管理学教材罗宾斯英文原版指南14

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1. INTRODUCTION.
This chapter looks at a number of factors that influence employee behavior and what the implications are for managers.
2. WHY LOOK AT INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR?
Behavior is defined as the actions of people. Organizational behavior is the study of the actions of people at work. One of the challenges in OB is understanding issues that aren’t obvious because the organization is like an iceberg with its hidden aspects. (See Exhibit 14.1 on p. 370.)
A. Focus of Organizational Behavior.
Organizational behavior focuses on two major areas.
1. Individual behavior
2. Group behavior
B. The goals of OB are to explain, predict, and influence behavior.
3. ATTITUDES.
Attitudes are defined as evaluative statements concerning objects, people, or events.
A. There are three components of attitudes.
1. The cognitive component of an attitude is the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or
information held by a person.
2. The affective component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling segment of
an attitude.
3. The behavioral component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain
way toward someone or something.
B. Managers are particularly interested in job-related attitudes that employees have.
Job-related attitudes include the following.
1. Job satisfaction is a person’s general attitude toward his or her job.
2. Job involvement is the degree to which an employee identifies with his or her
job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance important
to his or her self-worth.
3. Organizational commitment is an employee’s o rientation toward the
organization in terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and involvement
in the organization.
4. A fourth job-related concept is organizational citizenship behavior,which is
the discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee’s formal job
requirements, but promotes the effective functioning of the organization.
C. Attitudes and Consistency.
Research has generally shown that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior.
D. Does the consistency principle mean that we can predict an individual’s behavior if we
know his or her attitude on a subject? The answer depends.
1. The theory of cognitive dissonance—any incompatibility between two or more
attitudes or between behavior and attitudes—was developed by Leon Festinger.
2. Cognitive dissonance refers to any inconsistency that an individual might
perceive between attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.
3. This dissonance or inconsistency leads to an uncomfortable state for the
individual who will try to reduce the inconsistency.
4. The desire to reduce dissonance is determined by (a) the importance of the
factors creating the dissonance, (b) the degree of influence the individual believes
he or she has over those factors, and (c) the rewards that may be involved in
dissonance.
5. Individuals reduce dissonance by changing behavior, concluding that the
dissonant behavior isn’t so impo rtant after all, or change the attitude.
E. Attitude surveys elicit responses from employees through questionnaires about how they
feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or the organization. Exhibit 14.2 on p.
375 shows a sample attitude survey.
F. The Satisfaction-Productivity Controversy.
There’s a controversy about the relationship between satisfaction and productivity. Are
happy workers productive workers?
1. After the Hawthorne studies, many managers believed that if you kept people
happy, they should be productive.
2. A review of the research on worker productivity shows that if satisfaction does
have a positive effect on productivity, that effect is fairly small.
3. Looking at contingency variables improves the relationship.
a. The relationship appears strongest when the employee’s behavior isn’t
constrained by outside factors.
b. Also, the relationship is strongest for higher-level employees.
4. Studies that controlled for causal variations indicated that a more valid
conclusion might be that productivity leads to satisfaction rather than the other
way around.
G. The implication for managers from understanding attitudes is that there is relatively
strong evidence that committed and satisfied employees have lower rates of turnover and
absenteeism. Also, the belief that making employees happy will make them productive
needs to be reexamined.
4. PERSONALITY.
Personality is defined as a combination of psychological traits that describes a person.
A. There are dozens of personality traits. Two models for classifying personality traits are
widely used.
1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a commonly used personality trait
test.
a. The MBTI measures four dimensions.
1) Social interaction: extrovert (E) or introvert (I)
2) Preference for gathering data: sensing (S) or intuitive (N)
3) Preference for decision making: feeling (F) or thinking (T)
4) Style of making decisions: perceptive (P) or judgmental (J)
b. Combining these preferences provides descriptions of 16 different
personality types.
c. Some examples of MBTI personality types are shown in Exhibit 14.3 on
p. 378.
2. The other model is the big-five model, which is a five-factor model of
personality that includes extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and openness to experience.
a. Research has shown that important relationships exist between these
personality dimensions and job performance.
b. The big five personality traits are:
1) Extraversion
2) Agreeableness
3) Conscientiousness
4) Emotional Stability
5) Openness to Experience
B. Emotional Intelligence.
1. Emotional intelligence (EI) is an assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities,
and competencies that influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures.
2. EI is composed of five dimensions:
a. Self-awareness
b. Self-management
c. Self-motivation
d. Empathy
e. Social skills
3. EI has been shown to be positively related to job performance at all
organizational levels.
C. Five specific personality traits have proved to be the most powerful in explaining
individual behavior in organizations.
1. Locus of control is the degree to which people believe they are the masters of
their own fate. It can be either external or internal.
2. Machiavellianism is a measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic,
maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends justify means.
3. Self-esteem is an individual’s degree of like or dislike for himself or herself.
4. Self-monitoring is a personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to
adjust his or her behavior to external situational factors.
5. Risk taking refers to an individual’s willingness to take risks.
D. Do these personality types hold for other cultures? We know that there are certainly no
common personality types for a given national culture. However, a country’s culture can influence dominant personality characteristics of its people. This is particularly true for the personality trait, locus of control.
E. The major value of a manager understanding personality differences probably lies in
employee selection.
Just as individual personalities differ, so too, do jobs. Efforts have been made to match the proper personalities with the proper jobs.
1. John Holland has developed the best-documented personality-job fit theory. (See
Exhibit 14.4 on p. 382.)
2. The key points of his model are that there do appear to be intrinsic differences in
personality among individuals, there are different types of jobs, and that people
in job environments congruent with their personality types should be more
satisfied.
5. PERCEPTION.
Perception is defined as the process of organizing and interpreting sensory impressions in order to give meaning to the environment.
A. What factors influence perception? A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes
distort perception. These factors are found in the following:
1. The perceiver
2. The target or object being perceived (See Exhibit 14.5 on p. 384.)
3. The situation context
B. Attribution theory is a theory used to develop explanations of how we judge people
differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior. The determination
of the cause of the behavior (to what do we attribute this behavior) depends on three
factors.
1. Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays a behavior in many
situations or whether it is particular to one situation.
2. Consensus refers to whether or not everyone who is faced with a similar situation
responds in the same way with the same behavior.
3. Consistency refers to the congruency in a person’s actions.
4. Exhibit 14.6 on p. 385 summarizes the key elements of attribution theory.
5. One of the most interesting findings of attribution theory is that there are errors
or biases that distort attributions.
a. The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to
underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the
influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior
of others.
b. Self-serving bias is the tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on
external factors.
C. There are four frequently used shortcuts we use in judging others.
1. Selectivity refers to the process by which people assimilate certain bits and
pieces of what they observe, depending on their interests, background, and
attitudes.
2. Assumed similarity is the belief that others are like oneself.
3. Stereotyping refers to judging a person on the basis of one’s perception of a
group to which he or she belongs.
4. Halo effect refers to a general impression of an individual based on a single
characteristic.
D. The implication for managers regarding perception and its impact on employee behavior
is that they need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions, not reality.
6. LEARNING.
Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
A. Operant conditioning is a type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior
leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
1. B. F. Skinner is the person most often associated with operant conditioning
theory.
2. This theory proposes that behavior is determined from without—that is,
learned—rather than from within—reflexive or unlearned.
3. Skinner argued that creating pleasing and desirable consequences to follow some
specific behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior.
4. People will most likely engaged in desired behaviors if they’re posi tively
reinforced for doing so.
B. Social learning theory says that people can learn through observation and direct
experience. Four processes have been found to determine the influence that a model will have on an individual.
1. Attentional processes, which mean that people learn from a model only when
they recognize and pay attention to its critical features.
2. Retention processes, which mean that a model’s influence will depend on how
well the individual remembers the model’s action.
3. Motor reproduction processes, which describe how an individual can perform the
modeled activities.
4. Reinforcement processes, which mean that individuals will be motivated to
exhibit modeled behavior if positive rewards are provided.
C. Shaping behavior is systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an
individual closer to a desired response. It can be a useful managerial tool. Behavior can be shaped in four ways.
1. Positive reinforcement is reinforcing a desired behavior by providing something
pleasant after that behavior.
2. Negative reinforcement is reinforcing a desired behavior with the termination or
withdrawal of something unpleasant.
3. Punishment penalizes undesirable behavior.
4. Extinction involves eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior.
D. From learning theory, managers should recognize that employees are going to learn on
the job. Are managers going to manage their learning through the rewards they allocate and the examples they set, or allow it to occur haphazardly?
1. Define organizational behavior.
Organizational behavior is concerned with the behavior—the actions of people—at work.
2. Why is the concept of the organization as an iceberg important to understanding
organizational behavior?
Organizational behavior provides managers with insights into the important but hidden aspect
of the organization.
3. What are the goals of organizational behavior?
The goals of OB are to explain, predict, and influence behavior.
4. What are the three components of an attitude?
Attitudes are made up of three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral.
5. Describe the three job-related attitudes.
Three job-related attitudes are job satisfaction (an employee’s general attitude toward his or
her job), job involvement (the degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job), and
organizational commitment (an employee’s loyalty to, identifica tion with, or involvement in the
organization).
6. What is organizational citizenship behavior?
Organizational citizenship behavior is discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee’s
formal job requirements, but promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Examples
of good OCB include helping others on one’s work team, volunteering for extended job
activities, avoiding unnecessary conflicts, and making constructive statements about one’s
work group and organization.
7. Explain how individuals reconcile inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors.
When there is inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors, individuals will take steps to correct it by altering either the attitudes or the behavior, or by developing a rationalization for the inconsistency.
8. What are attitude surveys, and how might they help managers?
Attitude surveys present employees with a set of statements or questions that measure the degree to which they agree or disagree with them. They can be designed to obtain the specific information that management desires about employee attitudes.
9. Describe the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity.
If job satisfaction does have a positive effect on productivity, it is quite small. The relationship is stronger when the employee’s behavior isn’t constrained or controlled by outside factors and for employees in higher-level jobs.
10. Contrast the MBTI and the big-five models in terms of understanding personality.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) consists of 100-plus questions that ask people how they usually act or feel in different situations and places them in one category in each of four dimensions (extrovert or introvert in social interaction, sensing or intuitive in data gathering, feeling or thinking in decision making, and perceptive or judgmental in decision making). The MBTI is very popular but lacks evidence to support its validity. The big-five model is supported by research showing that important relationships exist between job performance and five personality dimensions (extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience).
11. What are the five dimensions of emotional intelligence?
The five dimensions of emotional intelligence are self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills.
12. Describe the five personality traits that have proved to be the most powerful in
explaining individual behavior in organizations.
Five specific personality traits that are the most powerful in explaining behavior are locus of control (the belief that we control our own destiny), Machiavellianism (pragmatism, emotional distance, and the belief that ends justify means), self-esteem (the degree to which we like or dislike ourselves), self-monitoring (an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to situational factors), and risk taking (our willingness to take chances).
13. How can an understanding of perception help managers better understand
individual behavior?
Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Research relevant to managers suggests that individuals may look at the same thing, yet perceive it differently.
14. What role does attribution theory play in perception?
Attribution theory has been developed to explain how we judge or perceive people differently depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior we observe.
15. Name four shortcuts used in judging others. What effect does each have on
perception?
Shortcuts in judging others include selectivity (which allows us to “speed read” others but ri sks
drawing an inaccurate picture), assumed similarity (in which we are incorrectly influenced by
our own characteristics rather than by those of the person observed), stereotyping (in which
we judge someone on the basis of our perception of a group he or she is part of), and the
halo effect (in which we form a general impression about a person based on a single
characteristic).
16. How could operant conditioning help a manager understand, predict, and influence
behavior?
Operant conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its consequences and that people
will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so.
17. What is social learning theory, and what are its implications for managing people
at work?
Social learning theory is the view that we can learn through both observation and direct
experience. Its management implications as an extension of operant conditioning is that
people respond to the way they perceive and define consequences, not the specific
consequences themselves.
18. How can managers “shape” employees’ behavior?
Managers can “shape” an employee’s behavior by guiding learning in graduated steps and
systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves the individual closer to the desired
response. The four ways to shape behavior are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction.
1. How, if at all, does the importance of knowledge of OB differ based on a manager’s level in the
organization? Be specific.
Knowledge of OB is going to be important for managers at all levels of the organization because they’re dealing with people. Low-level managers are likely to be directly supervising employees, so they would need knowledge of attitudes, perception, and learning. Depending on whether they have selection responsibilities, they may need a knowledge of personality. Middle-level managers are more likely to need knowledge of attitudes and personality as they may not be directly supervising employees. Finally, upper-level managers are likely to need knowledge of attitudes as they deal with structural design decisions and human resource management issues.
2. “A growing number of companies are now convinced that people’s abil ity to understand and to
manage their emotions improves their performance, their collaboration with peers, and their interaction with customers.” What are the implications of this statement for managers?
If the manager’s company agrees with this statement, the manager must consider Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a necessary factor in employee selection, as well as employee training and development issues.
3. What behavioral predictions might you make if you knew that an employee had (a) an external
locus of control? (b) a low Mach score? (c) low self-esteem? (d) high self-monitoring tendencies?
Employees with an external locus of control might be less satisfied with their jobs, more alienated from the work setting, and less involved in their jobs. Employees with a low Mach score would be overly idealistic, emotional, and concerned about fair and equitable treatment. Employees with low self-esteem would be more susceptible to external influence. Employees with high self-monitoring tendencies would tend to be more adaptable in adjusting their behavior to the demands of different situations.
4. “Managers should never use discipline with a problem employee.” Do you agree or disagree?
Discuss.
Disagree. Discipline that is rooted in behavior theories can be quite positive and can be used as a means to promote acceptable and desired behavior. When disciplining, however, managers should keep in mind the implications of attitudes, perceptions, learning, and personality.
5. In winter of 2001, unemployment was at a 30-year low. Managers realized that they have to do
more than pay employees competitive salaries and give them attractive benefits if they want to keep them. They also have to be nice. A Gallup Organization survey shows that most workers rate having a caring boss even higher than they value money or fringe benefits. How should managers interpret this information? What are the implications?
First, asking your students if they agree or disagree with this survey finding would be quite interesting. If they do agree with the statement—which they probably will—the implications for managers would include training managers basically to be nicer, yet motivating, to employees.
The discussion could include a historical revisiting of the Hawthorne studies.
This exercise asks students to find information concerning the job satisfaction level reported in various countries. The following Web sites should provide valuable information for helping students.
Job Satisfaction for Teachers (1997)
⏹/pubs97/97471.html
⏹/libhome/Documents.center/stecind.html#comp
⏹/resources/links.html
⏹/~gprice/listof.htm
⏹/business/BU-statistics.html
⏹.sg/library/stat/statna.htm
⏹/links.htm
UK
⏹/marketing2/jobmag/september/ontopaug00.htm
Job Satisfaction Paper, tables at the end of the pdf file give statistics for U.S., UK, and other European Countries
⏹/~blnchflr/papers/Rankings.pdf
Australia vs. Britain
⏹/ilr/eeeg/Workshop2/MumfordSmith.pdf
SEARCH RETENTION AND JOB SATISFACTION TOGETHER
U.S. –IT Workers
⏹/Tech/2328/ITW1519/
Job Satisfaction Links
⏹.my/iisjob.html
my PHLIP Companion Web site
We invite you to visit the Robbins homepage on the Prentice Hall Web site for the best online
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including new communication tools, one-click navigation of chapter content, and great PHLIP
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WORKING TOGETHER—Team-Based Exercise
Student groups of three to four are asked to debate the statement: “When we use shortcuts to judge others, are the consequences always negative?”
The debate between student groups could be enhanced by first assigning different groups to support or negate the statement concerning specific shortcuts such as: stereotyping, halo effect, selectivity, assumed similarity (“like me”). The four mentioned shortcuts would require eight student groups to adequately debate.
Also, encourage students to provide any incidents or examples they are comfortable sharing. Answers to Case Application Questions
Risky Business
1. How does Liemandt’s managerial approach to training new recruits reflect an understanding of
individual behavior? What would you tell Liemandt about individual behavior?
An understanding of individual behavior is reflected in Trilogy’s new recruit training because it focuses on broadening skills recruits come with (learning), informs the new recruits of what is expected of them (perceptions), motivates the new recruits to do their best, but also informs that their best, may not be good enough (motivation), and assigns people to where they best fit into the company (personality).
I would tell Liemandt that individual behavior is very important in recruiting and
retaining the staff that will make his company profitable
2. What type of personality characteristics would best fit into Trilogy’s culture?
The following personality characteristics would best into Trilogy’s culture:
⏹Extrovert
⏹Intuitive
⏹Thinking
⏹Perceptive
⏹Conscientious
⏹Open to new experiences
⏹Self-motivated
⏹Self-aware
⏹High self-esteem
⏹Risk-taking
3. Design an employee attitude survey that Trilogy’s managers might use. If you want, check out
information on the company’s Web site []
Student responses to this question will vary.
⏹ → Click on Careers /sections/careers/
⏹ → Click on About Us → Click on Values
/sections/about%20us/beliefs.asp
4. How might perception and learning affect employee behavior at Trilogy? What would be the
implications for managers?
Perception:
After going through the rigorous training, employees who make it through believe that they are the best and a good match to the Trilogy career that they have earned. Also, employees would be motivated to continue to give their best effort in all of their projects.
Learning:
Because there is a standard training process that everyone goes through, all Trilogy employees come out with clear understanding of Trilogy’s expectations.
Implications for Managers:
Manag ers must keep employees’ motivation levels high by continuing to challenge each person.
Also, employees want to work for Trilogy, so discipline problems should be minimal.
You might want to have students research the age-old question of the role of nature versus environment (nurture) in determining personality. Some of this research is looking at whether aspects of personality may have a genetic component by asking: Does DNA shape behavior? Some aspects of personality that may have a genetic component include risk taking, impulsiveness, openness, conservatism, and hostility. See, for example, J. M. Nash, “The Personality Genes,” Time, April 27, 1998, pp. 60–61.。