英语专业词汇学第3章
词汇学 第三章
山西师范大学现代文理学院英语1203班授课教案课程名称：《现代英语词汇学概论》授课教师：游海清张怡刘敏张斌构词法教案课题： WORD-FORMATION(I)授课教师：游海清教材：现代英语词汇学概论第 3 章第 1-4 节P 31 ～P 71一、教学目标：1、知识目标：a.了解构词法的一些基本知识和观点b.明确合成法的定义c.掌握合成法的分类d.了解派生法及转化法的定义e.熟练掌握派生法及转化法的分类f.明确常见前后缀的词义2、能力目标：a.提升学生记忆单词的能力b.理解构成的新词的意义c.扩大词汇量，提升阅读水平二、教学重点：合成法派生法转化法三、教学难点：转化法四、教学方法：讲授法问答法 PPT演示练习法课堂讨论法对比法五、教具仪器：多媒体粉笔教案教材六、授课提纲：七、教学内容详析第一节General remarks 第一步：T:OK,class,let’s begin.How many processes of word-formation do you know ?Do you know differences between root,stem and base?第二步：A.percentage of new wordspounding or composition(about 27%)B.Derivation or affixation(about 17.5%)C.Conversion（about 10.5%）A.initialisms and acronyms(about 9%)B.Blending(about 6%)C.Clipping(about 2%)D.Words from proper names(about 2%)E.Back formation(about 1%)F.Reduplication(about 0.5%)G.Neo-classical formations(about 4%)H.Others (about 3%)B.Some basic concepts of word-formation1.The differences between “root”, “stem” and “base”?Root/ 词根: is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphologyStem/ 词干: the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.Base/ 词基: any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.举例：1）undesirables= un + desire + able + sBase:desirable→ desire (base)undesirable→ desirable (base)undesirables→ undesirable (base)Base/词基: any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.分析：desirable: desire(root or base, not stem)undesirable: desirable(base, not root, not stem)undesirables: undesirable(stem or base, not root)desired: desire(root, stem or base)第三步：1)denationalizeddenationalized = de + nation + al + ize + dRoot:nationStem:denationalizeBase:national→ nationnationalize→ nationaldenationalize→ nationalizedenationalized→ denationalize2)Uncomfortable=un +comfort+ableRoot: comfortStem:uncomfortableBase:comfortable第二节：Compounding第一步：板书下列单词1.noun compoundsHeadache heartbeat crybabyPickpocket birthcontrol housekeeping2.adjective compoundsThunder-struck weather-beaten suntannedFault-finding peaceloving record-breaking3.verb compoundsHouse-keep ghost-write aircondition mass-produce第二步：A.DefinitionCompounding / composition: a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit.e.g.flowerpot= flower + potmachine-independent= machine + independentThe relative criteria of a compound 1) Orthographic criterion:Compounds are written in three ways, that is, solid,hyphenated and open.E.g. flowerpotSolid: flowerpotHyphenated: flower-pot Open: flower pot2) Phonological criterion:C ompound accent: a main stress on the first element andsecondary stress on the second element.Normal phrase accent: a secondary stress on the firstelement and the main stress on the second element.E.g.black listblackboardblue bottle3) Semantic criterion:Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning whichmay be related to but cannot always be inferred from the meaningB.Classification1)noun compoundsA.Subject and verbB.verb and objectC.verb and adverbialD.subject and objectE.restrictive relationF.appositive relation2)adjective compoundsA.subject and verbB.verb and objectC.verb and adverbialD.noun and adjectiveE.coordinating relationship3)verb compoundsA.back-formationB.Conversion第三步：做P66-P67练习第三节 Derivation第一步：T:OK,class,let’s begin.Un-uncomfortable unimportant unclean unable unclear unknown Unlike uncertainIm-impossible impatient impair impracticable impolite imbalance immoral impartial impassive imprisonDis-dislike dismiss disclose disrupt disabuse disadvantage disable discharge display disagreeEr(or)-actor teacher doctor driver writer rider commander worker traveller collector farmer cooker baker stranger foreignerAble-actionable companionable comfortable disable livable reliable accountable reasonable fashionable impressionable Ize-civilize symbolize realize naturalize socialize characterize revolutionize materialize第二步：A.definition:Derivation / affixation: a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining form, to an already existing word.e.g.recover= re + coverworker= work + erB.classification(一)Prefixation: adding a prefix or combining form to the base.do not generally alter the word-class of the base.1)classification of prefixes1. negative prefixes （反意前缀）: un-, non-, in-(im-, il-, ir-), dis-, a-2. reversative / privative prefixes（相反动作前缀）: un-, de-, dis-,3. pejorative prefixes （贬义前缀）: mis-, mal-, pseudo-4. prefixes of degree or size（等级与大小前缀）: arch-, super-, out-, sub-, over-, under-, hyper-, altra-, mini-5. prefixes of attitude（态度取向前缀）: co-, counter-, anti-, pro-6. locative prefixes（方位前缀）: super-, sub-, inter-, trans-7. prefixes of time and order（时间顺序前缀）: for-, pre-, post-, ex-, re-8. number prefixes（常用数字前缀）: uni-/mono-, bi-/di-, tri, multi-/poly-9. miscellaneous prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan-, proto-, semi-, vice- 1.2)brief description of some productive prefixes in current English1. ant- / anti-Anti-Japanese War抗日战争ant- / anti-: unlike tradition2.de-A.to undo or reverse .Eg: decentralize decolonize denationalizeB.to removeEg: defog debug delocalize denuclearize3.mini-A.very smll size,duration,or importanceEg: minibus minibike minicab miniparkB.shortEg: minidress miniskirt minicoat minisuit4.un-A.not,the opposite ofEg: unkind unsee unbendingB.reverse the actionEg: unpack untieC.release from or to deprive ofEg: unleash unhorse（二）Suffixation: suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base.1)classification of suffixes1.noun suffixes：2.Verb suffixes:3.Adjective suffixes:4.Adverb suffixes:2)brief description of some productive suffixes in current English.1.-able2.-er(or)3.-in4.-ish5.-ize6.-y3)differentiating suffixesEg:-ic and -ical第三步：引导学生口头总结第四节conversion第一步：绕口令1.never trouble trouble till trouble troubles you2.Can you can a can as a canner can can a can 你能像罐头工人那样把罐头装进罐头盒子里吗?3.I wish to wish the wish you wish to wish,but if you wish the wish the witch wishes,i won’t Wish the wish you wish to wish 我愿许你所许,若你的愿望太过虚幻不切实际,我就不会许你所许（我就不会和你一起天真的去幻想了第二步：A.introductory remarks1 )Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word ofa certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.functional shift:concerned with usage only not with word-formation derivation by zero suffix:long and cumbersome; clarify only something minor, not crucial2）conversion as a result of the almost entire loss of inflection in modern English.B.tapes of conversion1.noun→verb conversion(a) to put in/on N.The workers canned apples.put apples in cansThis room was floored with titles.cage birdsThe question certainly cornered me.He pocketed his wallet.(b) to give / provide N.They sheltered the orphans.give shelter to the orphanspills coated with sugarsugared pillsThe bottle is labeled poison.The child rose from the ground plastered over with yellow clay.(c) to remove N.Bill weeded the garden.cut off weeds in the gardencore an applepeel an orangedust a cap(d) to do sth. with N.John braked the car.stopped the car with a brakescrew the two pieces togetherelbow one’s way through the crowd(e) to act as N.She mothered the orphan. (human n.)looked after the orphan like a motherTom parroted what the boss had said. (animal n.)repeat sth. like a parrotThe police shadowed the suspected spy. ( inanimate n.) follow the spy closely like a shadow(f) to make / change sth. into N.(g) to send sth. / go by N.(h)to spend the period of time denoted by N.2.verb→noun conversion(a) He had a desire to be a scientist.desired to be a…state of mind / sensation(b) His usual morning commute to workan act of commuting event /activitydynamic verbsThis kind of nouns usually occur following verbs like give, have, make, or take, and are preceded by the indefinite article.(c) This little restaurant is quite a find.sth. found, esp. sth. valuable or pleasingobject or result of v.(d) He is a great bore.He is a person who bores everyone.agent of v.(e) The cloth is a good cover for the table.I covered the table with a cloth.instrument of v.3.adjective→verb conversion(a) pale, slim, sourto become the adj.(b) free, warm, smoothto cause sb. / sth. to become the adj.4.adjective→noun conversion(a) Partial conversionthe poorthe Scotch / the Japanesethe roughthe latest / his bestthe accused(b) Complete conversionHe is a natural for the job.Tom is one of our regulars.5.Other conversions第三步：布置作业八、预期效果学生能熟练运用合成法、派生法、转化法以及掌握由三大构词法构成的新词的意义。
英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical， cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动）the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing， as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary。
In modern times，however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word—building material available in English to create new words。
But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分）—word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes（语素；词素）, their classification(分类）and identification（辨别）， the relationship between morphemes and word—formation（构词法）。
3。
1 MorphemesTraditionally，words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences，which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules（句法规则). Structurally，however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example。
英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动) the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing, as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary. In modern times, however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word-building material available in English to create new words. But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分) —word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes(语素；词素), their classification(分类) and identification(辨别), the relationship between morphemes and word-formation(构词法).3.1 MorphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules(句法规则). Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, con-, text, -a/ , -iz(e), -ation , each having meaning of its own. These segments (部分) cannot be furtherdivided; otherwise, none of them would make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants (变体) such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function and occur owing to (因为；根据) different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes (morphe is the Greek word for 'form'; -eme as in 'phoneme' (音素) means 'class of' ). In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as 'the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words' (Crystal 1985). Syntactically(从句法上看), however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis (语法分析). For instance, each of the word-forms studies, studying, studied, consists of the morpheme study + ; the forms -es in studies, -ing in studying, -ed in studied are morphemes, which express grammatical concepts (语法概念) instead of deriving new words (See Classifying Morphemes).3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs(词素变体)Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units (具体单位) known as morphs(形素). 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning' (Bolinger and Sears 1981:43). In other words the phonetic or orthographic strings(语音串或拼写字串)or segments (切分成分；节) which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs' (Bauer 1983:15). The morpheme isto the morph what a phoneme (音位) is to a phone (音素). Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green , sad, want, desire, etc. . These morphemes coincide (巧合) with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a set of morphs in different sound context, e. g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. The alternates (作为替换的事物) /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are three different morphs. The same is true of the link verb morpheme {be}. Its past tense is realized by two distinct orthographic forms was , were, each of which happens to be a word-form, realizing {preterit} and {singular}, and {preterit} and {plural} respectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /wə:/. Therefore, both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ and /wə: / are morphs (See discussion in Bauer, p15).An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. Just as we class phones(音素) together as allophones (音位变体) of a single phoneme(音位), so we class morphs together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Take the plural morpheme {-s} again. Phonetically, it is realized by /s/, /z/, /iz/, all of which are allomorphs. In English, many morphemes canhave more than one allomorph, particularly those freestanding morphemes which are functional words in their own right. Once they occur in connected speech, they may be realized by different forms, depending on whether they are accented or weakened (Look at the data in the table).Morphem e AllomorphStrong Weak{am} /aem/ /əm/, /m/{ was} /woz/ /WəZ/{have } /haev/ /həv/, /v/{would } /wud/ /wəd/, /əd/,/d/{he} /hi:/ /i:/, /i/{his} /hiz/ /iz/{for} /fo:/ /fə/{to} /tu:/ /tu/, /tə/Then what is the difference between morphs and allomorphs? The relationship can be illustrated by the diagram below.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph →allomorph/wud/ /wəd/ /əd/ /d/3.3 Classifying MorphemesMorphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories: free versus bound, derivational versus inflectional, and lexical versus grammatical. However, their boundaries are not as clear-cut as they appear to be due to some overlapping(重叠). For the sake of discussion, we shall define each type in terms of its characteristics.1. Free versus Bound Morphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)This is the easiest and most preferred classification in morphological studies, discussed in Hatch and Brown (1995), Crystal (1985), Fromkin and Rodman (1983), Bauer (1983), Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Matthews (2000). Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with(与……完全相同) words, for example, man, earth, wind, car and anger.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particulargrammatical function.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words (派生词). Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes: recollection (re- collect-ion) , idealistic (ideal-ist-ic) , ex-prisoner (ex- prison -er). Of the nine morphemes, collect, ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes. All the rest re-, -ion , -ist, -ic, ex-and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units.Free morphemes are all roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words like collect, ideal, prison , whereas bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes, most of which can be used to create new words like -dict- , -ced- (接近；去), re-, -ion, -ist, -ic and ex-(前). But there are a few affixes which can only indicate such grammatical concepts as tense, aspect, number and case, for example, the -ing in watching, -er in easier, -s in books, and -ed in worked.The English language possesses a multitude of (大量的) words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which can be broken down into ante-, -ced- and -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning 'approach, go to', ante-, a prefix meaning 'before' and -ent, a noun suffix meaning 'a person, a thing', thus the whole word antecedent meaning 'something that goes before'(前例；前事；先行词；祖先). These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root (See Root, Stem, Base) and affix.2. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes (派生词素) because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. For example, a + mor + ai, clear + ance, Life + Like and homo + gen + eous are results of such morphological processes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折词素), in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios and potatoes; the same forms can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular such as likes, works and goes; the form -'s is used to denote the possessive case of nouns such as the children ' s library, the man ' s role and the mother-in-law' s complaints; the suffixes -er, -est are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees like happier—happiest,harder—hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed and progressive marker -ing added to verbs. The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes can be summarized as follows (See Hatch and Brown, p266): Inflectional Derivational(1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem (1) Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(3) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs at margins of words.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.3. Content versus Grammatical MorphemesOn a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes (Traugott and Pratt 1980:90; Bolinger and Sears, pp66~70; Hatch and Brown, p267). Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as wesee above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. These morphemes, whether free or bound, have a lexical content, hence the name. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, -while, -where, but and that, which are traditionally called functional words.3.4 Identifying Morphemes(词素的区分)Since morphemes are the minimal distinct units, they should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. Generally speaking, lexical morphemes are easy to define:Mono-morphemic: land, skyDouble-morphemic: chill + y, mis + takeTriple-morphemic: anti + govern + ment, sports + man + shipFour-morphemic:un + friend + li + ness, morph + olog( i) + cal + lyOver-four-morphemic: inter + nation + al + iz(e) + ationIf the morphemes are always consistent in form and meaning, there should be no difficulty in identification(区分). However, thereis often mismatch(不一致)between form and meaning. Some morphemes are identical(相同的) in form but different in meaning, for instance, -er in teacher, clearer and eraser. -er in teacher means 'one who', but -er in clearer indicates 'the comparative degree', and -er in eraser denotes 'an object'. Therefore, -er in each case is a different morpheme.Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation(单独)but acquire meaning by virtue of(通过)their connection in words (Fromkin and Rodman, p116). The classic examples are cranberry(越橘), huckleberry (黑果；乌饭树浆果)and boysenberry(博弈增莓), each seeming to be a kind of berry. But when cran-, huckle- and boysen- are isolated, they are meaningless and they are incapable of forming new words with other morphemes rather than with berry. There are other morphemes which occur in many words, but their meaning is difficult to define, for instance, -ceive in conceive (想象；设想), perceive(感觉，察觉；认为)and receive. Some forms are meaningful, but not morphemes, such as fl- meaning 'moving light' in flash , flame and flicker(闪烁，忽隐忽现), and gl-meaning 'static light' in glow(发光，燃烧)，glisten (闪耀；反光)and glitter(闪光；光彩夺目). These are only sound symbols often employed by poets in their literary creation but do not qualify as morphemes.The identification of inflectional morphemes is more problematic. In most cases, an inflectional morpheme can be segmented (切分)from the stem of a word and naturally can be added to the stem like the plural morpheme {s} in gloves, tables and classes. But what is the plural morpheme in men, sheep and feet ? The same is true of the past tense morpheme {ed} , which is explicit and segmentable in walked, loaded and danced. How can we isolate the past tense morpheme from knew, taught and cut ? To solve the problem, we have to resort to other ways.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes like -s, -ed and -ing, and derivational affixeslike pre-, ex-, de-, -less, -dom and -ic. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of words, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Prefixes are all derivational, i.e. they are used to form new words whereas suffixes embrace(包括) both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes. Accordingly, the above-mentioned affixes can be further grouped into prefixes: pre-, ex- and de-y and suffixes: -less, -dom, -zc, -5, -ed and -ing.2. Root, Stem, BaseBefore we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying(澄清). The processes of derivation and compounding involve different word-forming elements: affixes and root or stem or base. Indeed, some people use root or stem undiscriminatingly (不加区别地) on all occasions. But these three terms are not the same, and they denote to a greater or lesser degree different concepts despite the semantic overlapping between them.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the maincomponent of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter- , -at, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as * na/tion or * at /ion, though -tion and -ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost. Therefore, nation defies(使不能；使落空)further analysis. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a 'root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed' (Bauer 1983). Take internationalists again. After the removal of the inflectional affix -s and the derivational affixes -ist, -al and inter-, nation is what is left and thus is the root.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, understatement. To make things more clearly, we say that the stem is used only when we deal with inflectional affixes. As Bauer defines, a stem is 'that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed' (ibid). In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. Consider the word internationalists again. Nation is a root as well as a stem as the plural -s can be added to it; national is not a root as it can be further divided, but a stem because an inflectionalaffix -s can be added to it when used as a noun; similarly, international is not a root but a stem for the same reason. This is also true of internationalist, which is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. In the case of internationalists, nation is a base, national is a base, so are international and internationalist.nation(root, stem, base)national(stem, base)international(stem, base)internationalist (stem, base)InternationalistsIt should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base. This is not true. In many cases, a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem, but only a base. This often happens when we deal with derivational affixes exclusively, for example impracticality(不切实际；无用；不现实). Removing the derivational affix -ity leaves only the base form impractical, and by further removing im- we have the base form practical left and by still further analysis, only practice remains.impracticalityimpractical (base)practical(base)practice(root, stem, base)Therefore, in the chapters to follow, we shall employ only the term base to refer to any basic word-building element.英语词汇学第三单元课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions.a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a base, stem or root ( )f. an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a base, stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes ( ) j. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexicalmorphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes?Give examples to illustrate their relationships.3. Analyze the words in terms of root, stem and base.individualistic undesirablesanize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationships.affix morphemederivational affix free rootbound root inflectional affixprefix free morphemebound morpheme suffix参考答案1. a. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affixh. rooti. stemj. base2. Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end ofwords to denote grammatical concepts such as -s (-es) , -ed,-ing and -est (to show superlative degree of adjectives andadverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes andsuffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un- , -lion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles,auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexicalmorphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixesand suffixes.3.individualisticindividualist+ic[stem, base]individual+ist[stem, base]individu+al[stem, base]in+dividu[root, stem, base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem, base]desir+able[root, stem, base]4. morpheme free morpheme=free rootbound morpheme bound rootaffix inflectional affixderivational affix prefixsuffix。
词汇学 第三单元
专有名词变为一般名词
Eponyms
Eponyms are words derived from proper names and are another of the many creative ways that the vocabulary of a language expands.
二、逆生法
Back-formation
For example, peddle was derived from peddler on the mistaken assumption that the er was the agentive seffix. Such words are called back formations.
Back formation(reversion)
In all these cases the verb was made from the noun by sebstructing what was mistakenly associated with the English suffix-er.
首字母缩略词
Initialism
Another reduction process is the use of initialization in words such as FBI,UCLA,or BYU,where each letter in the word is pronounced.
Abbreviations and the use of special symbols
Abbreviation is marked most generally by a single period following an initial letter or shortened form of a word，as in Gen.Bradley，U.K.,i.e.,etc.（but some printers ，as in this book，conventionally italicize i.e. and e.g. without periods）.
英语词汇学教程课件第3章English Lexicology 3
Lecture Three
The Development of English
The 5000 or so languages of the world can be grouped into about 300 language families, on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammars.
The early English settlers do not seem to have made much of an effort to understand the language of the Britons. They did not learn many words from the Celts. The English added only a handful of Celtic words to their language, like clout, cradle, crock, dun, slough, cumb (valley), torr (hill). Place names formed a large group. Thames, Wye and Avon are Celtic river names, and so are some city names like York, London, Kent. These words came into English as the result of daily contact between Celt and Anglo-Saxon.
Because of these and other influences, the English vocabulary changed enormously and became the largest and most complex in the world, and the grammar changed its emphasis from inflections to word order.
大学词汇学复习资料Chapter 3 Test
Chapter 3: TestI. Multiple choices1. is defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stem. This process is also known as .A. derivation, affixationB. affixation, derivationC. derivative, affixationD. affixation, derivative2. "Pan-European" means .A. for EuropeB. against EuropeC. the whole of EuropeD. former Europe3."Profiteer, engineer, priestess, kitchenette, booklet " are called .A. concrete deverbal nounsB. concrete denominal nounsC. abstract denominal nounsD. abstract deverbal nouns4. "Productivity, happiness, largeness" fall into the group of .A. Deverbal nounsB. Denominal nounsC. De-adjectivenounsD. De-adverb nouns5. belong to deverbal suffixes.A. -able, -iveB. -ly, -wardC. -ate, -enD. -ful, -less,6. When we use "a green hand " to mean "an inexperiencedperson", "a black horse" to mean "an unexpected winner", we should read them as .A. a green 'hand, a 'black horseB. a 'green hand, a 'black horseC. a green 'hand, a black 'horseD. a 'green hand, a black 'horse7. Sometimes, the meaning of a compound can be inferred from its separate elements, for example, .A. hot dogB. red meatC. flower potD. fat head8. The meanings of many compounds and derivatives are the total of the combined.A. morphsB. allomorphsC. rootsD. morphemes9. Which of the following statements is false?A. Conversion refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.B. Words mainly involved in conversion are nouns, verbs and adverbs.C. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.D. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve achange of stress.10. The most productive means of word-formation in modern English are the following except .A. compoundingB. affixationC. acronymD. conversionII. Fill in the blanks, the first letter of each word is given. 1. Affixation falls into two subclasses: p and s .2. The most productive means of word formation area ,c and c .3. Bi-, m , semi-,t ,u fall into the category of number prefixes.4. Suffixes can be grouped into n suffixes, v suffixes, a suffixes, etc on a grammatical basis.5. Nouns formed by adding suffixes to the end of verbs are called d nouns; and to the end of nouns, d nouns.6. C is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.7. A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both g and s as a single word.8. Compounds can be written solid(silkworm), h (honey-bee) and o (tear gas).9. The limited number of verb compounds are created either through c or b . .10. Conversion is a derivational process in which an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. Hence the name z .11. Almost all m verbs can be used as nouns, which are semantically related to the original verbs in various ways.12. Words formed by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word are called b .13. Words formed by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organization or special noun phrases and technical terms are called i or a .14. B is the opposite process of suffixation.III. Substitutions(1) use blends to substitute for the following:motor hotelformula translatorslum suburbmedical careteleprinter exchangeautomobile campbook automobilelunar astronaut(2) Write down what the following acronyms stand for:WHOG-manNATOOPECTOEFL.IV. Define the following terms1. affixation :the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. derivation :the process of forming words through affixation.3. prefixation : the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.4. suffixation :the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.5. compounding :the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.6. conversion :the formation of new words byconverting words of one class to another.7. blending : the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.8. clipping: the way of making words by shortening a longer word by means of cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.9. acronymy :the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations special noun phrases and technical terms.10. Backformation: the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.。
词汇学第三单元ppt课件
例：萧伯纳 George Bernard Shaw (G.B.S.)
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Ⅲ.首字母拼音词
• 把首字母组成的缩略词拼读成一个词，就是首字 母拼音词。
• 涉及面：科技用语；组织名称；产品名称；国际 机构等
截短词有鲜明的文体色彩，只适用于口语或非正 式场合。例如，exam（考试）、prof（教授） 拼写稍作改动，以便发音。例如dub double（为 电影配音）
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II. 首字母缩略词
• 首字母缩略法是将社团名称、特殊名词短语或专 业术语的第一个字母组合在一起的构词方法。利 用第一个词的首字母代表一个词组的缩略词，就 叫做首字母缩略词。
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• 个别截短词演变出新的词义
例如，fan（体育运动、电影等爱好者）来自fanatic （狂热者，入迷者）。
• 截短词和原词同时存在，但截短词是通用的词， 而原词却不常用，甚至带有书卷气。
例如：lunch luncheon（午餐）、movie movie picture（电影） 词义有分工，例如，cute（小巧可爱的） acute （敏锐的）、mend（修理） amend（修订、改 良）、spy（间谍） espy（窥见）
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IV.拼缀词
拼缀法：将两个词的某一部分合并，或者在一个词上加上另一 个词的一部分而构成新词的一种方法，拼缀法只能裁剪两个词 中的一个，把一个不完整的词和一个完整的词拼成另一个词，
这样的构词方法叫做“拼缀词”，“合成词”“混成词 （teleseope word）”或者“行囊词（portmanteau word）”
词汇学第三章
Derivational
Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.( like--dislike, sleep—asleep) Indicates semantic relations within the word. (specific lexical meaning， e.g., un-fortunate) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes. il- ,ir-,im-, in -ist,-er, -ent Occurs before any
词汇学第三章词汇学英语词汇学词汇学论文英语词汇学教程英语词汇学论文现代英语词汇学概论英语词汇学论文英文版现代英语词汇学现代汉语词汇学
Chapter 3 Morphological structure of English words
Teaching focus:
– Definition of morphemes – Definition of allomorphs – Types of morphemes
What is an allomorph?
• An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme. • 语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。
When the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog and lie, and horse (sizes, batches, oranges, garages, fishes), it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z, -iz/ and thus has three phonological forms; the three forms are just the variants of the same morpheme {s}, i.e. the allomorphs of morpheme {s}.
英语专业【词汇学】课件：III. classification of words
smoke eater 消防员 clock watcher 磨洋工的人 Let‟s hit the road. 我们出发吧.
Bottle-man: drunkard
Semi-detached → 与他屋一侧相连的（房舍）→ 与妻子分居而未离婚的男子
oomph: 喘气的拟声词，‘秀色迷人、性感’、精力、热 情 Marilyn Monroe had lots of oomph. 玛丽莲· 梦露十分性感迷人。 It’s not a bad song, but it needs more oomph. ……但尚需更多的热情。
6) literary words:
words mainly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.
Tomato→ a beautiful girl Chicken→ coward nut, dome, upper→ head merry, comfortable, boiled→ drunk cancer stick 香烟
The tube 1. (Am.E) 电视 2. （ Austr. E) 一瓶/罐啤酒 3. 香烟 4. v.i (Am.E) 做得很差
Obvious Characteristics: 1)All National Words of the basic word stock belong to people as a whole, not to a limited group, a certain region or a certain profession.
词汇学1-6章重点
Give the main criteria of a word that is sound, meaning and syntactic function.A word, may be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form, with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.(449-1100) are known as the old English (OE) or Anglo-Saxon (AS) period of English language.Old English: very small vocabulary and borrowing from Latin.The transitional period from old English to modern English is known as Middle English (ME1100-1500), which is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066The English language from 1500 to the present is called modern English.After World War II, neologisms (new words or new meanings for established words) swept in at a rate much faster than that of the prewar period.Marked progress of science and technology: since the end of World War II, tremendous new advances in all fields of science and technology have given rise to the creation in the English language of tens of thousands of new words.Socio-economic, political and cultural changes.Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of old English are native words, while those borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words.The fundamental features of the basic word stock are:1 national character: words of the basic word stock belong to the people as a whole, not to a limited group.2 stability: as words in the basic word stock denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain unchanged.3 word-forming ability： basic words are very active in forming ner words.4ability to form collocations: basic words combine readily with other words to form habitual expressions and phrases.Common words: common or popular words are words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life.Literary words: literary words are chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.Colloquial words: in contrast with literary words, colloquial words or expressions are used mainly in spoken English, as in conversation among friends and colleagues.Slang words: is defined in the SCD as “language, words or phrases of vigorous, colorful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary”Technical words: technical or special words refer to those words used in various special fields. Every branch of science, every profession or trade, every art and every sort of sport has its own technical terms.Function words and content words: function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; they serve grammatically more than anything else. They are in contrast to content words, which are used to name objects, qualities, actions, and have independent meaning.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. It is also a two-facet language unit which possesses both sound and meaning. It is not identical with a syllable, either, since the latter has nothing to do with meaning. An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoiningsounds.Morphemes may be classified into free and bound . A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.Roots : a root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Affixes : affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.Inflectional affixes : an inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.A hybrid is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages.goodessThe above diagram shows that there are , in fact, only two main groups of morphemes, free and bound, because all the other morphemes are subordinate to either of them.Chapter 31. word-formation rules: The rules of word-formation define the scope and methods whereby speakers of alanguage may create new words.2. Root, stem, and base are terms used in linguistics to designate that part of a word that remains when allaffixes have been removed.A root is a form which is not further analysable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphologhy.A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphologhy…A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added ；it may also be defined as” a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied.”3. Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.The definition of a compound has long occupied the attention of linguists.However, we may say that a compound conveys a single idea, and functions as a separate lexical unit.4. Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created byadding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.5. Conversion and suffixation: conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.A more scientific te rm is perhaps “derivation by zero suffix”.Adjective→noun conversion is classified into two groups: partial conversion and complete conversion.Partial conversion: some adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor, the wounded; yet these converted nouns take on only some of the features of the noun; i.e. they do not take plural and genitive inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a, this, my, etc.Chapter 41.Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or aphrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.2.Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc.3.Clipping: the process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun),which is also available in its full form.4.Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings andsounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.5.Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word coined by thedeletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.6.Redupliction is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition of oneword like go-go.7.Neoclassical formation denotes the process by which new words are formed from elements derived fromLatin and Greek (as in telephone).Conventionality: most words are conventional, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.Motivation: refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense. Three ways: phonetic motivation; morphological motivation; semantic motivation----it is once more the figurative usage that provides the semantic motivation.Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and interdependent.Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm.World-class: it describes the word’s lexical meaning and also gives what is traditionally known as the part of speech of the word, which modern linguists.Lexical meaning is dominant in content words, whereas grammatical meaning is dominant in function words, but in neither is grammatical meaning absent.The set of grammatical forms of a word is called its paradigm.Different between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning: (1) the lexical meaning of a word is the same in all the forms of one and the same word while the grammatical meaning varies from one word-form to another; (2) every word has a different lexical meaning, whereas the grammatical meaning is the same in identical sets of individual forms of different words.Denotative meaning: is sometimes called the conceptual meaning. It is the central factor in linguistic communication. One of the functions of words is to designate or describe something, such as an object, a property, a process or a state of affairs. Users of a language cannot talk about their knowledge of a physical object or a natural phenomenon, unless this knowledge is express in words which have the same meaning for all speakers of a given community.Connotative meaning refers to the emotio nal association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind；it is the supplementary value which is added to the purely denotative meaning of a word.Social meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Various situations :( 1) the social relationship between the speakers or correspondents which may be that of fried to friend, or professor to student；（2）the occasion which may be a class reunion or an official reception; (3) subject matter which may be about serious political issues or about films, swimming or food (4) the mode of discourse spoken or written.Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.“The analysis of word meaning is often seen as a p rocess of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components.” (Leech 1981:84) which are known as semantic features or sense components.Componential analysis’s drawbacks:1 conceptual or denotative meaning -----the central factor in linguistic communication.2 connotative meaning------refers to the association that a word suggests in one’s mind.3 social/stylistic meaning-----conveys the social circumstances of language use.4 affective meaning------expresses the feelings and attitudes of the speakers.And its advantage is that it enables us to have an exact knowledge of the conceptual meaning of a word.The word polysemy is of Greek origin. It has been defined as A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings.Language faithfully reflects the spirit of the age. In order to express new ideas, new processes, new products, and so forth, language can do three things: form a new word, borrow a word from other languages, or add new meanings to established words.Polysemy is also an essential feature of a language’s economy and efficiency. Just image what a heavy burden it would be on the learner’s money if it were not possible for one word to possess several senses.There are two approaches to polysemy: diachronic and synchronic.Two processes leading to polysemy1 Radiation: Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like ray.2 Concatenation: Concatenation,” linking together” is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.Types of homonyms1 Perfect homonyms: Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms.2 Homophones: Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.3 Homographs: Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs.The sources of homonyms are as follows:1 Phonetic convergence: Converging sound development is the most common cause of homonymy, or to be more exact, of homophones.2 Semantic divergence3 Foreign influence: Words introduced from abroad have increased the number of homonyms in English.4 Shortening: Homonyms may also be created by the word-formation process of clipping.。
词汇学Chapter-3-Morphological-structure-of-English-words
Allomorph 词素变体
• An allomorph refers to a number of a set of morphs, which present one morpheme. 词素变体指一套形素中的一个成员，表征一个 词素。
When the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog, and horse, it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z,
but they cannot be further divided, otherwise they will not make any sense.
Morphemes may have some variants, e.g. - ation. May also be -tion, -sion,-ion, but they
9. Stupig 笨猪
decontextualization
decontextualization
• de-; 否定、非、相反：destruction, dematerialize… 除去、取消、毁：desalt, de-oil, de-water…
• con-; 共同,一起;加强意义：conclude, condense… • text; 编制: context, pretext, textbook, textile • -al; 表示属于…的、具有…性质的：
personal, global, natural… 构成抽象名词，表示行为、状况、事情：
refusal, removal, arrival… • -iz(e); 表示“…化”、按照…样子去做、按…方式去处理：
modernize, realize, organize, popularize… • -ation; 表示行为、情况、状态：starvation, invitation…
英语词汇学各个章节的内容
Introduction 部分：Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization第一章：What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和 -ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record ofthe oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differencesoccur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship orirregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet wasadopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter torepresent each sound in the language so that some letters must dodouble duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidlythan spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by theearly scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel ofenriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音、拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是…sound and form ‟不一致。
语言学教程 第三版 第三章 词汇学
Word 4: writing Word 5: written ■Word 2 “fat” fat fatter fattest ■So WORD may be used both as a general term (then fat, fatter, and fattest are just one word) and as specific items (then fat, fatter, and fattest are three words).
Chapter 3 Lexicon主讲人Fra bibliotek钱 军
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3.1 What is word? 3.1.1 Three senses of “word” 3.1.2 Identification of words 3.1.3 Classification of words 3.2 The formation of word 3.2.1 Morpheme and morphology 3.2.2 Types of morphemes 3.2.3 Inflection and word formation 3.2.4 Sememe vs. morpheme, and phoneme vs. morpheme 3.3 Lexical change 3.3.1 Lexical change proper 3.3.2 Morpho-syntactical change 3.3.3 Semantic change 3.3.4 Phonological change 3.3.5 Orthographic change
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■Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters …; double, twice, three times …; such, what (exclamative), etc. ■Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; my, our, your, his, her, its, their; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, every; enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a little), etc. ■Postdeterminers: next, last, past, additional; many, several, few, little; one, two, three …; (a) dozen), etc. ■When different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they follow the order of pre-determiners + central determiners + post-determiners.（×*five the all boy,√all the five boys） ■*their all trouble ■*five the all boys ■*all this boy ■*all both girls
词汇学第三章
词汇学第三章第三章词语结构1我们已经讨论了历史文化社会因素对英语词汇发展的促进作用。
尽管借词正如所说，在词汇的扩张中扮演了重要的角色，但是在现代，词汇还是依靠内部基础进行扩充。
也就是说，我们使用英语中存在的材料，不管是本土的还是国外的，去创造一些新词。
在我们开始涉及词语构成的方法之前，我们需要分析词语的语形结构获得用来构成新词的不同构词元素的积极认识。
Facilitate减轻Internal内部的Morphological语形学Morphemes词素Denaturalization非自然性Variant变体Suffix后缀Owe to 由于3.1词素通常来说一个词是能独自表达意义的最小语言单位。
然而从结构上说，一个词并非最小单位因为许多词可以被划分成更小的意义单位。
以denaturalization为例，这是一个词，却能分为de- nature –al –ize –ation,每部分有它自己的含义。
这些碎片不能够进一步划分，否则，他们将不能表示任何意义。
尽管－ation有一些变体，象是-tion –sion –ion，但是当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀。
这些不同的形式出现是因为存在不同的发声环境。
这些最小的意义单位叫做“词素”。
换句话说，词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。
3.2语素变体语素是抽象的单位，在话语中被认知通过分开的单位，这单位叫做“形素”。
它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体。
语素是一个音素发音的形素。
大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，象是“鸟“”树“”绿色“”悲伤“”想要“”需要“等等。
这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。
这种词叫做单一语素词。
然而，一些语素被按照形素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的形素被称为”语素变体”。
例如复数语素（S）在不同的语言环境存在一些变体，象是在cats中，在“包”中，在“比赛”中。
语素变体不是随机发生的，是语音条件下可以预测的。
英语词汇学课件 Unit 3
#.前缀（主要改变词义）
Negative prefixes: a-/dis-/in-/non-/unReversative prefixes: de-/dis-/unPejorative prefixes: mal-/mis-/pseudoPrefixes of degree or size: arch-/extra/hyper-/macro-/micro-/mini-/over-/sub/super-/sur-/ultra-/underPrefixes of orientation and attitude: anti/contra-/counter-/proLocative prefixes: extra-/fore-/inter/transPrefixes of time and order: ex-/fore-/post/pre-/reNumber prefixes: bi-/multi-/poly-/semi/hemi-/tri-/uni-/monoMiscellaneous prefixes: auto-/neo-/pan/vice-
3.3.2 Nouns V. →n. (*contrast, abstract) Adj. →n (full & partial conversion)
the poor
3.3.3 Adjectives
名词做定语：street light VP →Adj. nonce word（临时词）：本身是自由词组或习语，但 用连字符连接起来构成单个的词。 stay-at-home, forget-me-not, ahead-of-schedule
最古老的构词方法之一。 语义关系: 第一部分限定或修饰第二部分（也有例外） 形式相同的复合词其内部的语义关系可能是各不相同的。 (Ex.5) 词性：复合介词，复合连接词，复合副词，复合代词，复 合数词，句式复合词，等等。
词汇学Chapter3
第二十二页，编辑于星期五：二十点 三十一分。
Morphemes
Characteristics
1. All the morphemes have their own meanings, and they cannot be further divided, otherwise they will not make any sense.
第十五页，编辑于星期五：二十点 三十一分。
Morphemes and Syllables
A morpheme is different from a syllable
la.dy; croc.o.dile. Often the syllabic structure of a word and its morphemic structure do not correspond, as shown in the above examples
eco-, crisis mean, -ing, -ful, -ness pre-, -dict-, -ion -in, equal, -ity -under, state, -ment -un, develop, -ed down, size, -ing moon, -scape -super, nature, -al
Downfall
down, fall
Power-drunk
power, drink, an allomorph of –ed
第二十一页，编辑于星期五：二十点 三十一分。
Exercises
Ecocrisis Meaningfulness Prediction Inequality understatement Undeveloped Downsizing Moonscape supernatural
英语词汇学教程夏洋unit3
English Cognate
11
Native words
the verb: are
the conjunctions: so, but, if
the pronouns: their, them and they
the commonest words: bag, dirt, dog, fog, knife, flat, hand, low, man, odd, ugly, want, trust, get, give, take, raise, smile and though.
Eg: uncertain: (the un- + certain, Fr.)
现代英语词汇学
18
B. Aliens words borrowed from a foreign language
without any change of the foreign sound and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin:
4
Native Words in English
Proto-Germanic
Dialect 1
Dialect 2
Dialect 3
Dialect 4
Swedish
Danish
English
German
???
hus
house
haus
5
Dialects
Dialects are variants of a language.
the basic word stock. (largely monosyllabic)
英语词汇学 chapter 3
3.4 Difference between Root and Stem
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). The root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed (Bauer 1983). e.g. international.
--What is bound morpheme (grammatical morpheme)?
Bound morpheme has to occur with at least one other morpheme. Namely, it has to be bound to other morphemes to form words. It includes bound root and affix. Or Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning; instead, they have attached meaning (un-kind, hope-ful) or grammatical meaning (cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed). They are also called grammatical morphemes. eg. –s, -ly, -ing, -tion, -ize, etc.
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Motivation（理据）
Definition:
• Motivation deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. •Motivation refers to the connection between
II. The Debate over the Connection between Sound and Meaning
– The naturalists maintain there is a natural/intrinsic connection between sound and meaning. – The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a word is a kind of linguistic social contract.
III. Types of Motivation
– Onomatopoeic Motivation – Semantic Motivation – Logical Motivation – Morphological Motivation – Etymological Motivation
1. Onomatopoetic Motivation （拟声理据）
They are closely connected but not identical. • They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. • Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on. • But meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.
3. What is concept?
It is the general idea or meaning which associates with a word or symbol in a person‘s mind. 指词或符号在人脑中的大致印象或意义。
What ‗s the relationship between meaning and concept?
Meaning & concept
• Triangle of significance（词义三角）
Meaning ←---Concept
Word
Form…………. Referent
4. What is sense语义?
The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. 词语的意义是它在语义关系系统中同其它词语 相对的位置。
e.g.: desk: something you sit at and you do your
work
2. What is reference?所指关系?
• It is the relationship between language and the world.所指是语言与客观外界之间的相互关系。 • By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about. 通过这种相互关系，说话人指称外 界的事物或人。 • It is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. For example, the word ‗tree‘ refers to the object ‗tree‘.
Crack
whizz
growl
hum quack
Primary Onomatopoeia
cats eagles frogs mew, purr scream croak lions mice Snakes roar squeak hiss
hens
cluck
wolves
howl
(For more examples, see page 60-61)
I. Word Meaning
• 1. Definition:
Word meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between name and meaning. 意义是名称与意思的联系。 ‘Meaning‘ is what the form stands for.
Examples of Motivation:
– The pigeon coos. – airmail, miniskirt, hopeless – a coat of paint – He has a stony heart. – The question was like the Sphinx‘s riddle to them.
Conventionality（约定俗成）
– Words have no meaning, people have meaning for them. ------ Eric Partridge e. g. – 树---Chinese – 木---Japanese – arbre---French – baun---German
What‘s the difference between reference and sense?
Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. 指语 言内部的关系。 Reference denotes the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. 每个词都有语义，但不一定都有所指。 e.g.: but, almost. These grammatical words do not refer to anything. And words like God, dragon and phenix refer to imaginary things.
B. Secondary Onomatopoeia:
•Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain sounds and sound-sequences are associated with certain senses in an expressive relationship.
• In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, i.e., an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the sign become meaningful. 换言之， 只有当语言符号与所指物---物体、现象、人等 之间建立某种联系，这个符号才获得意义。 • The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction. 词与外界事物的这种指称关系是任 意的，又是约定俗成的。是高度概括的，是从 同类事物中抽象出来的。
A. Primary Onomatopoeia:
Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of sound by sound. ―the sound --- an echo to the sense; the reference itself is an acoustic experience which is more or less closely imitated by the phonetic structure of the word ‖; for example, crack, growl, hum, whizz, etc.