语言学总结

1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
2.the father of linguistics: Ferdinand de Saussure
3.the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics
言学.
4.are put together and used to convey meaning in communication….related to
5.the sounds used in linguistic communication are represented by symbols, i.e. morphemes. The
study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to has
.
6.the combination of to form grammatically permissible sentences in language is
governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies
7.
8.
9.
branch called sociolinguistics.
10.psycholinguistics 心理语言学relates the study of language to psychology. It aim to answer
how we memorize, ad how we process the information we receive in the course of communication.
11.applied linguistics:应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the
solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. In narrow sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
12.if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to
don‘t say X). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ‗correct
and standard ‘(people shouldn‘t say X).
13.modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.
14.study.
15.study.
16.in modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.
17.the distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in
the early 20th century.
18.the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech
refers to the realization of language in actual use.
ngue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and
parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.
20.
21.the distinction between competence and performance was made by
22.Chomsky as the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language,
the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
23.Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker‘s competence, not his
performance. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the rules.
24.
competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
25.the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure‘s book
‗Course in General Linguistics‘.
nguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and
sounds. E.g. book in English, 书in Chinese.(different sounds are used to refer to the same subject in different languages)
27.while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. E.g. onomatopoetic words
and some compound words.
nguage is culturally transmitted(…through teaching and learning rather than by instinct.),
animal call systems are genetically transmitted(animal are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species).
29.phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all
the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.
30.phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related point of view: articulatory
phonetics 发音语言学(it studies the sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.) ;auditory phonetics 听觉语言学(it looks at the sounds from hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.); acoustic phonetics 声学语言学(it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves)
31.the basic distinct between broad transcription(宽式标音能够区别意义) and narrow
transcription（严氏标音不一定能区别意义，但是能够区别人类所有可能的发言，甚至音与音的区别）is diacritics 附加符号.
32.
diphthongs: [ei][ai][ɔi][au][əu] [iə][εə][uə]
triphthongs: [auə] [aiə] [ɔiə]e.g. hour, wire, lawyer.
33.the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all
34.a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‘t.
35.a phoneme音位is a phonological unit, is capable of distinguishing meaning; it is a unit that is
of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound.它不是指任何语音。

36.the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are
called the allophones音位变体of that phoneme.
37.minimal pair: 最小对立对：指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的
两个语音组合。

在音位分析中，只涉及一个音素差别的对立体叫做最小对立体。

如pill,bill,till,dill,kill。

确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。

如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位/p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/为音位。

同样也适用于元音，如: beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but,
bait, bite, boat./i:/ /I/ /e/ /ae/ /u:/ /ʌ / /ei/ /ai/ /əu/也是音位。

一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。

38.suprasemental features: stress, tone, intonation
39.the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.
40.a phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always
falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.
41.pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.音高的变化像音位一样
可以区别意义。

42.English is not a tone language; Chinese, Japanese are typical tone languages.
43.English has four basic types of intonations, the falling tone, the rising tone, t he
fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall ton e.
44.open class words(infinite, unlimited), the content words of language. Including: n, v,
adj, adv.
45.closed class words(fixed, limited), the grammatical or functional words: conj, prep,
articles, pron.
46.the most important component of a word structure is the morpheme.
47.The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.
48.a morpheme which can be a word by itself is called free morpheme, whereas morpheme that
must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme. E.g. boys, boy is free since it can be used as a word on its own; the plural-s, on the other hand, is bound.
49.all monomorphemic words are free morphemes. T
50.morphemes are compounds. F
51.polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are compounds. T
52.derivational morpheme: +affix/suffix. 派生语素，会改变词义和词性；
53.inflectional morpheme: 屈折语素（语法语素）:n+s/‘s; v+s/v-ing/-ed,en; adj+er/est derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes.
派生语素和屈折语素会以例子的形式考查。

及构词法
54.semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards.
55.sense涵义is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all
its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
56.reference指称means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with
the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situation; on the other hand, there are also occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. E.g. morning star and evening star, which differ in sense, but as a matter of fact, what they refer to is the same.
57.synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. In the English vocabulary
there are two categories of words: native words and borrowed(loan) words.
plete synonyms, which are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:考试以例子的形式考查。

1.dialectal synonyms: 方言同义词e.g. :lorry(BrE.) ---truck(AmE.) torch---flashlight/girl is
called lass/lassie in Scottish dialect, and liquor is called whiskey in Irish dialect.
2.stylistic synonyms: 文体同义词（在文体和正式程度上不同）e.g. old
man/daddy/dad/father/male parent; start/begin/commence; kick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease
3.synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning. E.g. collaborator 和accomplice
在意义上都指“一个人帮助另一个人”，但是，collaborator指帮助人做好事，而accomplice 指帮助另一人犯罪。

4.collocational synonyms搭配同义词（在词语搭配上不同）e.g. accuse…of/charge ..with/
rebuck…for; rotten tomatoes, addled eggs, rancid bacon/butter, sour milk.
5.semantically different synonyms:语义不同的同义词（在意义上稍有不同的同义词）例如，amaze（混乱和迷糊的）, astound（难以相信的）在意义上都接近surprise，但是它们间有细小的差别。

59. polysemy多义词:…the fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. E.g. table:桌子，一桌人，桌上的食物，薄而平的石头，金属，木头等，一览表，机械工具的一部分平坦的地区，高原。

60. homonymy
音异义（发音一致） e.g. conduct，content; e.g.fast（迅速的；禁食，斋戒）,scale（刻度；测量）
61.a polysemic word is the result of the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the
word.
plete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.
63.hyponymy(下义关系)：指一个更普遍，范围更广泛的词（上坐标词）和一个更具体的词
（下义词）之间的意义关系，同一上坐标词的下义词被称为并列下义词（co-hyponyms）
e.g. 上坐词：flower下义词：rose, tulip, carnation
64. antonyms
1）gradable antonyms(等级反义词):一对反义词间常有一些中间词，所以这些中间词就分有等级 e.g. young-mature-middle-aged-elderly-old/cold-cool-lukewarm-warm-hot
的是两个极端的程度，非此即彼的关系。

E.g. alive-dead/male-female
3) relational opposites（关系反义词）:表现出两个词间相对关系的一对词。

E.g. husband-wife/father-son/teacher-pupil/doctor-patinent/buy-sell/let-rent/abve-below
65. sense ration between sentences.
1) X is synonyms with Y (X与Y同真同假)
e.g. X: he was a bachelor all his life.
Y: he never married all his life.
2）X is inconsistent with Y (X与Y总相反)
X: John is married.
Y: John is a bachelor.
3）X entails Y(，X蕴于Y，)（X为真，Y一定为真；X为假，Y可能为真为假）
X: he has been to France.
Y: he has been to Europe.
4）X presupposes Y(Y是X的先决条件)(不管X为真还是假，Y一定都是真)
X: his bike needs repairing.
Y: he has a bike.
5) X is a contradiction（X自我矛盾）
My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6) X is semantically anomalous （X语义反常）
The table has bad intentions.
66. one advantage of componential(CA成分分析法) analysis is to show how these words are related in meaning.
67. what essentially distinguishes semantics语义学and pragmatics语用学is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 选择题
68. the utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered.话语的意义随着话语语境的不同而改变。

e.g. my bag is heavy.可理解为: 简单的陈述；请求帮助；拒绝某人寻求帮助的请求。

69. Austin‘s model of speech acts: a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:1) locutionary act(发话/言内行为the act of conveying literal meaning),2) illocutionary act（行事/言外行为the act of expressing the speaker’s intention）, 3)perlocutionary act(取效/言后行为the consequence of , or the change brought about)
70. Searle‘s classification of speech acts. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of illocutionary acts.
71. Paul Grice: principle of conversion会话原则. He thinks, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, which is called Cooperative Principle(CP合作原则)。

There are four maxims under this general principle:
1)the maxim of quantity(数量准则)：1.提供足够的信息；2.不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息。

A: when I Susan‘s farewell party?
B: sometime next month.
2)the maxim of quality(质量准则)：1.不说假话；2.不说缺乏足够证据的话。

A: would u like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?
B: I‘m afraid I have got a class on Sunday.
3)the maxim of relation(关系准则)：有相关性
A: how did math exam go today?
B: we had a baseball match…
4)the maxim of manner(方式准则)：避免表达艰涩；2.避免歧义；3.简洁，不冗长；4.有条理A: shall we get sth for the kids?
B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
When we flout a maxim, our language becomes indirect—which gives rise to conversational implicatures(会话含义).
Syntax
1. traditional approach: about traditional grammar which originally came from the study of Greek, later adopted to Latin and subsequently applied to other European languages.
2. the structural approach结构主义学派: Saussure: linguistics units are regarded as interrelated with each other in a structure or system, not as isolated bits.
A constituent which is not at the same time a construction is morpheme.
A construction which is not at the same time a constituent is sentence.
1): must meet syntactic and semantic conditions.即要求符合
句法和语义规则。

e.g. Jack eats an apple. Eats Jack an apple (wrong);
the boy chased the dog. The dog chased the boy.
: 简单讲，即某个成分能够彼此替换。

e.g. the____is smiling. 从这个例子中，能知道横线上的词应为有生命的，单数形式的任何词。

He speaks fast/fluently.
2)先把句子分析为直接成分---一组词或短语，在
把这些直接成分依次切分得到各自的直接成分，层层切分直到最终成分为止。

Means: a) with brackets: ((poor )(John ))(ran) (away)).
b) a tree diagram: poor John ran away.
3)向心结构: is a construction where distribution is functionally
equivalent or approaching equivalence to one of its constituents.向心结构的分布和它的一个成分相近或相同。

这个成分是整体的核心。

E.g. hot beyond endurance. walk along the street.
一般为：前修饰+中心词+后修词
e.g. A beautiful girl in a clean white dress.
: is one whose distribution is not equivalent to any of its constituents.离心结构的分布跟其中任何成分的分布都不相同，它们不能相互替换。

通常的，一般为介词短语，一般句子，动宾结构等。

E.g. The boy smiled. He hides behind the door.
3. generative approach生成学派: Transformational-Generative grammar (TG grammar): a revolution in linguistics in the mid 1950s.
Noam Chomsky.
1. Deep –structure:
2. Surface-structure:… which derives from the D-structure.
深层结构及表层结构详见课本P54-59。

树形图可参见可见课件例题。

∩_∩
A D-structure may have different S-structure.
A S-structure may come from different D-structure.
1.Why modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary
medium of human language?
1)From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system
of any language is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech when the need arises.
2)In every day communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount
of information conveyed.
3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and
writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.
4)Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only
the ―revised‖ record of speech.
2.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics?
1)Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
2)Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional
grammar emphasizes the importance of the written words.
3)Modern linguistics doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.
3.What’s language?
1.definition: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
2.1) Language is a system combined according to rules.
2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic
symbol and what the symbol stances for.
3) Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound.
4) Language is human-specific.
4.design feature of language:
1) arbitrariness. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
2) productivity. It refers to the feature one can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
3) duality. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower level—meaningless sounds; higher level—a large number of units of meaning.
4) displacement. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation.
5) cultural transmission. While human capacity for language has genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.。