词典, Classified and Illustrated Dictionaries分类词典,Encyclopedic Dictionaries百科全书性质的词典, Dictionaries of Dialects方言词典, Dictionaries of Place Names地名词典 )Supplementaries for terms:1. word equivalent（等同词）:denotes an idiom or set phrase representing a semantic unit and funtioning as a single word in a sentence.2. register（语域）: It's one of the main factors that has led to the growth of sociolinguistic reaserch has been the recognition of fact that language is very variable phenomenon,and that this variability is not haphazard(偶然性，任意性)3. dismembering（肢解）:It is what I mean by breaking up the idioms into pieces,an unusual case of use of idioms particularly in literature or popular press to achieve special effect.。
英语词汇学笔记整理
英语词汇学笔记整理Part 1 前缀(Prefixes)1.Negative prefixesa-;an-缺少、缺乏amoral(缺德) asexual(雌雄同体的) asymmetry(不均匀的)anarchy(无政府的)dis-否、不dishonestnon-非、否non-black(非黑人区的) non-science non-smoker nonresistant(非抵抗)in-；i-；im-；ir-complete——incomplete correct——incorrect小结：清辅音[k],[f],[t]前的前缀加in-;唇音之前加im-;“l”前加il-;“r”前加ir-。
所以加什么样的前缀由单词的首字母决定。
un-不unhappy unfriendly infamous2.Pejorative prefixes 表贬义mal-不好的，坏的maltreat(虐待) malformed(畸形的) malnutrition(营养不良的)malfunction(功能紊乱)mis-错误的misdial(拨错号) misleading(误导) misbehaved(行为不规范) misconception(错误的认知) pseudo-错，假的pseudoscience(伪科学) pseudo teaching(实习)3.Reversative prefixes 表逆转的前缀de-defrost(除霜) deplane(下飞机) deindustrialization(非工业化的) decode(解码)dis- 表示动作的逆转disconnect(切断) dishearten(泄气) disown(抛弃)4.Prefixes of degree or sizearch- means “most”\”supreme”常带有贬义archenemy archbishop(红衣大主教) arch monetarist(拜金主义者)co- “joint”or “equally”coexistence(共存的) combine colleague correspondence(通信联系)小结：co-这个前缀根据所跟单词的首字母而发生变化在元音前加co-；-b\-p之前用com-;-l之前用col-;-f\-c\-g前用con-;-r之前用cor- hyper-means “extreme”hyperactive(过于活跃的) hyper cautious(过分小心的)mini-means “little”minibus miniskirt ministered minimalmaxi-means “big”maxi coat maxi skirtout-means “surpassing”,程度多，超过outclass(优质的) outlive(长寿的) outgrowover-means “excessive”相当的，带贬义overeat overweight overestimate(高估) overwork overjoyed(欣喜若狂的) overflow(溢出) sub- 亚，次的subculture(亚文化) subtext(潜台词) subconscious(潜意识)subsonic(低音速)super- 超级supernatural(超自然的) supermansur- means “over and above”超surcharge(额外收费) surtax(附加税) surreal(超现实)ultra- 相当，非常ultramodern ultraconservative(非常保守的) ultrasonic(超音速)ultraviolet(紫外线)under- 低于undercharged underestimate(低估)5.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeanti- means “against”反……anticlockwise(逆时针) anti-aging(抗衰老的) antibacterial(抗菌的) antineutron(反中子) contra- means “opposite”, “contrasting”contradiction conrafactualcounter- means “against”, “in opposition to”counterattack counterexample countercurrent(逆电流)pro- 支持，站在……一方pro-European pro-student6.Locative prefixes 表示方位的前缀fore- 前部forearm foreground forehead forewordinter- means “between”, “among”在……之间international intermarry(近亲结婚) internetsub- means “under”submarine(潜水艇) subway sublet(转租)super- means “above”superstructure(上层建筑物)trans- means “across”transform(变形) transplant transcontinental(跨州的)7.Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序的前缀ex- means “former”以前的ex-husband ex-presidentfore- 表时间foresee(预见) foretell(预言)post- means “after”postmodernism(后现代的) postwar(战后) posttretment(复建)pre- 在……之前preschooler(学龄前儿童) prehistory(史前史) pre-liberation(解放前)8.Number prefixesbi-;di- means “two”双bimonthly(双月的) bicycle(自行车) bilingual(双语的) bigamy(重婚) dioxide(二氧化物) disyllable(双音节)multi-;poly- means “many”多，几个multi-national polygamy(一夫多妻制) polyandry(一妻多夫制)semi-;demi-;hemi- means “half”半semiliterate(半文盲) demigod(半人半神) hemisphere(半球) semivowel(半元音)tri- 三triangle(三角形) tricycle(三轮车) trinity(三维一体) trilingual(三语的)uni-; mono- means “one”单一的uniform monogamy(一夫一妻制) monologue(独自)9.Neo- Classical prefixes 与科技有关的auto- means “self”autobiography(自传) autosuggestion(自荐) autocrat(独裁)extra- 超的extraordinary(特殊的) extraterrestrial(外星的)neo- means “new”新的neo-Nazi(新纳粹党) neo-impressionism(新映像派)pan- means “all”, “world-wide”pan-Americanism 泛美主义proto- means “first”, ”original”原始的，最初的protohistory(史前人类学) prototype(原型，典型)tele- means “distant”远程的telescope telegram televisionPart 2 Suffixation 后缀1.Noun suffixes[1] noun + noun suffixes, abstract 由此类词缀构成的名词表示抽象的概念-age means “measure of”or “collection of”Baggage luggage percentage(集合名词，百分比，不能和数字直接连用) mileage(里程)-dom means “the state of being”kingdom officialdom(官僚) stardom(明星地位)-ery, -ryslavery nunnery(尼姑庵) nursery refinery(精炼)-ful means “the amount contained”handful mouthful spoonful-hood means “the state”or “time of being something”childhood boyhood brotherhood neighborhood widowhood-ing means “material of”or “activity connected with”carpeting matting tubing blackerring-ism means “doctrine of”Impressionism(映像派) optimism pessism idealism materialism-ocracy means “government by”democracy(民主)-shiprelationship friendship dictatorship(独裁主义)[2] noun + noun suffixes, concrete 由此类词缀构成的名词表示具体的概念-eer means “skilled in”auctioneer(拍卖师) engineer mountaineer-er means “having doininant characteristics ”teenager villager Londoner cooker roaster-ess means “a female”actress hostess lioness tigress在masculine(阳性)名词后加- essauthor : authoress 女作家heir : heiress 女性继承人host : hostess 女主人lion : lioness 雌狮例外：actor : actress 女演员hunter : huntress 女猎人tiger : tigress 母老虎negro : negress 女黑人master : mistress 女主人/情妇（concubine 二奶）prince : princess 公主murderer : murderess 女杀手masculine(阳性) 与feminine 完全不同bachelor 单身汉——maid 少女bull 公牛——cow 母牛cock 公鸡——hen 母鸡dog 狗——bitch 母狗gentleman 男士——lady 女士horse 马——mare 母马king 国王——queen 王后monk 和尚——nun 尼姑nephew 外甥——niece 外甥女在名词前后加上性别名词man-servant——maid-servantcock-sparrow——hen-sparrowhe-goat——she-goattom-cat——she-catpeacock——peahen-let means “small”小booklet piglet starlet-ling means “minor”or “off spring of”小，后代duckling princeling-ster means “involved in”gamester(means a person who plays a game for money)gangster(黑帮)[3] verb + noun suffix 加在动词后的名词后缀-ant means “a person or thing”informant consultant(顾问) inhabitant lubricant(润滑剂)-ee means “one who is object of the verb”interviewee nominee(被提名者) trainee-er, -or means “a person or thing”Driver teacher silencer(消音器) computer-al means “the action on result of”arrival refusal revival-ation means “the process or state of”classification(分类) interpretation(分析) explanation globalization(全球化) explorationPart 3 转类法——词形不变，词性改变Assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form.eg: 1. He designed to be a scientist.1.He had a desire to be a scientist.Zero derivation 零派生eg: smokeThe smoke from the chimney. (noun.) ——He smokes a pipe. (verb.)——Let’s have a smoke. (noun.)英语词类的转化一般是简单词补充：breakfast 的来历在阿拉伯，fasting为斋月，从breakfast的结构看来，意为“打破斋戒”的意思，在晚餐和早餐之间的时间较长，而吃早餐就像打破了一个小型的斋戒。
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1、英语词汇概述：（8%）（1）英语词汇的谱系关系及其历史发展：英语的谱系关系；英语的三个发展阶段。
（2）英语词汇的构成：基本词汇与专用词汇；英语词汇中的本族词与外来词。
（3）英语词汇的三大特点：数量大、来源广、变化多。
‘Indo-European’印欧语系With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.1. Word词--- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2．Vocabulary词汇——Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.3. basic word stock 基本词汇i s the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics. （1）All national character全民性. Words of the basic word stock denote themost common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language。
They include words relating to the following respects:Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants andanimals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions（2）Stability稳定性. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.（3）Productivity 多产性. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.（4）Polysemy多义性. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.（5）Collocability搭配性. Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.4.nonbasic words stock非基本词汇Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the common core of the language. They include the following.（1）Terminology术语consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas（2）Jargon行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.（3）Slang俚语belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colorful, blunt, expressive and impressive.（4）Argot黑话generally refers to the jargon of criminals.（5）Dialectal words方言词are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.（6）Archaisms 古语词are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.（7）Neologisms新词语are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.-。
5.Content words 实义词denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity.6.Functional words 功能词do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.7.native words本地词——–are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Anglo-Saxon Words， are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language （1. neutral in style文体中性2.frequent in use使用频繁）8.borrowed words借词——words taken over from foreign languages are know as loan words, constituting 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary. The English language has vast debts .9.Denizens同化词——are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. S uch as port from portus (L).‗Denizens‘的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F).10.Translation-loans译借词——Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ‗ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)11．Semantic-loans借义词——words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ‘joy‘ and ‗music ‘, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.12.Aliens 异形– retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Such asdécor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo2、英语构词法：（27%）（1）英语单词的结构：自由语素与非自由语素；构词不达意成份，词根、词干、前缀、后缀；。