行政英语

一名词全称
1 NPM : new public management
2 ALJ : administrative law judges
第一单元
1. public administration(administrator)：公共行政
2. accountant ：会计
3.budgeter：预算 3.policy analyst ：政策分析
4.purposes and goals of government ：政府的宗旨和目标
5.political values ：政治价值观
6.legislative body：立法体系
7.authoritative agent ：权威代理机构
8.executive legislative and judicial 行政立法和司法：
9.court：法院ernor and president：11.congress ：国会12.constitution ：宪法
第一单元2
1.free, competitive market：自由竞争市场
ernmental operation ：政府运作
3.revenue and taxation：财政税收
ernmental agency：政府机构
5.fiscal constrain：财政约束
6.Non-for-profit organization：非营利组织
7. utility ：公共事业
8.public goods or quasi-public goods：公共物品或准公共物品
9.power and authority：权利和权威10.the formulation and implementation of policy ：政策的制定和实施11.the coercive power ：强制力12.public policy making and implementation：公共政策制定和实施13.dichotomy between politics and administration ：政治行政二分法14.formulation, analysis, evaluation and revision of policy：政策的制定，分析，评估和调整18.race, ethnicity, gender, and other social factor ：种族，民族，性别和其他社会因素15.partisan patronage ：政党庇护16.the spoils system：政党分肥制
第二单元
1.the political approach ：政治途径
2.the legal approach：法律途径
3.the managerial approach：管理途径
4.reinventing government：重塑政府
5.NPM ：新公共行政
6.all levels of government ：各级政府
7.a class of politicians：政治类别
8.hiring and firing：雇佣和解雇
9.bureaucratic：官僚制10.hierarchy ：层级制11.position orientation ：职位导向12cost-effectiveness ：成本效益
第二单元Text B
1.NPM ：新公共行政
2.r eform-oriented：改革导向
3.public sector：公共部门
4. negative press coverage：负面报道
5. public opinion polls：民意调查
6.drastic reform：大刀阔斧的改革
7.market-like competition ：类似市场竞争
8.the provision of goods and services：商品和服务的供给
9. one-shop shopping ：一体化10.NPR：国家绩效评估11.market mechanism ：市场机制12.social harmony：社会和谐13.per capita income：人均收入14.customoer satisfaction：
客户满意度
第三单元
1. responsibility and responsiveness ：责任性和回应性
2.descretianary power：
第三单元Text B
1. hearing examiners ：听证者
2. administrative law judges 行政法法官ALJ ：
3. adversary procedure：抗辩程序
3.表格：
特征传统公共行政NPM 政治途径
法律途径
价值观效能、效率、经
济
成本效能顾客的
回应性
代表性、政治回
应性、责任性
1.正当的法律程序
2.公民的实
质权利，平等保护3.公平4.诚
实，公正
组织
结构官僚制、层级制竞争性的企业化模
型组织多元主义行政裁决制抗辩模式
对人
的认
识非人格化顾客Client 将个人看成是
群体成员完整的个体理性的个体
认知模式科学方法及通
则化
理论推理，经验观
察，指标测量，实验
协议，民意，政
治，争辩
归纳性案例分析，演绎式的法律
分析，反复辩论程序
预算理性预算体系，
成本——效率
以绩效为基础，市场
驱动
渐进主义（福利
分配和负担）以权利保护为基础
决策观最具成本——
效益的决策分散化，降低成本
渐进模型，胡乱
决策程序性渐进主义二汉译英
1有效管理不仅更需要那些愿意并有能力采取切实方法的管理者，而且需要授权管理者能采用其认为最有效的方式来管理，这也是公共管理者独特的问题。

Not only the need to effectively manage those who are willing and able to adopt practical methods of management, but also need to authorize the manager to adopt his view, the most effective way to manage, which is unique problems of public managers.
2 20世纪后期，实际上所有发达国家都试图重新构建政府，官僚制组织和公民之间的关系。

The late 20th century, virtually all developed countries have attempted to re-build government, bureaucratic organizations and citizens relations.
3未经法律授权的行为不是真正的政府行为。

此类行为由此也不具法律效力，并常常带有违法性。

Acts without legal authority is not a true government action. Result of such acts are not legally valid, and often with illegality.
4出于某种原因，当私人部门无法优化地提供某些具有排他性质的产品时，政府也可以直接提供这些产品。

自然垄断是较为常见的原因之一。

For some reason, when the private sector can not be optimized to provide certain exclusive quality products, the Government can provide these products. A natural monopoly is one of the more common causes。

5公共和非营利性机构必须具有灵活性，并且必须能够适应社会的需要。

Public and non-profit organizations must be flexible and must be able to adapt to the needs of society.
6志愿人员已经成为公共和非营利组织不可分割的一部分。

V olunteers have become an integral part of the pubic and non-profit organizations.
7民众对政府的行为知之不多，因此，大众传媒能够提高民众监督政府动作的能力。

People know little about the Government's actions, therefore, the mass media can increase the capacity of citizens monitor government actions.
8人们普遍认为腐败是阻碍发展的最大障碍之一。

最新数据表明，腐败现象与重大经济成就相左。

It is widely believe that corruption is one of the biggest obstacles that hinder development. The latest data show that corruption at odds with the major economic achievements.
9政体在不同国家可分为国家制、君主立宪制、宪法制、人民代表制。

Form of government in different countries can be divided into the national system, cons titutional monarchy, constitutional system, people's representation.
10公务员的任命和提升，其原则是任人唯贤，而不是依据政党关系或对党派的贡献。

Appointment and promotion of civil servants, its principle is based on merit and fitness rather than political partisanship.
11制定规章并使之生效得政府的重要职责。

Formulate rules and regulations and entry into force was an important duty of the government.
12当几个政府机构提供完全相同的服务时，市民就可以自由选择去哪个机构接受这种服务，机构间的竞争会减少腐败。

When several government agencies provide the same services, the public can freely choose which agency to go to receive this service, inter-agency competition will reduce corruption.
13电子政务已经成为一种时尚。

该术语本身常常被作为现代、高效、透明、公共参与以及客户至上的政务代名词。

E-government has become a trend. The term itself is often used as a modern, efficient, transparent, public participation, and customer-focused government synonymous.
14公共部门必须经常在强大的公众审视之下开展高效率的工作。

The public sector must always carry out the high-efficiency work under the strong public‟s Supervision 15公共部门的听众会和要求“信息自由”为决策制定提供必要的途径，但这些程序通常会妨碍实效、效率和生产力。

The audience meeting of public sector and the request of "freedom of information" provide the necessary way for decision-making , but these procedures often hinder the effectiveness, efficiency and productivity. 16灾难恢复时期也为社会提供了良机，使之可以充分提高地方管理能力，促进系统建设，提高应急意识，改进政治机制，有利于灾后经济、社会和物质的发展。

换句话说，就是建设一个可持续发展的社会。

Disaster recovery period provides an opportunity for the community, so that it can fully enhance local management capacity, promote the system construction, improve emergency response awareness, improve the political system is benefit to post-disaster economic, social and physical development. In other words, is to build a sustainable society.
三英译汉
1 Public administration ,like many human endeavors , is difficult to define .Nonetheless , we all have a sense of what it is ,though we may disagree profoundly about how it should be carried out.
公共行政就像很多人们的努力一样是难以界定的。

尽管如此，我们都有一种它是什么的的感觉，虽然我们不能深切的了解它该如何运行。

2 First ,constitutions fragment power and control over public administration . The separation of powers places
public administration under three “ masters ”.
首先，宪法的部分权利和对公共管理的控制。

公共行政被三分权力。

3 human resources management
人力资源管理
4 Congress has also enacted a large body of administrative law to regulate administrative procedures ,including rule making , open meetings , public participation , and the gathering and release of information .
美国国会还颁布了大量的行政法，以规范行政程序，包括制定规则，公开会议，公众参与，以及收集和公开信息。

5 The courts often exercise considerable power and control over public administration .They help define the legal rights and obligations of agencies and those of the individuals and groups upon whom public administrators act.
法院常常行使相当大的权力和对公共行政的控制。

他们帮助界定合法的权利和义务和那些公共行政作用的个人和群体。

6 The separation of powers not only provides each branch with somewhat different authority over public administration but may also frustrate coordination among them . Basic political science tells us that chief executives , legislatures , and time constraints.
权利分立不仅提供了一个某些不同的权利凌驾于公共行政之上的分支而且也会阻碍它们之间的协调。

基础政治学告诉我们行政主体，立法机构和时间的约束。

7 The government obligation to promote the public interest distinguishes public administration from private management . In a moral and basic sense , it must serve “ a higher purpose.” Even though it is often difficult to say precisely what is in the public interest , there can be no dispute about the obligation of public administration to consider it as a general guide for their actions.
政府部门有义务促进公共利益区别于私人管理的公共管理。

从一种道德和基本意义上说，它必须达到一个更高的目标。

尽管常常难以准确的说公共利益里有什么，这里没有关于公共行政义务把它当做他们行为的普遍指导的争议。

8 One way of summarizing this different perspective on the public interest is to think in terms of externalities ---- or aspects of the productive or service operations of organizations that do not enter into the agreement between buyer and seller . Pollution is a classic example of an externality. It is not accounted for in the sale of the product ; that is , it is external to the market.
其中从公共利益的不同角度考虑的一种总结方式是就外部性而言----或生产方面或服务业务的组织不能进入买方和卖方之间的协议。

污染是一个外部性的典型例子。

它不是关于产品销售，也就是说，它是市场的外部性。

9 This is partly why it is plausible to hold that “public administration is not a kind of technology but a form of moral endeavor.”
这是为什么它似乎可以认为，“公共管理不是技术，而是一种道德努力的形式。

”
10 A closely related distinction between public and private administration concerns the market . It is generally true that public agencies do not face free , competitive market in which their services or products are sold .For the most part ,the price tags attached to government operations are established through budgetary routines rather than fixed at the market through free transactions between buyer and seller .
一个紧密联系的区别在公共部门和私人部门之间关于市场。

这是普遍正确的，公共代理机构在销售它们的产品和服务时不会面临自由竞争的市场。

就大多数情况而言，加入到政府运作中的价格的标签的建立是通过预算的方式而不是固定市场通过迈着和卖者之间的自由交易
11 The “public choice ” movement holds that government agencies will be more responsive and efficient
if they can be compelled to react to market-like forces. For instance, public schools might be made to compete with one another by allowing parents the opportunity to choose which schools to send their children within a general geographic area.
公共选择运作系统认为政府代理机构将会更迅速和效率，如果他们能够对类市场力作出反应。

例如，公立学校有可能会产生相互竞争，让家长有机会在一般地理区域选择将孩子送往哪个学校。

12 The remoteness of market forces from most public administrative operations has profound consequences . It enables government to provide services and products that could not profitably be offered by private firm . Some of these services and products are referred to as public goods or quasi-public goods .
大多数公共行政运行中的偏僻市场力有深远的影响。

它使政府提供的服务和产品由于无利可图所以不能被私人公司提供。

这些服务和公共产品被称为公共物品或准公共物品。

13 Historically , some public goods and quasi-public goods such as education and public welfare ( called “charity ”in an earlier time ) , were provide primarily by nongovernmental organizations , often of a religious nature .
从历史上看，一些公共物品和准公共物品例如教育和公共福利（在较早的时期称之为“慈善机构”），最初由非政府组织提供，往往带有宗教性质。

14 The remoteness of market forces in the public sector also makes it difficult to assess or evaluate the worth and efficiency of public administrative operations .If government agencies produce a product that is not sold freely in open markets , then it is hard to determine what the product is worth.
公共部门偏僻的市场力也很难去评估或估计公共行政运行的价值和效率。

如果政府代理机构生产的产品不能在开放市场上自由售卖，那么它很难决定产品的价值。

15 Sovereignty is the concept that somewhere in a political community there is an ultimate repository of supreme political power and authority. In the United States, sovereignty resides in the people, as a whole, who exercise it through a representative government. Public administration and public employment, in particular, are consequently considered to be a “public trust.”
主权这个概念是指行政团体在某些地方有一个最高政治权利和主权的最终的聚集。

在美国，主权在民，作为一个整体，通过代议政府行使它。

尤其是公共行政和公共就业因此被认为是“公共信任”。

16 Public administrators, being agents of the sovereign, are inevitably engaged public policy making and implementation.
公共管理者，成为主权的代理者，无可避免地忙于公共政策制定和实施的相关事项。

17 In sum, any definition of public administration must lay heavy stress on the public. There are many similarities between public and private administration, but these are often relatively unimportant in conveying the essence of each.. Public administration is concerned with administration of the public interest, it is constrained by constitutions and relatively unconstrained by market forces, and it is considered a public trust exercised on behalf of the sovereign. Private administration, on the other hand, generally has a narrower concept of the public interest; profit-making firms are heavily constrained by market forces, not by constitutions. Moreover, private administration is not connected to the issue of sovereignty and is rarely considered to be a public trust of any kind. The lines between public and private administration may become blurred when government contracts out essentially public functions to not-for-profit organizations or other third parties. The same is sometimes true when public agencies are run like corporations. But the private sector is not dominated or characterized by not-for-profit organizations, nor is the public sector largely organized in corporate form. Substantial differences between the public and private sectors remain and , importantly, they promote reliance on different values and processes.
总的来说，任何关于公共行政的任何定义都应强调公共性。

在公共管理与私营管理有许多相似点，但彼此
在关键之处却存在很大的差异。

公共管理关注的公共利益，它须在宪法的规定下动作，它较少受到市场力量的限制，它基于人公众的信任来代表主权运作。

相对而言，私人管理对于公众利益的关切层面则较狭隘，同时其主要影响力量的来源是市场机制而非宪法。

而且，私营部门的行政运作与主权无关，很少有人视其为公众信托人。

在政府将一些业务外包给非营利组织或其他第三部门的时候，公共部门与私营部门的行政之间的界限可能会变得模糊。

在公共机关像企业那样运营时，情况亦是如此。

但是，正如企业部门不可能永远从事非营利的业务一样，公共部门亦不可以采取企业管理架构作为其主要的运作模式。

所以，公共行政与私营部门的差异不仅将永远存在，而且更会持续表现在各自所拥有的价值与程序之中。

18 the managerial approach to public administration
公共行政的管理途径
19 The managerial approach is associated with the executive branch’s interest in faithful execution or implementation of the law .The political approach is associated with legislative policy making concerns .The legal approach focuses on government’s adjudicatory function ,commitment to maintaining constitutional rights and the rule of law.
管理途径与行政部门在忠实执行或执行法律的利益相联系。

政治途径与法律政策的制定相联系。

法律途径的重点集中在政府的裁决只能，致力于维护宪法权利和法制。

20 Those who define public administration in managerial terms and take a businesslike approach to it tend to minimize the distinctions between public and private administration .In their view ,public administration is essentially the same as big business and ought to be run according to the same managerial principles and values .
这些谁在管理方面界定公共管理，并采取务实的办法，尽量趋向于减少公共管理于私人管理的区别，它们的观点是公共管理的本质是像大企业一样，应该根据健全的管理原则和价值观来运行。

21 reinventing government
再造政府
22 civil service reformers
文官改革者
23 The reformers’ chief complaints were that political patronage appointments to the public services at all levels of government led to corruption ,inefficiency ,and the emergence of a class of politicians –“ spoilsmen ,”as they were frequently called-who were fundamentally unfit to lead the nation.
改革者们的主要抱怨是政治乘客的任命个级别的政府的公共服务导致贪污腐败，效率低下以及政客阶层的
出现-政党分肥，他们频繁的争论的谁才是从根本上不适合领导国家的人。

24 on the basis of “merit” and” fitness”
任人唯贤
25 Many reformers thought that public employees should be prohibited from taking an active part in electoral politics, other than voting .Once politics was rejected as the basis or hiring and firing public administrators ,the reformers believed that the selection and tenure of public servants could be based on their efficiency and performance .
许多改革者认为公共雇员应该禁止积极参与政治选举，除了投票。

一旦政治被拒绝作为雇佣和解雇根本的公共管理者，改革者相信选举和公务员的任期可以依据他们的效率和效绩。

26 to sustain this logic
为了支持这个理论
27 policy making functions
决策机制
28 In other words ,according to the traditional managerial approach ,public administration is to be geared toward maximizing effectiveness ,efficiency ,and economy .
换言之，按照传统的管理方式，公共行政是针对同时最大限度地提高效益，效率和经济。

29” scientific management” movement
科学管理运动
30 In the view of critics of this approach ,the result in terms of administrative values was that “the …goodness‟ or …badness‟ of a particular organizational pattern was a mathematical relationship of …inputs‟to‟output.‟
这个途径在批评者眼中，行政价值取向的结果是特定的组织形式的“‘善’或‘恶’在数学关系是投入到产出”
31 bureaucratic
官僚作用
32 The strong “position orientation ”of the traditional managerial approach to public administration , which views organization in formalistic structural rather than human terms , diminishes the importance of the individual employee to the organization .
强劲的传统公共行政管理途径的“立场导向”，它视组织为正式结构，而不是个人的团队，削弱了员工个人对组织的重要性。

33 cost-effectiveness
成本效能
34 The traditional managerial approach also favors rational decision making .Essentially , it holds that in making decisions public administrators should consider all plausible alternatives compreh ensively and choose the one that is most cost-effective .
传统的管理途径也主张理性决策。

本质上，它认为，做理性决策的公共管理者应该考虑所有全面可行的替代品，并选择一个最符合成本效益的决策。

35 reform-oriented
以改革为导向的
36 public sector performance
公共部门绩效
37 public opinion poll
民意测验
38 Today ,the NPM is becoming the dominant managerial approach in the United States . Its key concepts- somewhat revolutionary a decade ago-are now the standard language of public administration . Terms such as “results-oriented,”“ customer focused ,”“ employee empowerment ,”“entrepreneurship ,”and “outsourcing “ have entered the mainstream.
今天，NPM正在成为美国主导的管理途径。

10年前的革命中有些关键概念，现在成为公共行政的标准语言。

如“成果为导向的”，“以客户为中心”，“雇员授权”，“创业”和“外包”已经进入了主流。

39 The NPM views individuals as customers . As the NPR puts it ,effective ,entrepreneurial governments insist on customer satisfaction . They listen carefully to their customers using surveys , focus groups ,and the like. They restructure their basic operations to meet customers‟needs . And they use market dynamics such as competition and customer choice to create incentives that drive their employees to put customers first .
重塑政府将个体视为顾客。

正如重塑政府所说的，有效，企业政府坚持顾客满意度。

他们仔细听取他们的顾客通过使用调查，焦点团队等等。

他们重组基本操作已达到客户需求。

他们使用诸如竞争和客户选择的市场动态，创造有利因素，推动其员工将客户放在第一位。

40 The NPM is largely driven by theory but it can be pragmatic in determining what works and what does not .It borrows heavily from the “public choice” approach to public policy.
重塑政府主要由理论推动但是它可以务实的决定什么可行什么不可以。

它主要来自公共政策的公共选择途
径。

41NPM budgeting focuses on the production of services and regulatory enforcement outputs and results outcomes rather than on inputs such as personnel and equipment .
重塑政府的预算集中于产品的服务和监管执法的产出以及结果而不是人员设备的投入。

42 However，decisions regarding missions and entrepreneurial opportunities should be made by agency leaders, generally with input from rank and file employees. NPM decision making is cost-conscious.
然而，关于任务和企业机会的决定应该由代理机构领导者决定，大体由基层人员投入。

重塑政府的决策制定是成本意识。

43The political approach to public administration stresses the values of representativeness ,political responsiveness, and accountability through elected officials to the citizenry.
公共行政的政治途径强调价值的代表性，政治回应以及责任性通过公民选举产生官员。

44Overlapping missions and programs become common as the administrative structure comes to resemble a political party platform that promises something to almost everyone without establishing clear priorities for resolving conflicts among them.
重叠的任务和程序变得普遍由于行政机构成为一个政治团体平台，向几乎每个人承诺一些事而不用为解决它们之间的冲突建立明确的优先权。

45 This approach to administrative organization has been widely denounced as making government “unmanageable‟‟, ”costly,” and “inefficient,” but ,as Seidman argues , it persists because administrative organization is frequently viewed as a political question heavily emphasizing political values.
行政组织的途径已经被广泛谴责为使政府“无法控制”，“昂贵”，“低效率”，但是，正如Seidman所说的，它继续存在因为行政组织常常被看做一个十分强调政治价值的政治问题。

46 Rather it identifies the individual‟s interests as being similar or identical to those of others considered to be within the same group or category. Once grouped ,individuals are viewed as the targets or beneficiaries of public policies .
相反它认定那些个体的利益为相似或等同于那些被认为有相同群体或类别的其他人。

一旦分组，个体被视为目标或公共政策的获利者。

47 The political approach views science as an appropriate way of developing factual knowledge.
政治途径把科学观看作一种合适的发展实际知识的途径。

48 This approach is derived primarily from three interrelated sources. The first is administrative law , which can be defined as the body of law and regulations that control generic administrative processes. It
consist of statutes; executive orders; the binding directives of central personnel, budget, service, and related agencies; and constitutional law decisions.
这种途径最初起源于三个相互联系的来源。

第一个是行政法律，它被定义为控制一般行政程序的法律法规体系。

它包含法规；行政命令；结合中央人事预算服务和相关机构和宪法法律决定的指导。

49 The legal approach to budgeting emphasizes constitutional integrity and the need to protect constitutional rights ,even though those exercising them may be an unpopular minority.
法律途径的预算强调宪法的完整性和需要保护的宪法权利，即使那些行使他们的可能是一个不受欢迎的少数派。

50 It calls for the following steps ,among others :putting customers first, making service organizations compete ,creating market dynamics, using market mechanisms to solve problems, empowering employees to get results, decentralizing decision making power, streamlining the budget process, decentralizing personnel policy, and streamlining procurement.
它需要如下步骤，其中包括：把顾客放在第一位，使服务组织竞争，创造市场活力，运用市场机制解决问题，授权员工取得成果，决策下放，精简预算程序，下放人事政策，精简采购。

51 Under the direction of the Oregon Progress Board ,”Oregon Benchmark ”established clear, quantified goals for improving health, family education, civic participation , equal opportunity , social harmony, the environment, housing, transportation, public safety , per capita income , industrial diversification, economic growth , and public sector performance. It promotes results-oriented public administration and, as used in Oregon , encourages experimentation by local governments.
在俄勒冈州进展委员会的指导下，“俄勒冈州标杆管理”规定明确，量化的目标是改善健康，家庭教育，公民参与，机会均等，社会和谐，环境，住房，交通，公共安全，人均收入，工业多样化，经济增长和公共部门的表现。

它促进结果导向的公共管理，并在俄勒冈州使用，鼓励地方政府实验。

简答题
1.what values does the managerial approach to public administration focus on?
公共管理的管理途径的价值集中在效益和效率。

用管理性的词句定义公共管理的人使用类似于经济管理的途径去缩小公共管理和私人管理之间的区别。

他们认为，公共管理与生意同等重要并且应该根据同样的管理原则和价值。

2.how do you understand the term “reinventing government”?（30页第一段，分析总结）
3.简述一下官僚制，官僚制的优缺点？
官僚制就是指以等级制度为前提，强调劳动分工，根据正式程序建立的组织结构形式。

优点:能够分工明确，同时强调劳动分工的专业化，能够使雇员更加专业化在其所从事的工
作方面，并且在一定程度上促进了协作，提高工作效果。

雇员的选择是根据其工作能力，可以做到人尽其才。

缺点:官僚制的人员冗杂，机构重叠。

可能会出现权力重叠由此造成冲突，影响工作效率，导致工作的低效率，
4.what is the New Public Management？p31
1)Public administration should focus on achieving results rather than primarily on conforming
with processes.
2)To achieve results ,public administration should make better use of market-like competition
in the provision of goods and services.
3)A coronary of making public administration more market-like is to make it customer-driven.
4)Also related to the market idea and privatization is that government should “steer,not row,”in
Osborne and Gaebler’s phrase..
5)Government should be deregulated .Traditional bureaucracy’s emphasis on centralized
control of staffing ,personnel administration ,budgeting ，auditing，procurement，and allocation of agency resources is inappropriate to results-oriented public administration。

6)An extension of deregulation is that employees should be empowered to use their creativity
in serving customers and doing their jobs.
7)Overall ,public administration culture should change to be flexible ，innovative，problem
solving，entrepreneurial ，and Enterprising as opposed to rule-round ，process-oriented ，and focused on inputs rather than results.
5.can you illustrate the importance of employees’ empowerment?
如今，在美国新型公共管理正在成为最重要的管理途径。

它的核心观念--十年以前某种程度上的革命性变革—现在成为公共行政的标准语言。

例如，以结果为导向，顾客为焦点，雇员授权，企业家和外购已经进入了主流。

它依赖于权力下放使个体成为服务中心。

因此，所有的机构组织更加自主，更加自由。

合作是通过竞争而不是等级制度。

雇员授权也是如此。

6.could you identify the difference between “customer” and “ citizen” in public administration? 新型公共管理把个体视为顾客。

他们认真倾听顾客的意见，重建基本运作满足顾客的需求。

同时使用市场力例如竞争力和顾客选择去创造动力使雇员将顾客放在首位。

顾客不意味着公民。

公民可以参加民主政策制定；一个顾客从特殊的服务中受益。

所有的美国人都是公民，其中的大多数也是顾客:美国的邮政服务，社会保障部，退伍军人事务部门，国家公务员服务和几十种其他的联邦组织。

在民主制国家，公民和顾客都是等同的，但是当选举的时候公民很少有机会去影响公共机构的行为而是直接影响他们的生活、学校、医院、农业服务机构和社会保障部门。

7.what values does the political approach to public administration focus on ?
公共管理的政治途径强调代表性、政治回应性和责任性的价值通过选举官员到市民中。

8.from the perspective of political approach to public administration，could you identify some
aspects of conflict with the traditional approach? 答案看表格
9.what do you think of the efficiency of “citizen partic ipation” ?
1)促进管理运作中的政治回应性
2)促进公众和他们选举官员的公共管理责任性
3)公民参与是消费时间和代价高昂的行为。