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硕士研究生英语学位真题2012年12月_真题-无答案(523)

硕士研究生英语学位真题2012年12月(总分100,考试时间90分钟)PART Ⅰ LISTENING COMPREHENSIONSection ADirections: In this section, you will hear nine short conversations between two speakers. At the end of each conversation a question will be asked about what was said. The conversations and the questions will be read ONLY ONCE. Choose the best answer from the four choices given by marking the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scored Answer Sheet.【点此下载音频文件】1. A. His arms. B. His legs. C. His head. D. His shoulder.2. A. Bennie is traveling to San Francisco by air. B. Bennie is very happy about the promotion. C. Bennie has quit a well-paid job. D. Bennie enjoys working in the office.3. A. At 1:45. B. At 2:15. C. At 2:30. D. At 2:45.4. A. Jeffrey is not a good helping hand. B. Jeffrey is too young to start a new career. C. They agree with each other on many things. D. They really dislike each other.5. A. An SUV. B. A sports car. C. A minivan. D. A cargo truck.【点此下载音频文件】6. A. Because the lab was really a mess. B. Because the boss was too strict. C. Because the driver was absent-minded. D. Because someone in the group was manipulative.7. A. Jessica didn't want the job anyway. B. Jessica herself is to blame. C. Jessica should stop her dog from barking. D. Jessica hid something in the tree.8. A. At a restaurant. B. At the airport. C. At a service station. D. At a café.9. A. She has been busy with Biochemistry. B. She hasn't got a partner yet. C. She prefersMicrobiology to Biochemistry. D. She has to drop the lab class.Section BDirections: In this section you will hear two mini-talks. At the end of each talk, there will be some questions. Both the talks and the questions will be read to you only once. After each question, there will be a pause. During the pause, you must choose the best answer from the four choices given by marking the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scored Answer Sheet.Mini-talk One【点此下载音频文件】1. A. Organizing campus activities. B. Taking visitors to various colleges. C. Offering information on American colleges. D. Advising on which university to attend.2. A. Admission requirements. B. Sports programs. C. International database. D. Virtual campus tours.3. A. Because they found many related websites lacking visual materials. B. Because they wanted to compete with the tradition of a personal visit. C. Because they intended to choose their ideal colleges. D. Because they couldn't contact a school directly.Mini-talk Two【点此下载音频文件】1. A. More than 57 million dollars. B. More than 75 million dollars. C. About 550 million dollars. D. More than 15 billion dollars.2. A. Lights and windows. B. Restrooms and elevator equipment. C. Office conditions and environment. D. Lease rates and payment.3. A. An investment association will be set up. B. The building will be illuminated by green lights. C. The occupants will get into trouble. D. The cost of office space will double.Section CDirections: In this section you will hear a short lecture. Listen to the recording and complete the notes about the lecture. You will hear the recording twice. After the recording you are asked towrite down your answers on the Answer Sheet. You now have 25 seconds to read the notes below.【点此下载音频文件】1. Post-holiday syndrome is a commonly used term which depicts the ______ (2 words) occurring after the winter holidays and festival season.2. Expecting to ______ (4 words) is a way of telling yourself that this is a normal feeling.3. Lift your spirits by continuing to ______ (3 words) friends and family, and getting out and about to do activities.4. Choose activities that meet your ______ (3 words), and that you know will give you a thrill.5. Once you're ______ (2 words) planning and doing, you'll be too busy to worry. PART Ⅱ VOCABULARYSection ADirections: There are ten questions in this section. Each question is a sentence with one word or phrase underlined. Below the sentence are four words or phrases marked A, B, C and D. Choose the word or phrase that is closest in meaning to the underlined one. Mark the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scored Answer Sheet.1. These findings run counter to the belief that alcohol stands in the way of analytical thinking.A. spurs B. hinders C. triggers D. accompanies2. As in the rest of the continent, South Africa still has to contend with overwhelming poverty.A. suffer from B. bring about C. invest in D. fight against3. The operation was a success and he had excellent prospects for a full recovery.A. thoughts B. outputs C. odds D. ambitions4. Destiny is defined by individuals keen to imagine a future that is different from the reality.A. eager B. unwilling C. sharp D. quick5. My mother keeps reminding me to stick to my principles and remain honest in whatever I do.A. adhere to B. set about C. insist on D. come upon6. There's nothing worse than a boss who gives implicit instructions and then gets disappointed by the work you give in.A. explicit B. ambiguous C. considerable D. coherent7. About three years into this job, these migrant laborers came to accept the harsh facts in time.A. punctually B. immediately C. originally D. eventually8. An aircraft is equipped with a sophisticated electronic control system for the sake of safety.A. highly-developed B. newly-invented C. well-meant D. long-lived9. This trip offers an opportunity to enjoy the profound silence of the deep, unaltered desert.A. dramatic B. important C. complete D. distant10. All Fire Police Officers are sworn officers of the law and should display a(n) badge of authority when on duty.A. multitude B. token C. air D. degreeSection BDirections: There are ten questions in this section. Each question is a sentence with something missing. Below each sentence are four words or phrases marked A, B, C and D. Choose one word or phrase that best completes the sentence. Mark the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scored Answer Sheet.1. Eight badminton players were charged with trying to ______ the outcome of preliminary matches.A. dominate B. manipulate C. eliminate D. simulate2. In the beginning, few people were ______ Barack Obama to make a significant impact in the race.A. counting on B. turning out C. proceeding to D. conforming to3. Self-esteem is the ability to be ______ of one's own abilities, talent, worth and value.A. ensured B. insured C. assured D. treasured4. Children of parents who did not go to university are probably more reluctant to ______ secondary education than those who did.A. put in B. fill in C. check in D. enroll in5. Learning something new is, after all, what scientific experiments are all ______.A. about B. against C. towards D. around6. A large-scale wildfire broke out that forced the ______ of over 2,000 people just west of Madrid.A. speculation B. succession C. evacuation D. interrogation7. Intellectually brilliant students from this high school are most ______ to be admitted to elite universities.A. probable B. likely C. possible D. liable8. Her right hand had occasionally ______ from signing her name so many times.A. yelled B. propelled C. compelled D. swelled9. Artists should cultivate their own ______ style rather than always imitating others.A. single B. individual C. private D. separate10. The key to efficient reading is the ability to judge the writer's position ______ the information he is presenting.A. in spite of B. in relation to C. in place of D. in support ofPART Ⅲ CLOZEDirections: There are 10 questions in this part of the test. Read the passage through. Then, go back and choose one suitable word or phrase marked A, B, C, or D for each blank in the passage. Mark the corresponding letter of the word or phrase you have chosen with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scored Answer Sheet.E-commerce has revolutionized the way business is done in today's market. However, customers are at 1 of purchasing false products or poor quality items. Many 2 the distance between customers and send the wrong goods and lure clients to buy goods recommended as great 3 , but when customers receive these items, they find themselves falling into traps.Many dangers, 4 by the obscurity of e-commerce, involve the products and the electronic transaction. From the buyer's 5 , dangers include purchasing products not measuring 6 what was previously advertised in the website. Another risk is identity theft. Since electronic transactions are needed to complete the purchase, hackers may acquire 7 information about the user to make other purchases.There are still honest businesses that sell their products and services but gain a very small profit by 8 the prices of their products because they have a lot of competition in the Internet. That is 9 one of the hazards of e-commerce that should be considered is the bankruptcy of businesses since profit is low if they need 10 their goods as cheaply as possible.1. A. time B. random C. sight D. risk2. A. take advantage ofB. cast doubt on C. give rise to D. go ahead with3. A. deceptions B. bargains C. opportunities D. advertisements4. A. managed B. created C. prevented D. led5. A. prospect B. aspect C. respect D. perspective6. A. as to B. prior to C. up to D. next to7. A. confidential B. superficial C. potential D. initial8. A. raising B. disqualifying C. exaggerating D. minimizing9. A. how B. because C. why D. where10. A. selling B. to sell C. sell D. soldPART Ⅳ READING COMPREHENSIONDirections: In this part of the test, there are five short passages. Read each passage carefully, and then do the questions that follow. Choose the best answer from the four choices given and mark the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your machine-scored Answer Sheet.Passage OneOne of the areas in which people tend to have ideas that don't make sense is that of rights. For example, many Americans believe that our rights, described in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, derive from God or from the very nature of being human, including the individual right to bear arms. Yet people in most law-governed democracies other than the United States do not have an individual right to bear arms. How, then, can the right to bear arms derive from God? Is this a special right that can be created by the people via government?It is claimed that we can trace the right to be armed to legal and political events in 17th century English history, this time relating to hunting and gaming laws. How does a fundamental natural right lie sleeping throughout the first 6,000 years of recorded history, only to wake to full flower due to conflicts over gaming laws in Restoration England? In the mid-1980s, the idea that people have a right to have consensual sex with partners of any gender was pronounced "joking inappropriately" by the Supreme Court; 25 years later it feels like an obvious, natural outgrowth of the Bill of Rights. If rights evolve this way through the dialectics of culture and history, just how "natural" can they be?Such are the idle thoughts that occur in the wake of America's latest episode of horrifying, meaningless mass slaughter. A large segment of the American public these days apparently finds it offensive to talk about gun control after these sorts of cruelty occur. As economist Mr. Wolfers said: "Let's not talk about gun control. It's too early, right? It's always too early. Except when it's too late."Mr. Wolfers is right: the "too early" construction is ridiculous. The only thing that is certain now is that gun control is uncertain in America. It's never going to happen. There are too many guns out there, and an individual right to bear arms is now established in constitutional law. So this is just what one of America's many faces is going to be: a bitterly divided, hatefully cynical country where insane people have easy access to semi-automatic weapons and occasionally use them to commit crime. We will continue to see more and more of this sort of thing, and there's nothing we can realistically do about it.1. The author begins by arguing that Americans' right to bear arms ______.A. is stipulated in the Constitution B. has been created by individuals C. has nothing to do with God D. is not to be doubted2. The Supreme Court is mentioned in Paragraph 2 to ______.A. confirm the validity of gun ownership by individuals B. argue that the right to bear arms is by no means natural C. prove that gun ownership has been approved by the Court D. describe the process of legislation on gun ownership3. The expression "in the wake of" used in the third paragraph probably means ______.A. butfor B. totally without C. soon after D. just before4. It seems to Mr. Wolfers that gun control is ______.A. really too early to start B. actually offensive C. not necessary now D. already too late5. It seems to the author that gun control in America is ______.A. impossible B. unconstitutional C. time-consuming D. stupid6. Which of the following might be an appropriate title for this passage?A. Gun Control Is Easy B. Gun Ownership Is Legal C. Gun Control, Too Late D. No Need to Control GunsPassage TwoThe English-speaking world does not look kindly on straw. Grasping at straws, straw-man arguments, the last straws and the straws that break so many camels' backs all demonstrate that. There is also a tale that straw is the worst material from which to build a house, particularly if you are a pig with a hungry wolf around. So the cards were stacked against Warren Brush when local officials learned that he had several buildings made of straw bales (大捆) on his land.They have tried to fine him. A lot. But the case is still unresolved. The problem is that California's building codes make no provision for the use of straw. And Mr. Brush has many defenders—among them several university scientists and David Eisenberg, chairman of the United States Green Building Council's code committee. They would like to see the prejudice against straw houses eliminated, for straw is, in many ways, an ideal building material.It is, for one thing, a great insulator. That keeps down the heating bills in houses made from it. It is also a waste product that would otherwise be burned, and is therefore cheap. And—very much to the point in a place like California—it is earthquake-resistant. Last year a test conducted at the University of Nevada showed that straw-bale constructions could withstand twice the amount of ground motion recorded in the Northridge earthquake that hit Los Angeles in 1994.California, of course, is already thoroughly earthquake-proofed. But straw buildings might do well in quake-prone places that are less wealthy. After a strong earthquake struck Pakistan in 2005, Darcey Donovan, a structural engineer from Truckee, California, set up a not-for-profit straw-bale-construction operation that has since built 17 houses there.There are, as it were, other straws in the wind: a post office in suburban Albuquerque, a Quaker school in Maryland, an office complex in suburban Los Angeles and an urban-renewal project in Binghamton, New York, have all been built from straw. Even California is having a rethink, and may change its rules to accommodate straw-bale construction. As Mr. Eisenberg observes, "the lesson of the Three Little Pigs isn't to avoid straw. It's that you don't let a pig build your house."1. By "the cards were stacked against Warren Brush," the author means that Brush ______.A. received punishment B. made a breakthrough C. might be highly praised D. would be in trouble2. David Eisenberg is mentioned ______.A. for the purpose of supporting Warren Bush B. as a representative of official opinions C. to provide evidence against straw houses D. to show the importance of the building codes3. What is Paragraph 3 mainly about?A. The structure of straw houses. B. The possibility of building straw houses. C. The advantages of straw houses. D. The tips for building straw houses.4. Which aspect of straw is emphasized in Paragraph 4?A. It is abundant in nature. B. It is rather inexpensive. C. It is a great insulator. D. It is easy to transport.5. It can be learned from the last paragraph that California ______.A. will fine Warren Brush as planned B. will reduce the fine on Warren Brush C. may lift the fine on Warren Brush D. may consider a bigger fine on Warren Brush6. The author's purpose in writing the passage is to ______.A. trace the evolution of straw houses B. explain how to build a house with straw C. highlight the prejudice against straw houses D. argue that straw can be used to build housesPassage ThreeI was talking with a senior Public Relations manager the other day about "The Game Trainers" and he expressed much skepticism about both the possibility and value of getting senior professionals to play games."These are serious people with serious jobs, and they are not going to waste time running around like school children," he told me. This statement highlighted many of his assumptions. It also provided me with a golden opportunity to talk about how these "serious people with serious jobs" could actually learn something about themselves, their company, and their business opportunities by allowing creativity to flow more freely through "games."His position is not uncommon and it comes from a deep seated misunderstanding of what a "game" is and what it is for, as well as a set notion of what "work" must look like for it to be considered of value. It's not a coincidence that the most successful companies of the last decade, including Apple and Google, were all started by college students, and perhaps as a consequence have a spirit of fun, creativity and innovation. Their success has not been achieved through a cubicle work environment, strict hierarchy, dull meetings and a 9 to 5 work structure. Instead they have flowing and flexible work spaces, a culture of collaboration, and opportunities for creativity.So where does the line between "work" and "game" occur? Well maybe there isn't one, or at least maybe there shouldn't be one. So is all this just a matter of perception? Well, yes and no. The starting point in allowing creativity to flow freely is to accept that the line between business and play is blurred, or at best non-existent. Only then is it possible to create the opportunity and appropriate environment for individuals and groups to play the game (or work) as well as they possibly can.The Game Trainers support this innovative and highly productive approach to work by creating games and group exercises to develop awareness and insight of issues, as well developing games to integrate into the working environment. And so, I said to the PR man, it's a good thing that they are "serious people with serious jobs," because we also are extremely serious about play, and in today's environment they simply cannot afford not to play games.1. What does the PR manager think of the author's proposal of playing games?A. It is probably nonsense. B. It is against the rule. C. It would be beneficial. D. It is worth a try.2. The author suggests that the PR manager's position on games ______.A. is hard to understand in today's world B. represents a common misunderstanding C. is based on scientifically proven concepts D. allows for greater work efficiency3. The examples of Apple and Google show that ______.A. games should be separated from work B. it helps to combine work with games C. work and games can be clearly defined D. no work can be done well without games4. What is the topic of Paragraph 4?A. How to draw a line between work and game? B. What is the line between work and game? C. Should there be a line between work and game? D. Why is there a line between work and game?5. "The Game Trainers" is probably a ______.A. computer game B. search engine C. research system D. game developer6. In this passage the author ______.A. encourages people to work more creatively B. describes how to balance work with life C. promotes an innovative approach to work D. analyzes why it is important to enjoy workPassage Four"A robot can't replace me," Andy Richter complained loudly but in good fun, facing the prospect of losing his job to the Jeopardy!-winning IBM's Watson computer. "A robot can't do the things a human can do. I mean, can he love, can he feel?"Well, no. But some folks are asking similar questions about computers such as Watson taking their jobs someday. "After all, if a machine can beat humans at Jeopardy!, will computers soon be competing with people for knowledge-based jobs?" asks Martin Ford, author of The Lights in the Tunnel in a Fortune magazine article. "If IBM's hopes for the technology are realized, workers may, in fact, have cause for concern."Ford and others argue that computers and robots such as Watson have the potential to replace not only assembly-line jobs, such as the manufacturing positions that dropped nationwide by one-third over the last decade, but the "knowledge worker" jobs of the modern economy, such as radiologists and lawyers. "Many of these people will be highly educated professionals who had previously assumed that they were, because of their skills and advanced educations, beneficiariesof the trend toward an increasingly technological and globalized world," Ford argues in his book.But Cornell University sociologist Trevor Pinch says that warnings about artificial intelligence taking over have missed essential shortcomings of computers for decades. "I would call them friendly monsters," he says, rather than job-killing ones. "Computers can never experience the things that make us uniquely human, they have never been delayed at O'Hare airport long enough to walk around the memorial to Gen. O'Hare, and have that memory stuck in your brain."Underneath the exaggerated publicity, the human brain far outperforms computers, and not just in raw calculating power, says information scholar Martin Hilbert of the University of Southern California in Los Angeles. All of the computers in the world taken together possess the computational power of, in all, 62 human brains, he says, based on findings his team reported this month in Science. There are about six billion people alive today.And hey, if things turn out as bad as Ford suggests, there is always the solution that Andy Richter settled on—beating anything that resembles the job-threatening Watson with a baseball bat. Let's hope it doesn't come down to that.1. We can learn that Jeopardy! is ______.A. a newly developed computer program B. a match between computers and humans C. a robot built with the latest technology D. a competition between fastest computers2. Paragraph 3 mainly discusses ______.A. the threat posed by tech development B. the potential benefits of digitalization C. the gap between blue-collar and white-collar jobs D. the way to survive knowledge-based economy3. In Paragraph 4, Trevor Pinch is talking about ______.A. man's advantages over computers B. advantages of computers over man C. the reliability of computers D. the future development of computers4. The sentence "There are about six billion people alive today" implies that ______.A. nobody should underestimate the power of computers B. we have enough manpower to fix existing problems C. computers can help human beings in all possible ways D. there is no need to worry too much about computers5. Who is most concerned about computers' taking over people?A. Martin Hilbert. B. Trevor Pinch. C. Martin Ford. D. Andy Richter.6. What does the author think of the prospect of jobs being lost to computers?A. It should be taken into serious consideration. B. We can always find solutions to the problem. C. It is too early to say anything for certain. D. We should always be ready for possible changes.Passage FiveThey are regarded as chores by both sexes, but fall disproportionately on only one. The latest survey of time use in America suggests women still shoulder most of the housework, spending on average an hour a day, compared with barely 20 minutes for the unfairer sex.Standard explanations for this division of labor rest on the pay gap between the sexes. A recent report shows women still earn about 20% less than men in America. But in a new paper, Leslie Stratton of Virginia Commonwealth University asks whether different attitudes to housework also play a role in sharing the dusting.Ms. Stratton draws on data from the 2000—2001 Time Use Survey in Britain, which shows how people spent their day and which tasks they enjoyed. Attitudes certainly differed: women disliked laundry less than men; ironing was extremely dreaded by both; strangely large numbers of both sexes liked shopping for food.Ms. Stratton found some evidence for the pay-gap hypothesis. Women with higher wages did a little less work at home. A woman who earned 10% more than average escaped doing two minutes' housework per weekday. Her partner heroically made up this time at the weekend. But his wages made no difference to the extent of his efforts around the house.The major determinant of how much housework a man did was how much he disliked it. Men who liked housework spent around 60% more time per weekday on it than those who were indifferent to it. Women's preferences seemed to have no effect on the time they spent on chores.One way to reduce the burden for both is to get help, although again the rewards are unevenly spread. He got away with 43% less housework at weekends, and she did 17% less. Almost all the extra housework generated by children was taken on by the woman. As children get older the weekday burden falls, but weekend time rises—and still comes mainly from her.There is truth in the idea that chores go to the lower-paid partner. But cause and effect are unclear. Do women do more because of lower pay, or might their careers suffer from a disproportionate burden at home? Evidence that only men's preferences seem to matter suggests the latter explanation should not be swept under the carpet.1. In a new paper, Leslie Stratton aims to ______.A. introduce some new ways for women to do less housework B. explain women's housework burden from a new angle C. challenge the survey that women still do most of the housework D. confirm the standard explanation for women's housework burden2. Which of the following tasks is disliked most by women?A. Laundry. B. Ironing. C. Shopping for food. D. Caring for babies.3. Ms. Stratton finds that the standard explanation for the division of labor ______.A. makes some sense B. lacks real evidence C. is truly well-grounded D. misses the point4. According to Paragraph 5, the division of labor is greatly affected by ______.A. the pay gap between the sexes B. the relationship between the sexes C. women's attitudes to housework D. men's preferences for housework5. What is the main idea of Paragraph 6?A. Men tend to benefit more from hired help. B. Women consider hired help especially useful. C. Getting help works equally well for both sexes. D. Getting help works better for families with kids.6. The author suggests in the last sentence of the passage that ______.A. the way housework is。

2012年英语专业四级考试真题及答案

2012年英语专业四级考试真题PART III CLOZE 【15 MIN】Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage if inserted in the corresponding blanks．Mark the best choice for each blank on Answer Sheet Two．The earthquake of 26th December 2004 resulted in one of the worst natural disasters in living memory．It was a (31) _____ underwater quake and occurred in the Indian Ocean．It (32) ____ coastlines，communities and brought death to many people．Why do earthquakes happen?The surface of the earth has not always looked as it does today；it is moving(33)____ (although very slowly)and has done so for billions of years．This is one(34)____ of earthquakes，when one section of the earth (tectonic plate)(35)____ another．Scientists can predict where but not(36)____ this might happen and the area between plates is called a fault line．On one fault line in Kobe，Japan in 1923 over 200,000 people were killed．(37)____，earthquakes do not alwayshappen on fault lines，(38)____ is why they are so dangerous and (39)____．Where do volcanoes happen?Volcanoes happen where the earth's(40)____ is thin：lava，dust and gases(41)____ from beneath the earth．They can rise into a huge cone shape like a mountain and erupt，(42)____ they can be so violent(43)____ they just explode directly from the earth with no warning．There are 1511(44)'____' volcanoes in the world．This means that they may(45)____ be dangerous．In 1985 the Colombian volcano Nevado del Ruiz erupted．The lava melted a glacier and sent tones of mud(46)____ the town below．Twenty thousand people died．Natural disasters like volcanic eruptions are often unpredictable．We regularly do not know whenthey(47)____ pen，or (48)____ where they will happen．In the future，scientists may be able to watch and predict(49)____ before they happen．This could(50)____ many lives．31．A．massive B．significant C．great D．grand32．A．changed B．converted C．destroyed D．transformed33．A．frequently B．continuously C．regularly D．periodically34．A．source B．reason C．movement D．cause35．A．collides with B．confronts with C．meets with D．faces with36．A．how B．why C．when D．what37．A．Generally B．However C．Similarly D．Anyway38．A．that B．it C．this D．which39．A．unpredictable B．unaccountable C．inevitable D．irresistible40．A．surface B．appearance C．crust D．cover41．A．flowed out B．burst out C．1eaked out D．trickled out42．A．or B．and C．nor D．but43．A．like B．for C．as D．that44．A．living B．active C．alive D．live45．A．relatively B．hardly C．still D．gradually46．A．down B．on C．across D．beyond47．A．are to B．should C．must D．might48．A．else B．even C．though D．whether49．A．accidents B．incidents C．occasions D．events50．A．rescue B．save C．preserve D．shelterPART IV GRAMMAR ＆VOCABULARY 【15 MIN】There are thirty sentences in this section．Beneath each sentence there are four words, phrases or statements marked A，B, C and D．Choose one word, phrase or statement that best completes the sentence．Mark your answers on Answer Sheet Two．51．Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?A．Twenty miles seems like a long walk to him．B．No one except his supporters agree with him．C．Neither Julia nor I were going to the party．D．Few students in my class are really lazy．52．Which of the following determiners(限定词)can be placed before both singular count nouns and plural count nouns?A．many a B．few C．such D．the next53．Which of the following reflexive pronouns(反身代词)is used as an appositive(同位语)?A，He promised himself rapid progress．B．The manager herself will interview Mary．C．I have nothing to say for myself．D．They quarreled themselves red in the face．54．My boss ordered that the legal documents ____ to him before lunch．A．be sent B．were sent C．were to be sent D．must be sent55．Which of the following sentences expresses WILLINGNESS?A．By now she will be eating dinner．B．I shall never do that again．C．My brother will help you with the luggage．D．You shall get a promotion．56．Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?A．How strange feelings they are!B．How dare you speak to me like that!C．What noise they are making!D. What a mess we are in!57．which of the italicized parts functions as a subject?A．We never doubt that her brother is honest．B．The problem is not who will go but who will stay．C．You must give it back to whoever it belongs to。

2012年12月英语四级真题及答案解析完整版

2012年12月英语四级真题及答案解析完整版Part I Writing【标准版】Nothing Succeeds Without a Strong WillNothing runs smoothly in our life. To achieve things successfully, a strong will is essential. Life is like a Marathon. Many people can’t get to the terminal. This is not bec ause they are lack of vitality but because their will of success is not strong enough.To take quitting smoking as an example, some regard it as a piece of cake. They make up their minds to quit it in the morning, but in the evening they feel that the smell of cigarettes is tempting. Their throats are sore, their mouths are thirsty, and their hands are shaking. After the painful mental struggle, they tell themselves that “One cigarette is enough. Just take one, and the next day I will quit it.” By doing this, they surrender to their weak will. In the end, they have quitted smoking “a hundred times”, but in no time they succeed.Just like quitting smoking, nothing succeeds without a strong will. To be successful in one’s life, a strong will means that you know where you go and you will persist on the road you choose. Undoubtedly success belongs to those who overcome their weak will and who hang in there until the last minute.【文章点评】本文属于话题类作文，只看题目“Nothing Succeeds without a strong will”考生会觉得比较抽象，难以下手。

spring+acegi+中文手册

本章内容：n Acegi安全系统介绍n 使用Servlet过滤器保护Web应用系统n 基于数据库或LDAP进行身份认证n 透明地对方法调用进行保护你是否曾注意到在电视连续剧中大多数人是不锁门的？这是司空见惯的。

在情景喜剧Seinfeld中，Krammer常常到Jerry的房间里自己仍冰箱里拿东西吃。

在Fri ends中，各种各样的剧中人经常不敲门就不假思索地进入别人的房间。

甚至有一次在伦敦，Ross突然进入Chandler的旅馆房间，差点儿撞见Chandler和Ross的妹妹的私情。

在20世纪50年代Leave It to Beaver热播的时代，并不值得为人们不锁门这一现象大惊小怪。

但在如今这个隐私和安全极受重视的时代，看到电视剧中的角色允许他人大摇大摆地进入自己的家中或房间中实在让人觉得难以置信。

类似地，在软件系统中，允许仸何人可以访问敏感或者私密的信息是不明智的。

应用系统必须通过质询来验证用户身份，据此决定是允许还是拒绝他访问受限制的信息。

无论你是通过用户名/密码来保护一个电子邮件账号，还是基于交易个人身份号码来保护一个佣金账户，安全性都是大多数应用系统的一个重要切面。

我们有意选择“切面”这个词来描述应用系统的安全性。

安全性是超越应用系统功能特性的一个关注点。

应用系统的绝大部分不应该亲自参与到与安全相关的处理中。

尽管你能够把与安全相关的处理直接编码到应用系统中（这种情况并不少见），但更好的做法还是将安全有关的关注点与应用系统的关注点分开。

如果你想到这听上去好像安全性是通过“面向切面”技术实现的，那你猜对了。

在本章中，我们将向你介绍Acegi安全系统，并探讨使用Spring AOP和Servlet 过滤器来保护应用系统的各种手段。

11.1 Acegi安全系统介绍Acegi是一个能够为基于Spring的应用系统提供描述性安全保护的安全框架。

它提供了一组可以在Spring应用上下文中配置的Bean，充分利用了Spring对依赖注入和面向切面编程的支持。

Legal Writing..............................................................................

Legal Writingv.6 July 2007This document, with any later amendments, isavailable from the Law School’s Web pages at</nuls/lectures/legwrit/index.htm>Legal Writing (2)The importance of legal writing (2)Types of exercise (2)Assessment Criteria (3)Planning (3)Research (3)Writing (3)Spelling, Grammar and Style (5)Revise (5)Citation of sources (6)Selection of sources (6)House Style (6)Numerical system of citation (7)How to cite legislation (8)Acts of Parliament (8)How to cite case law (10)English cases (10)Court of Justice of the European Communities (14)International Court of Justice (14)Foreign cases (14)How to cite Books and Journals (14)Recommended house style (14)How to cite electronic sources (15)Internet sources (15)Digital Object Identifiers (16)Ephemeral sources (16)CD-ROM (16)Supplements (17)Common Abbreviations (17)Author/date system (18)Legal WritingThis document has been approved by the Board of Studies of Law in an attempt to set a standard for acceptable legal writing. If you follow its advice, you cannot be open to criticism. If you do not, you may be criticised, and you may have marks deducted.The document contains advice about good style for legal writing, defines an acceptable house style for the use of footnotes, and outlines rules for the citation of primary and secondary legal sources.The importance of legal writingThe principal method of assessment in the Law School is written work whether by examination, assessed written work, or dissertation. Written work may take several different forms. You may be set a legal problem, or an essay, or you may be directed to write a letter, or a case note. This document contains general propositions applicable to all types of assessment, but is aimed particularly at word-processed answers. Matters of document style for assessed coursework and seminar essays are dealt with in the Degree Programme Handbooks.Types of exerciseProblem QuestionsThese consist of a statement of facts, usually with the direction to 'Advise X [one of the parties]'. The aim will be to analyse the facts to identify the legal issue(s), and analyse the law to find the relevant legal rule(s). Next will be the application of the law to the issue(s), and reaching a conclusion. Remember Issues Rules Application Conclusion - IRAC.Essay QuestionsIRAC is often a good starting point for an essay involving doctrinal analysis of the law. Start with an introduction identifying the legal issue(s) raised in the essay title, review the law, state how the law affects the issue(s) and reach conclusions in particular pointing to any areas where the application of the law is problematic or in need of reform.ExaminationsExaminations are normally hand-written, not word-processed, and you are not expected to reach the standards of citation of sources set out in this document. However, some of what follows about planning, writing and revision will be relevant to examinations.You may be asked to produce some other type of exercise e.g. a report, a case note, a memorandum or a letter. If in doubt precisely what is required, look for a model, and if still in doubt, ask.2Assessment CriteriaWritten work is assessed according to published assessment criteria, of which you should be aware. Two important general criteria are relevance and a critical approach. What you write must be relevant to the question set. If the relevance of any material is not obvious, you must justify its inclusion. Essay type questions may call specifically for critical analysis, but, whatever the type of exercise it will seldom be sufficient to describe the law without identifying and commenting upon its strengths or shortcomings, i.e. providing a critique.PlanningPlanning is the key to effective writing. Plan your use of available time, dividing the task into manageable sub-tasks. The first stage is to think about the title or problem, in order to decide the scope and purpose of your answer. It may be appropriate to discuss your ideas with other students, in order to test your interpretation of the title. You may need to decide who your readers are and what they need to know. By default, assume you are writing for a lawyer without detailed knowledge of the topic under consideration.ResearchYou will need to discover information by conducting library research. Make full use of printed and electronic searching to find relevant sources. Electronic sources are usually available on demand, but printed materials may not be available when you want them especially if a large group is engaged on the same exercise. The Copyright Licensing Agency rules displayed besides photocopiers have to be complied with, and the Law School is not always able to provide photocopies of relevant materials. Make notes about your sources, including an accurate reference complying with the rules set out in this document. You are solely responsible for the accuracy of these references and for complying with the University's rules about plagiarism.WritingWhatever the task, your aim should be to write clearly, directly and succinctly, avoiding bad grammar and spelling mistakes as well as unnecessary jargon, circumlocution, and tautology. In particular:•prefer familiar to unfamiliar words,•use a thesaurus to help find the precise word you need,•avoid inelegant, pompous or redundant words,•consider whether terms of legal jargon require definition or explanation,•write properly constructed sentences without undue subordinate clauses,•use a separate paragraph to develop each sub-topic, linking or relating the theme of each paragraph to the previous one and its function in relation to thewhole (a single sentence is unlikely to qualify as a paragraph).3StructureConsider carefully the order in which your material is to be arranged so that your arguments can be put as clearly as possible. No matter how good your ideas are, they depend upon your ability to communicate them. It is often a good idea to use headings and sub-headings to indicate clearly the structure of your answer. The use of defined headings in word-processed documents (described as 'outlining' in MS Word) is an efficient way of structuring and handling text during composition, because it enables you to promote or demote headings and re-arrange material with ease. The advantages of word-processing include the freedom to assemble a document from parts which can be rearranged to suit your theme, and the ability to re-write sections before committing them to print. Take advantage of this. You do not have to start writing the introduction and finish with the conclusion. It may be sensible to postpone writing the introduction until last.QuotationsQuotations must be enclosed in quotation marks ("...") and must have a pinpoint reference (page or, if available, paragraph number). Short quotations can be included naturally in the text, but anything that runs for more than three lines should be separated from the text in an intervening paragraph and indented from the left hand margin. Large numbers of long quotations should be avoided. Make sure you are aware of and comply with the rules against plagiarism. Unattributed quotation is plagiarism.FootnotesYou will need to be able to use word-processed footnotes. There is advice on the correct use of footnotes elsewhere in this document.AbbreviationsYou should use recognised legal abbreviations. Here is a list of common abbreviations.Ibid, loc cit, op cit, and cf.The modern practice is not to use these abbreviated Latin expressions in footnotes at all. Instead simply refer to another footnote by number e.g.:19. See n.12.You are likely to come across these abbreviations in legal writing. Their correct use is as follows:•Ibid (L, ibidem, in the same place)used in successive footnotes when the same authority is referred to repeatedly.4•Loc cit (L, loco citato, in the place cited)used in successive footnotes to refer to a page in a source previously referredto.•Op cit (L, opus citato, in the work cited)used in successive footnotes to refer to a source previously referred to.•Cf (L, confer, compare)used when some meaningful comparison may be drawn, and often misused.Spelling, Grammar and StyleAlthough your work will be marked primarily on its argument and content, spelling, grammar and style are also important factors. Unless you are genuinely dyslexic, bad spelling will be seen as taking less then adequate care. Bad grammar or a poor writing style may divert attention from the points you are trying to make with a consequent loss of marks.Here are some tips.•Do not form plurals with 'apostrophe s',courts = more than one court (i.e. plural)court's = of the or a court (i.e. genitive singular)courts' = of more than one court (i.e. genitive plural)Use "1990s" not "1990's" for the plural form.•Do not confuse singular and plural forms:The Court of Appeal is (not the Court ... are …)Parliament is (not Parliament are …)The Government is (not the Government are …)A committee is ( not a committee are…)A number is (not a number are …)•Do not use "it's" to mean "of it",its = of it,it's = it is or it hasThe best advice is: never use it's, use 'it is' or 'it has' instead.• A sentence needs a verb. End sentences with full stops.•Note the English spelling of "judgment" as applied to courts. In other contexts "judgement" is correct.•"Principal" means the first or highest in rank i.e. "chief"; "principle" is a fundamental proposition.•The modern form of "abolishment" is "abolition".ReviseInclude revision time in your plan. Proof read the entire document, checking for internal consistency, spelling and correct references.Spell CheckersWord processing spelling checkers should be used with caution. They will detect many typographical errors but may offer incorrect or even absurd alternative forms,5and are not a substitute for proof reading, and the use of a dictionary. U.S. spellings are inappropriate in U.K. documents.Citation of sources.Legal writing requires, in various measure, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and criticism of other documentary sources, which may be primary, such as cases and statutes, or secondary, such as books and articles. Suppression of sources can amount to plagiarism which may attract academic and possibly other penalties. The purpose of citation is to enable the reader to identify the writer's sources accurately and unambiguously. There are well-established conventions for the citation of legal materials in U.K. publications, but they differ from social science conventions and also from the practice in the U.S.Selection of sourcesAlways cite the best available source. Cite a primary source for any proposition of law. A primary source is the law itself, stated in legislation or in a binding case. Primary sources are authoritative statements of the law. Secondary sources consist of legal writing, and are never more than persuasive arguments. The authority of secondary sources has to be evaluated. Eminent jurists, especially after death has removed the possibility of any change of mind, are quote-worthy. So too, are authors of peer-reviewed articles in leading journals such as Modern Law Review, Cambridge Law Review, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Legal Studies (and for these purposes) Law Quarterly Review. Cite secondary sources for the views of their authors, not for a precis of a primary source.Student text books are not authority for propositions of law, nor are they peer-reviewed, so there will seldom be any occasion to cite them. Similarly, in-house accounts of reported cases on the websites of Solicitors firms are not the 'best available' source of the case.House StyleThe recommended house style for written work in the Law School is the numerical footnote system. Do not use endnotes. If you comply with the house style you cannot be faulted. You will be advised specifically if use of the author-date system is more appropriate.Citation must follow a recognisable existing pattern, uniformly and with internal consistency. Non-conforming citation will lead to deduction of marks. It makes good sense to keep a proper record (i.e. correct title, author, year, volume number, and page reference) of everything you read in preparing every piece of written work, (a) so that you can find it again if need be, and (b) so that you have adequate information for citing that source, should you decide to use it.If in doubt as to the standard form of a particular reference, consult a publication such as, Current Law or Halsbury's Laws of England. Most series of law reports and periodicals actually state their own method of citation.6Numerical system of citationThe principal system of citation of legal material in the UK and the recommended house style for word-processed documents in the Law School is the numerical system of numerically ordered footnotes. This process is automated by modern word-processing software, which you must be able to use. A complete list of all sources should be listed separately in a Bibliography appended to the written work. The Bibliography does not count against the word limit.Numerical system - example.In Khorasandijan v Bush31 the tort of nuisance was utilised to grant the plaintiff an injunction against the defendant who had previously been convicted of threatening and abusive behaviour and subsequently of threatening to kill but who continued to pester her by following her and by phoning her.32Footnotes (in numerical order)31 [1993] QB 727 CA32 Bridgeman J and Jones M, 'Harassing conduct and outrageous acts' (1994) 14 LS 180; Townshend-Smith, R 'Harassment as a Tort in English and American Law' (1995) 24 AALR 299.The BibliographyThe Bibliography should list all sources, both primary and secondary, used in the production of the written work, irrespective of whether they appear in footnotes. You should sub-divide the list into the different classes of materials e.g. Statutes, Statutuory Instruments, Cases, Journals, and Books.The advantage of full referencing in a bibliography (where word limits do not apply) is that, after your first citation of the source in the text, you will be able to truncate your references in the ‘main body’ of text.For example, the full reference to the two journal articles cited in n.32 (above) in the bibliography might read (in alphabetical order):Bridgeman, J. and Jones, M., ‘Harassing conduct and outrageous acts: a cause of action for intentionally inflicted mental distress,’ (1994) 14 Legal Studies 180Townshend-Smith, R 'Harassment as a Tort in English and American Law: the Boundaries of Wilkinson v Downton' (1995) 24 Anglo-American Law Review 299.Once this full reference has been provided (as at n.32), a further reference would merely require:46. Bridgeman and Jones, see n.32.This shortened citation leaves the source no less identifiable and reduces the number of words needed to cite it.7Full citations of case names in the bibliography allow for similar savings in the word count. Consider:24. Butler Machine Tool Co. Ltd. v. Ex-Cell-O Corporation (England) [1979] 1WLR 401With this full reference provided in the bibliography, and fully cited the first time the case is referred to in the main body of your assignment, a subsequent footnote in the main body would merely require:Butler Machine Tool, see n. 24Citation as set out above is compulsory. Wherever references appear in a piece of written work they count against permitted word totals for written work. Word totals take into account the requirement for citation.How to cite legislation.Acts of ParliamentWith very few exceptions, Acts of the UK Parliament have short titles provided by statutory authority:Dangerous Dogs Act 1991, s.10 Short title, interpretation, commencement and extent(1) This Act may be cited as the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991. Although the statute says 'may be cited…' you should treat this as imperative. Short titles have been enacted retrospectively for many older statutes.Short titles used to have a comma between the name of the Act and the year it was passed. The Tangynika Independence Act 1962 was the first to omit the comma, and modern practice is to leave it out, even for Acts passed before the practice changed. It is permissible to abbreviate the short title to initials, e.g. DDA 1991, provided there is no ambiguity.Acts of Parliament are published in their original form by the Queen's Printer who also publishes electronically the full text of the Data Protection Act 1984 and all Acts of Parliament passed since 1st January 1988. These are original versions only; they are not amended to take account of the process of legislative reform. Private publishers' editions of the statutes (e.g. Halsbury's Statutes; Current Law Statutes; CCH Editions; Blackstone's statutes) although not strictly authoritative, are highly reliable and often more convenient than Queen's Printer's copies, because they provide the amended text of the statute.8It will usually be sufficient to refer to the primary sub-division of statutes, namely sections, which in turn may be sub-divided into sub-sections, paragraphs and sub-paragraphs. Other sub-divisions employed include: parts; chapters; and schedules. Schedules contain paragraphs, which may be further subdivided into sub-, subsub, and even subsubsub-paragraphs, and a schedule may be subdivided into parts.To refer to a particular provision in an Act of Parliament use the following method: Companies Act 1985, s.6, orChildren Act 1989, s.15 and sch 1 para 5(n.b. NOT Companies' Act 1985 or Children's Act 1989, unless, of course, the genitive form is used in the short title.It is permissible to refer the "Section 10 of the Children Act 1989…" in the text, but use the shorter form in a footnote.Subordinate UK legislationSubordinate (delegated) legislation is issued in a series called Statutory Instruments (SIs) published on paper from 1894, and electronically from January 1987. They should be cited by their designated title which includes the year they were passed followed by SI year/number in parentheses (e.g. SI 1997/201).The Education (Mandatory Awards) Regulations 1997 (SI 1997/431)The title may be abbreviated to initial letters if to do so would not create ambiguity. Statutory Instruments may be further classified as an 'Order', sub-divided into articles; 'Regulations' sub-divided into regulations; and 'Rules' sub-divided into rules, abbreviated as 'r'.Order Regulations Rulesart arts reg regs r rrThe Civil Procedure Rules 1998 are divided into Parts with numbered Rules corresponding to the Parts. So CPR, Rule 6.4 is in Part 6 paragraph 4. Paragraphs may be sub-divided.Legislation of the European CommunityThe legislation of the European Community consists of the founding treaties, and secondary legislation in the form of Regulations, Directives, Decisions, Recommendations and Opinions. On 1 May 1999 the Treaty of Amsterdam renumbered the original arrangement of Articles of the Treaty of Rome and the Treaty on European Union. To avoid ambiguity the following method of citation is recommended.9On or after 1 May 1999Before 1 May 1999Article or Art 141 EC Article or Art 119 of the EC Treaty The Treaties may be abbreviated as follows:Treaty On or after 1 May1999Before 1 May1999Treaty on European Union EU EU Treaty European (Economic) CommunityTreatyEC EC (EEC) Treaty European Coal and Steel Treaty CS ECSC Treaty Euratom Treaty EA EAEC Treaty Examples of secondary legislation are:Regulation [Council] Regulation No 1111/77/EC, Arts. 8 and 9Directive [Council] Directive 76/207/ECDecision [Commission] Decision 89/58/ECThe full reference will be to the authoritative text in the Official Journal of the European Communities (abbreviated to OJ) where the secondary legislation was first published, together with the title, date and page number:Council Directive of 21 December 1976 on the Coordination of Procedures for the Award of Public Supply Contracts, Directive 77/62/EC OJ L13 15 January 1977 p 1.The OJ is issued in series: L contains legislation, C contains draft legislation.How to cite case law.English casesIntroductionThere are strong conventions governing the citation of case law in the UK, but no formal rules. This document sets out an acceptable practice or house style. Printed law reports (reports of decided cases) are produced by private publishers and since 1865, by a semi-official charitable body known as the Incorporated Council of Law Reporting for England and Wales. The method of citation of these sources is called proprietary citation. Some of these reports are also available from subscription on-line services such as Justis, Westlaw and Lexis Nexis.10In the late 1990s, the advent of digitally prepared judgments, particularly on the World Wide Web, led in January 2001 to the introduction of an additional system of medium neutral citation. This system provides a uniform method of citation independent of printed pages. Cases reported since the introduction of medium neutral citation will conform to the protocol of numbered paragraphs, even though printed on paper.Cases reported before January 2001 sometimes have medium neutral citations applied to them, but these are not authoritative.Proprietary CitationExamples:The Diechland [1990] 1 QB 361.In re Connan: ex parte Hyde 20 QBD 690.Grobbelaar v News Group Newspapers Ltd [2002] 1 WLR 3024.Explanation:Cases are cited by the name(s) of the parties followed by the reference of the publication in which the report of the case appears. Proprietary references do not tell you in which jurisdiction or court the case was heard, and it is good practice to add a suffix to indicate the court e.g. CA for Court of Appeal.Year VolumenumberSeries Page Suffix[1990] 1 QB 361 CA (1888) 20 QBD 690 CA [2002] 1 WLR 3024 HL(E)Notes:•AbbreviationsThe series of the report is always abbreviated. There is a list of commonabbreviations at Appendix I. Consult Current Law or Halsbury's Laws forfuller lists.•Page NumbersProprietary citation refers to printed pages.•Volume numbersAt the time In re Connan was decided (1888), only volume numbers wereused. You should include the year, but it must be in round brackets.•BracketsIn legal citation [ ] and ( ) round the year have special significance. [ ] meansthe year is an essential part of the reference so it must be included and in suchcases the use of [ ] is compulsory. ( ) means the year is not part of thereference. It should be included but it must be in round brackets.•ItalicsIn a word processed document the names of the parties are italicised, andalthough there is a convention that 'v.' is not italicised the house style permitsitalicisation the whole title, including v but not the reference. Underlining is aprinter's mark for italics and may only be used to indicate italics if italic scriptis not available.•PunctuationThe modern practice is not to use punctuation within case references. Inparticular the practice of placing a comma after the names of the parties andbefore the reference is no longer followed.•'Best report'You should follow the practice of the English courts to cite the report of anycase which is reported in the semi-official Law Reports in preference to areport of that case in any other series of reports. Cases reported in volumes 2and 3 of the Weekly Law Reports (WLR) are destined for publication in theLaw Reports, and should be cited only until they are displaced by thesubsequent Law Reports version of that case. Obviously, this practice need not be followed if the purpose of citing the earlier report is to draw attention tosome difference between the two versions.•Electronic versions of printed reportsThe electronic Law Reports from are exact facsimiles of the LawReports, with exactly the same method of citation and can be usedinterchangeably with the printed versions. Westlaw and Lexis Nexis are notexact facsimiles. Even though you may have read the case on Westlaw orLexis Nexis, use the medium neutral citation (if any) and proprietary citationreference to the best series of reports.•Pinpoint referenceIf you wish to refer to some specific point in a report, you should add the pagereference, and if to something said by a judge in the report (L, dictum, pluraldicta) then to the judge's name and page reference:Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority [1986] AC 112 at182 per Lord Scarman.Medium Neutral CitationBy a Practice Note handed down by Lord Woolf CJ on 11 January 2001,all judgments in every division of the High Court and the Court of Appeal will be prepared for delivery, or issued as approved judgments, with single spacing, paragraph numbering (in the margins) but no page numbers.Example:Grobbelaar v. News Group Newspapers Ltd [2001] EWCA Civ 1213.Explanation:Cases are cited by the name(s) of the parties followed by the medium neutral citation. In addition to the year, the reference shows the jurisdiction, the court, the division of that court, the reference number assigned to the case by the official court shorthand writers, and (optionally) a paragraph reference for pinpoint referencing.Medium neutral citation does not use page numbers!Year Jurisdiction Court Division Reference No. Paragraph (if required) [2001] EW CA Civ 1213 [10]In this system EW = England and Wales (Scot = Scotland and NI = Northern Ireland). CA = Court of Appeal and Civ = CivilThe system was extended in 2002. In England and Wales the courts and divisions which are using medium neutral citation are:-Court Division AbbreviationHouse of Lords UKHLCourt of Appeal Civil EWCA CivCourt of Appeal Criminal EWCA CrimHigh Court Chancery EWHC (Ch)High Court Queen's Bench EWHC (QB)High Court Administrative Court EWHC (Admin)High Court Family EWHC (Fam)The Patents Court is EWHC (Pat), the Commercial Court EWHC (Comm), the High Court Admiralty Court is EWHC (Admlty), and the High Court Technology & Construction Court is EWHC (TCC).•Pinpoint ReferencesIf a case has a medium neutral citation you may use that alone, or you mayadd a reference to the best printed version of the case e.g. Grobbelaar v News Group Newspapers Ltd [2002] UKHL 40, [2002] 1 WLR 3024. A pinpointreference to a pre-medium neutral case will be to page number and side letter(if there is one). If the report has numbered paragraphs, then even in the caseof a printed report, the pinpoint reference should always be to the paragraphnumber (shown in [ ]).Medium Neutral Citation in the House of LordsThe Appellate Committee of the House of Lords was not bound by Lord Woolf CJ's Practice Note of 11 January 2001. On 18 January the House adopted its own slightly different version of medium neutral citation:Manifest Shipping Company Limited v. Uni-Polaris Shipping Company Limited, [2001] UKHL/1is the first case in the UK House of Lords in 2001. The neutral citation UKHL does not indicate the jurisdiction (England and Wales, Scotland, or Northern Ireland) from which the appeal arose. The 13th case on 22 March began omitting the / before the number of the case:Johnson (A.P.) v. Unisys Ltd [2001] UKHL 13。

BTBU_4.2 Audit Partner Specialization and Audit Fees_ Some Evidence from Sweden

Audit Partner Specialization and Audit Fees:Some Evidencefrom Sweden*MIKKO ZERNI,University of Vaasa1.IntroductionThe purpose of this study is to examine auditor specialization and pricing at the individual partner level.1In the aftermath of major accounting scandals such as ComROAD AG, Enron,Parmalat,Tyco,Waste Management,and WorldCom,regulators and investment communities have been seeking to restore investor conﬁdence in the capital markets.The response worldwide has been increases in regulation,and in these reforms accounting and auditing have been identiﬁed as priority areas to‘‘ﬁx’’.For instance,with the aim of increasing audit market transparency,the amended European Union’s(EU’s)8th Directive requires the disclosure of engagement partner identity.2Currently,the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board(PCAOB)in the United States is considering a similar requirement.On October6,2008,the U.S.Treasury’s Advisory Committee on the Audit-ing Profession(ACAP)issued itsﬁnal report,which recommends,among other things,‘‘urging the PCAOB to undertake a standard-setting initiative to consider mandating the engagement partner’s signature on the auditor’s report’’(ACAP Report,October6,2008, at VII:19).3According to the ACAP’s recommendation,the requirement for the engage-ment partner to sign the audit report could improve audit quality in two ways:‘‘First,it might increase the engagement partner’s sense of accountability toﬁnancial statement *Accepted by Ferdinand A.Gul.An earlier draft of this paper was entitled‘‘Audit Partner Specialization, Audit Fees,and Auditor-Client Alignments’’.I appreciate the comments received from Ferdinand A.Gul (the associate editor),two anonymous reviewers,Pekka Alatalo(KPMG Finland),Jean C.Bedard(discus-sant),Andy Conlin,Ann Gaeremynck,Kaarina Halonen(PWC Finland),Seppo Ika heimo,Henry Jarva, Juha Joenva a ra,Juha-Pekka Kallunki,Eija Kangas(KPMG Finland),Robert Knechel,Anna-Maija Lantto, Christophe Van Linden,Lasse Niemi,Henrik Nilsson,Mervi Niskanen,Jukka Perttunen,Peter Pope, Markku Rahiala,Veijo Riistama(PWC Finland),Petri Sahlstro m,Stefan Sundgren,Risto Tuppurainen, Soﬁe Vandenbogaerde,Ann Vanstraelen,Markku Vieru,Marleen Willekens,and Erik A stro m(Ernst& Young Sweden).I would also like to thank the participants at the24th Contemporary Accounting Research Conference in Montreal Canada(2009),AFI seminar at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven(2011)and the AFAR workshop in Vaasa(2008)for their comments.I wish to thank Tuomas Anttila,Marja Kauppinen, and Harri Lempola for their excellent research assistance.Financial support received from the NASDAQ OMX Nordic Foundation,the Finnish Foundation for the Advancement of Securities Markets,the Founda-tion for Economic Education,the Ostrobothnia Cultural Foundation,and the Finnish Cultural Foundation is gratefully acknowledged.This research is part of research projects by the Academy of Finland(Grant Numbers140000and126630).All remaining errors are mine alone.1.The terms‘‘auditor specialization’’and‘‘auditor expertise’’,as well as the terms‘‘engagement partner’’,‘‘auditor’’,and‘‘audit partner in charge’’are used interchangeably in this study.2.The new EU directive obligesﬁrms to disclose the identities of individual auditor(s)responsible for theengagement.Speciﬁcally,Article28of the directive2006⁄43⁄EC states:‘‘Where an auditﬁrm carries out the statutory audit,the audit report shall be signed by at least the statutory auditor(s)carrying out the statutory audit on behalf of the auditﬁrm.’’3.The comment period on the concept release ended on September11,2009,and according to the PCAOB’sOfﬁce of the Chief Auditor’s standard-setting agenda,‘‘the Board’s consideration of next steps is pending further action’’(PCAOB,October2010,p.7).Available at:/News/Events/Documents/ 10132010_SAGMeeting/OCA_standards-setting_agenda.pdf.Contemporary Accounting Research Vol.29No.1(Spring2012)pp.312–340ÓCAAAdoi:10.1111/j.1911-3846.2011.01098.xAudit Partner Specialization and Audit Fees313 users,which could lead him or her to exercise greater care in performing the audit. Second,it would increase transparency about who is responsible for performing the audit, which could provide useful information to investors and,in turn,provide an additional incentive toﬁrms to improve the quality of all of their engagement partners.’’Some have compared the initiative to theﬁnancial statement certiﬁcation requirement by top manage-ment stipulated in Section302of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act,arguing that it should help focus engagement partners on their existing responsibilities(see,e.g.,Carcello,Bedard, and Hermanson2009:79).4Changes in legislation and initiatives requiring the disclosure of the identities of individ-ual auditors carrying out audits implicitly acknowledge that a public company audit involves a substantial amount of work by highly skilled individual practitioners exercising their own professional judgment.It is the lead engagement partners working in the city level audit ofﬁces who play a central role in planning and implementing the audit and ulti-mately in determining the appropriate type of audit report to be issued to the client(e.g., Ferguson,Francis,and Stokes2003).Consequently,the engagement partner may play an essential role in the(perceived)audit quality beyond auditﬁrm size and(industry)special-ization at the national and ofﬁce level and should hence not be ignored.The level of audit effort and fees depends on the client’s agency-driven demand for external auditing and on supply-side factors,such as auditﬁrm size,auditor expertise and auditor-perceived risk factors(e.g.,DeFond1992;O’Keefe,Simunic,and Stein1994; Gul and Tsui1998;Bell,Landsman,and Shackelford2001;Johnstone and Bedard2001, 2003;Gul and Goodwin2010;Causholli,De Martinis,Hay,and Knechel2011).From the supply-side perspective,auditors are expected to respond to the higher probability of any irregularities or accounting misstatements by increasing audit effort and charging higher fees.For instance,Gul and Tsui(1998)adopted a supply-side perspective and found that higher inherent risks associated with free cashﬂows are associated with higher audit effort and higher consequent fees.From the demand-side perspective,the appointment of a higher-quality auditor can serve as a signal of an enhanced quality of ﬁnancial disclosure,which will potentially lead to greater value for the audit client by reducing some agency costs.Firm insiders,especially those in the heart of monitoring function(e.g.,independent directors on the boards and audit committees),may be willing to increase audit coverage to create a positive perception about theﬁnancial reporting quality.The positive perception will possibly facilitate theﬁrm to attract investments and fund proﬁtable projects and allowﬁrm insiders to protect their reputation capital,avoid legal liability,and promote shareholder interests.Consistent with the demand-side per-spective,several studies report evidence suggesting that outside directors who act dili-gently demand high quality audits and pay higher audit fees(e.g.,Carcello,Hermansson, Neal,and Riley2002;Abbott,Parker,Peters,and Raghunandan2003;Knechel and Willekens2006).Auditing is generally viewed as a differentiated service with substantial variation observed in audit(effort)fees,even after controlling for observable factors such asﬁrm size and complexity.This differentiation allows clients some choice over the level of audit scrutiny even within audits conducted by the same(tier)auditﬁrms.An important means 4.Recent empirical evidence supports the view that the Sarbanes-Oxley Act Section302chief executive ofﬁ-cer(CEO)and chiefﬁnancial ofﬁcer(CFO)certiﬁcation requirement had a positive effect onﬁnancial reporting quality.For instance,Cohen,Krishnamoorthy,and Wright(2010)report that68percent of practicing auditors interviewed believe that the certiﬁcation requirement has had a positive effect on the integrity ofﬁnancial reports.Moreover,to the extent that the disclosure of engagement partner identity will increase accountability,it may thereby improve audit decisions and judgments.In particular,some studies in the auditing context report evidence indicating that accountability reduces information process-ing biases,and increases consensus and self-insight(e.g.,Johnson and Kaplan1991;Kennedy1993).CAR Vol.29No.1(Spring2012)314Contemporary Accounting Researchof audit product differentiation is through investments in specialization(Simunic and Stein1987;Liu and Simunic2005).By specializing in certain industries,certain size groups,or companies with similar risk proﬁles,individual auditors may be able to differ-entiate their product from those of nonspecialist audit partners(Simunic and Stein1987; Liu and Simunic2005).The Swedish Code for Corporate Governance,for instance, implicitly recognizes auditor specialization in large public companies as one relevant piece of information when assessing the quality of external auditing.5Speciﬁcally,the Code rec-ommends that information on‘‘the audit services performed by the auditor or the auditor in charge in other large companies...and other information that may be important to shareholders in assessing the competence and independence of the auditor,or auditor in charge must be disclosed in a corporate governance report on company’s homepage’’(Ori-ginal Code Sections2.3.2and2.3.3).To justify their presence in the audit market and the potential fee premiums attached to their services,the client must perceive some beneﬁt in hiring a specialist auditor.The premium may,for instance,be attributed to the signal value of hiring a specialist auditor or to the superior advisory or other services provided by that auditor(Titman and Trueman1986).Given that a demand exists for special-ist auditors,that demand gives those auditors a greater‘‘power’’in pricing relative to nonspecialists.This paper is motivated by the lack of archival research examining issues related to engagement partner specialization.In the present study,the use of Swedish data makes it possible to construct individual audit partner client portfolios because each audit report discloses the name of the audit engagement partner.Thus,information on the identity of the audit partner in charge is observable to users ofﬁnancial statements and thereby potentially affects market-assessed perception of ex ante audit rma-tion on the sizes and compositions of the Big4audit partner-speciﬁc client portfolios provides an interesting opportunity to contribute to a more thorough understanding of auditor specialization.More speciﬁcally,it is possible to examine whether the perceived audit quality is affected not only by the brand name of theﬁrm,but also by the charac-teristics and reputation of the engagement partner.In essence,if auditing expertise were wholly transferable and therefore uniformly distributed across audit partners within the ﬁrm,any clientﬁrm would be indifferent to having any audit partner within the Big4 auditors(within a particular Big4auditﬁrm⁄ofﬁce)to conduct the audit.Additionally, there would be no a priori reason why clients would be willing to pay any audit partner related premiums.The empiricalﬁndings indicate systematic differences between audit partner clienteles, suggesting audit partner specialization in different industries and in different size groups. Thisﬁnding is consistent with Liu and Simunic2005,who argue that auditor specializa-tion could be a competitive response by either an auditﬁrm or an individual audit part-ner to induce efﬁcient audits for different types of clients,thereby gaining a limited monopoly power(and earning rents)over the clients in which they specialize.Further-more,consistent with the view that there are returns on investing in specialization,analy-ses of audit fees indicate that both audit partner industry specialization and specialization in large public companies are recognized and valued byﬁnancial statement users and⁄or by corporate insiders,resulting in higher fees within these engagements.According to the empirical analyses,the highest fees are earned by engagement partners who are both 5.The Swedish Corporate Governance Board is responsible for promoting and developing the Code.On July1,2005,the Stockholm Stock Exchange began applying the Swedish Code of Corporate Governance.The Code applies to all Swedish companies listed at the Stockholm Stock Exchange and foreign companies that are listed at the same exchange and whose market capitalization exceeds SEK3billion.For more information,see http://www.corporategovernanceboard.se/.CAR Vol.29No.1(Spring2012)Audit Partner Specialization and Audit Fees315 industry and publicﬁrm specialists.The results may be interpreted to mean that the appointment of a specialist engagement partner is associated with higher(perceived)audit quality,thus justifying the fee premium.6Collectively,theﬁndings of this study support the view that clientﬁrms infer audit quality at least to some extent from the characteris-tics of the individual audit partner in charge.The remainder of the paper is organized as follows.Section2reviews the relevant lit-erature and describes some relevant features of the Swedish audit market.Section3pre-sents the hypothesis,and section4describes the data.Section5describes the methodology used,section6presents the empirical results,and section7concludes the study.2.Literature reviewNational versus local view of the auditor–client relationshipPrior audit research literature is dominated byﬁrm-wide analyses treating the whole accountingﬁrm as the focal point and investigating whether and how auditﬁrm char-acteristics,such as size and industry specialization at the nationalﬁrm level,affect the auditor–client relationship(e.g.,Simunic and Stein1987;Francis and Wilson1988;Bec-ker,DeFond,Jiambalvo,and Subramanyam1998;Francis and Krishnan1999).All these studies implicitly assume that through standardizedﬁrm-wide policies and knowl-edge sharing(e.g.,through training materials,industry-speciﬁc databases,internal benchmarks for best practices,audit system programs,and internal consultative prac-tices),all audits across practice ofﬁces and audit partners within an auditﬁrm are uniform.7However,in practice,it is the individual audit partners from city-level practice ofﬁces who are creating and taking care of the relationship,contracting with the client,adminis-tering the audit engagement,directing the audit effort,interpreting the audit evidence,and ﬁnally issuing the appropriate audit report(Ferguson et al.2003).Because of this decen-tralized organizational structure and because individual audit partners and their character-istics vary across engagements,a research approach allowing each individual partner to be a unique and relevant unit of analysis might be a more reasonable approach than assum-ing that all audits within an auditﬁrm are uniform.Consistent with this intuition,a growing number of recent audit studies have changed the direction from aﬁrm-wide to an ofﬁce-level view of auditﬁrms(e.g.,Reynolds and Francis2000;Ferguson et al.2003;Francis,Reichelt,and Wang2005;Francis and Yu 2009;Reichelt and Wang2010;Choi,Kim,Kim,and Zang,2010).The local stream of audit literature acknowledges the likelihood that part of an auditor’s expertise is uniquely held by individual professionals through their personal knowledge of clients and cannot be 6.From the risk-based audit supply view,an alternative explanation for the observed specialist audit partnerfee premium is that the clients of specialist audit partners are systematically riskier than the clients of non-specialists in dimensions other than those already controlled for in the empirical fee model(or in theﬁrst-stage selection model of the Heckman two-stage approach).Despite using a two-stage Heckman1978pro-cedure and including several audit risk-related control variables in the audit fee model,the empiricalﬁnd-ings remain susceptible to the concern that some of the omitted risk factors recognized and priced by the specialist audit partners that simultaneously determine the alignment of audit partners with engagements would explain the outcome.7.Examples of the information technology systems used in knowledge sharing include KPMG’s KWorld TM,PriceWaterhouseCoopers’s TeamAsset TM and KnowledgeCurve TM,and Ernst&Young’s Knowledge-Web TM.See Vera-Munoz,Ho,and Chow2006for factors affecting knowledge sharing within interna-tional accountingﬁrms,and Banker,Chang,and Kao2002for a detailed description of an international accountingﬁrm’s implementation of audit software and groupware for knowledge sharing.CAR Vol.29No.1(Spring2012)316Contemporary Accounting Researchreadily captured and distributed by theﬁrm to other ofﬁces and clients(e.g.,Ferguson et al.2003).8The results of the empirical studies adopting a local perspective tend to provide a bet-ter understanding of the operations of a Big4auditﬁrm than do studies taking a national perspective.For instance,there is evidence that auditors’reputation for industry expertise is neither strictly national nor strictly local in character.Auditors who are both city and industry leaders are reported to earn fee premiums both in Australia and in the United States,suggesting that there is both a national and local ofﬁce reputation effect in the pric-ing of industry expertise(Ferguson et al.2003;Francis et al.2005).Moreover,both these studiesﬁnd thatﬁrm-level industry specialists alone do not earn statistically signiﬁcant premiums.In another study,Reichelt and Wang(2010)use U.S.data and three proxies for audit quality(abnormal accruals,clientﬁrms’likelihood of meeting or beating ana-lysts’earnings forecasts by one penny per share,and the propensity to issue a going con-cern audit opinion)andﬁnd evidence consistent with the view that audit quality is higher when the auditor is both a national and city-speciﬁc industry expert.Recent and concurrent studies have pushed the local analysis still one step further to the engagement partner level.A growing number of studies use engagement partner data (mainly from Australia and Taiwan)and examine issues such as the relationship between engagement partner tenure and audit quality,producing mixedﬁndings(e.g.,Carey and Simnett2006;Chen,Lin,and Lin2008;Chi,Huang,Liao,and Xie2009).In a recent study,Chin and Chi(2009)use a sample of listedﬁrms in Taiwan to investigate the associ-ation between auditor industry expertise and restatement likelihood at the partner level and at the auditﬁrm level simultaneously.Their evidence suggests that the differences in restatement likelihood due to industry expertise is mainly attributable to the partner-level experts rather than to theﬁrm-level experts.In summary,the recent empirical evidence suggests that auditor expertise has a strong local dimension.The central conceptual question in all the national versus local studies relates to the degree to which there is a transfer of expertise from ofﬁce-based accounting professionals to other auditors and ofﬁces within theﬁrm(Ferguson et al.2003;Francis2004).There are several factors that may deter the transfer of expertise within organizations,including audit ﬁrms(see,e.g.,Szulanski1994,2000;Nonaka and Takeuchi1995).With respect to audit ﬁrms,Vera-Munoz et al.(2006)enumerate several reasons why it is difﬁcult for partners to share knowledge with other partners.First,a considerable amount of knowledge in audit ﬁrms can be difﬁcult to document or transfer.9Second,even if an auditﬁrm manages to 8.As noted by Francis2004,another reason for this development is that Big4market shares continue toexpand globally,leading to low power in research designs of studies comparing large and small auditors because there is such low variance in the experimental variable(i.e.,most observations are audited by large Big4auditors).For instance,according to a recent Government Accountability Ofﬁce(GAO) report,in2006the largest fourﬁrms collected94percent of all audit fees paid by public companies.More-over,according to the same report,82percent of the Fortune1000companies saw their choice of auditors as limited to three or fewerﬁrms,and about60percent viewed competition in their audit market as insuf-ﬁcient(GAO2008).9.According to Polanyi1966,knowledge comes in two types:explicit and tacit.The former is amenable tocodiﬁcation,while the latter is anchored in individual personal beliefs,experiences,and values.For exam-ple,knowledge of generally accepted accounting principles(GAAP)with regard to fair value requirements is explicit knowledge,while an auditor’s insights as to how a client’s management develops fair value esti-mates and whether those estimates conform to GAAP represents tacit knowledge(Vera-Munoz et al.2006).Tacit knowledge is subconsciously understood and applied and is therefore not easily articulated (Polanyi1966).Prior studies further show that most of the knowledge in any organization,including an auditﬁrm,is tacit knowledge(Bonner2000;Knechel2000).Consequently,because differences in knowl-edge between individual auditors within aﬁrm lie primarily in their respective tacit knowledge,which is not easily transferred,it is unlikely thatﬁrm-level practices completely smooth out the differences in the levels of individual audit partner expertise.CAR Vol.29No.1(Spring2012)Audit Partner Specialization and Audit Fees317 collect extensive databases and otherﬁrm-wide knowledge,individual auditors still need to use their own judgment in selecting and applying relevant pieces of information given the task at hand.Third,knowledge-sharing through information technology–based expert knowledge systems is not automatically embraced by everyone.Finally,evaluation appre-hension,performance-based compensation schemes and individual auditors’pursuit of per-sonal beneﬁts and power may deter auditors from sharing what they know.In essence, holding on to information that other peers do not have may ceteris paribus offer competi-tive advantage against those peers,when auditors,like other rational players in the econ-omy,attempt to maximize their own(economic)interests.Collectively,factors identiﬁed above may partly explain the tendency of local audit studies to provide a better understand-ing of the auditor-client relationship thanﬁrm-wide analyses.Factors affecting expertiseThe Merriam-Webster dictionary deﬁnes an‘‘expert’’as having,involving,or displaying a special skill or knowledge derived from training or experience.The psychological literature on expertise has reported two importantﬁndings relevant to the present study.First, domain-speciﬁc knowledge is the essential determinant of expertise.Second,expert knowl-edge is gained through many years of on-the-job experience(e.g.,Chi,Glaser,and Rees 1982;Glaser and Chi1988;Glaser and Bassok1989;Lapre,Mukkerjee,and Van Was-senhove2000).In other words,intensive practice and the repetition of similar tasks are required to build expertise.When applied to auditing,theseﬁndings suggest that having serviced many similar clients in the past may help auditors to develop a specialized knowl-edge of what these clients do and the challenges and issues they face,thereby creating in-depth knowledge of speciﬁc types of clients,leading to higher-quality audits and higher fees in these engagements.Consequently,in the present study,the terms‘‘auditor special-ization’’and‘‘auditor expertise’’are used to refer to the extent of auditors’prior audit experience with similar clients,for instance,clientﬁrms belonging to the same industry or size group.In other words,it is assumed that specialization is needed to gain deep exper-tise.By specializing in certain industries,certain size groups,or companies with similar risk proﬁles,individual auditors may be able to develop and supply the differentiated ser-vice that clients demand and that competitorsﬁnd difﬁcult to duplicate(Simunic and Stein 1987;Liu and Simunic2005).Moreover,auditors will only develop a specialist reputation if this increases the credibility ofﬁnancial reporting and attracts clients.Auditor specialization and audit qualityFor a long time,standard-setters,quasi-regulatory bodies,and empirical audit research have suggested that differences in the level of auditor industry expertise may be one source of variation in audit quality(Hogan and Jeter1999;Gramling and Stone2001;GAO 2008).This body of literature assumes that audit issues are nested within an industry and that accountingﬁrms or individual auditors with many clients within a particular industry have more opportunities to acquire the kind of profound industry knowledge that leads to industry expertise.It is also argued that the heavy investments of industry specialist audi-tors in technologies,physical facilities,personnel,and organizational control systems pro-vide them with both incentives and abilities that make them more likely than nonspecialist auditors to detect and report any irregularities or misrepresentations in clientﬁrms’accounts(Simunic and Stein1987).Prior archival studies tend to document a positive association between auditors’indus-try expertise and the quality ofﬁnancial reporting(e.g.,Carcello and Nagy2002,2004; Balsam,Krishnan,and Yang2003;Krishnan2003,2005;Gul,Fung,and Jaggi2009).Spe-ciﬁcally,industry specialist auditors have been found to be less likely to be associated with Securities and Exchange Commission enforcement actions(Carcello and Nagy,2004).CAR Vol.29No.1(Spring2012)318Contemporary Accounting ResearchTheir clients are also reported to have a lower probability ofﬁnancial fraud(Carcello and Nagy2004,2004),smaller amounts of abnormal accruals,and higher earnings response coefﬁcients(Balsam et al.2003;Krishnan2003,2005).In addition,a recent study by Gul et al.2009reports evidence suggesting that auditor industry specialization is likely to reduce the association between shorter auditor tenure and lower earnings quality.Behavioral research using experimental approaches has examined industry specializa-tion at the individual auditor level.The results of these studies suggest that an individual auditor’s expertise is tied not only to each individual professional and his or her deep per-sonal knowledge of clients but also to the innate abilities of each individual(e.g.,Bonner and Lewis1990;Libby and Tan1994;Owhoso,Messier,and Lynch2002).Overall,the results of studies on auditor specialization suggest that industry specialist auditors deliver higher-quality audits than do nonspecialists and that this difference in quality is also rec-ognized by the audit market.Even though the auditor specialization literature has focused almost entirely on indus-try specialization,it is plausible that there are also other types of auditor specialization besides industry specialization.Accordingly,an investigation of the(Swedish)homepages of the Big4ﬁrms reveals that each of theﬁrms has structured their national practices along both industry lines and client size.All have at least two business lines based on client size:small and medium-sized companies and large public⁄international companies. All fourﬁrms also market a wider variety of specialized expertise,such as specialization in owner-manager companies,family businesses,public sector organizations,and nonproﬁt organizations.Moreover,as noted already,the Swedish Code for Corporate Governance implicitly recognizes auditor specialization in working with different size groups by recom-mending the disclosure of‘‘the audit services performed by the auditor or the auditor in charge in other large companies’’,viewing this as a relevant piece of information for users ofﬁnancial statements.Performing audits of large,complex high-proﬁle clients is likely to require auditor expertise widely different from that required for audits of smaller and simpler closely held clients.A public listing is an important part of auditor business risk(Johnstone and Bedard2003).Because companies listed on a stock exchange receive more media attention and therefore pose a higher litigation and reputational risk,they may require a specialist auditor(Johnstone and Bedard2003).Another clear distinction between audits of public and private companies relate toﬁnancial reporting standards.10In Swe-den,as in all EU member countries,publicly listed companies are required to follow IFRS standards in theirﬁnancial reporting.Whereas Swedish private companies are also allowed to follow IFRS standards in their consolidatedﬁnancial statements,they tend to follow national standards(Bokfo ringsna mndens Anvisningar),which include several signiﬁcant simpliﬁcations compared to IFRS.Accordingly,in the present study,com-pany size and listing status in particular is used as a proxy for client complexity and risk proﬁle.The aforementioned differences between audits of public and private companies make it more likely that client companies will value auditor specialization in particular size groups(i.e.,public versus privateﬁrms).They may also suggest that specialization in a certain size group will overlap somewhat with industry specialization.It appears intuitively more valuable for publicly listed client companies seeking a higher level of audit assurance to hire an engagement partner with relevant industry experience on other large companies with similarﬁnancial reporting requirements,rather than hire an engagement partner with industry experience only on smaller private companies.This potential overlap is further addressed in the empirical results section below.10.I wish to thank an anonymous reviewer for making this point.CAR Vol.29No.1(Spring2012)。

exam12s经典教材《金融时间序列分析》Ruey S. Tsay 英文第三版2012年试题及答案高清版

Booth School of Business,University of ChicagoBusiness41202,Spring Quarter2012,Mr.Ruey S.TsaySolutions to MidtermProblem A:(34pts)Answer brieﬂy the following questions.Each question has two points.1.Describe two improvements of the EGARCH model over the GARCHvolatility model.Answer:(1)allows for asymmetric response to past positive or negative returns,i.e.leverage eﬀect,(2)uses log volatility to relax parameter constraint.2.Describe two methods that can be used to infer the existence of ARCHeﬀects in a return series,i.e.,volatility is not constant over time.Answer:(1)The sample ACF(or PACF)of the squared residuals of the mean equation,(2)use the Ljung-Box statistics on the squared residuals.3.Consider the IGARCH(1,1)volatility model:a t=σt t withσ2t =α0+β1σ2t−1+(1−β1)a2t−1.Often one pre-ﬁxesα0=0.Why?Also,suppose thatα0=0and the1-step ahead volatility prediction at the forecast origin h is16.2%(annualized),i.e.,σh(1)=σh+1=16.2for the percentage log return.What is the10-step ahead volatility prediction?That is,what isσh(10)?Answer:(1)Fixingα0=0based on the prior knowledge that volatility is mean reverting.(2)σh(10)=16.2.4.(Questions4to8)Consider the daily log returns of Amazon stockfrom January3,2007to April27,2012.Some summary statistics of the returns are given in the attached R output.Is the expected(mean) return of the stock zero?Why?Answer:The data does not provide suﬃcient evidence to suggest that the mean return is not zero,because the95%conﬁdence interval con-tains zero.5.Let k be the excess kurtosis.Test H0:k=0versus H a:k=0.Writedown the test statistic and draw the conclusion.1Answer:t-ratio =9.875√24/1340=73.79,which is highly signiﬁcant com-pared with χ21distribution.6.Are there serial correlations in the log returns?Why?Answer:No,the Ljung-Box statistic Q (10)=10.69with p-value 0.38.7.Are there ARCH eﬀects in the log return series?Why?Answer:Yes,the Ljung-Box statist of squared residuals gives Q (10)=39.24with p-value less than 0.05.8.Based on the summary statistics provided,what is the 22-step ahead point forecast of the log return at the forecast origin April 27,2012?Why?Answer:The point forecast r T (22)=0because the mean is not signif-icantly diﬀerent from zero.[Give students 1point if they use sample mean.]9.Give two reasons that explain the existence of serial correlations in ob-served asset returns even if the true returns are not serially correlated.Answer:Any two of (1)bid-ask bounce,(2)nonsynchronous trading,(3)dynamic dependence of volaitlity via risk premuim.10.Give two reasons that may lead to using moving-average models inanalyzing asset returns.Answer:(1)Smoothing (or manipulation),(2)bid-ask bounce in high frequency returns.11.Describe two methods that can be used to compare diﬀerent modelsfor a given time series.Answer:(1)Information criteria such as AIC or BIC,(2)backtesting or out-of-sample forecasting.12.(Questions 12to 14)Let r t be the daily log returns of Stock A.Assume that r t =0.004+a t ,where a t =σt t with t being iid N(0,1)random variates and σ2t =0.017+0.15a 2t −1.What is the unconditionalvariance of a t ?Answer:Var(a t )=0.0171−0.15=0.02.13.Suppose that the log price at t =100is 3.912.Also,at the forecastorigin t =100,we have a 100=−0.03and σ100=pute the21-step ahead forecast of the log price (not log return)and its volatility for Stock A at the forecast origin t =100.Answer:r 100(1)=0.004so that p 100(1)=3.912+0.004=3.916.Thevolatility forecast is σ2100(1)= 0.017+0.15(−0.03)2=pute the 30-step ahead forecast of the log price and its volatilityof Stock A at the forecast origin t =100.Answer:p 100(30)=3.912+0.004×30=4.032and the voaltility is the unconditional stantard error √0.02=0.141.15.Asset volatility has many applications in ﬁnance.Describe two suchapplications.Answer:Any two of (1)pricing derivative,(2)risk management,(3)asset allocation.16.Suppose the log return r t of Stock A follows the model r t =a t ,a t =σt t ,and σ2t =α0+α1a 2t −1+β1σ2t −1,where t are iid N(0,1).Under whatcondition that the kurtosis of r t is 3?That is,state the condition under which the GARCH dynamics fail to generate any additional kurtosis over that of t .Answer:α1=0.17.What is the main consequence in using a linear regression analysis whenthe serial correlations of the residuals are overlooked?Answer:The t -ratios of coeﬃcient estimates are not reliable.Problem B .(30pts)Consider the daily log returns of Amazon stock from January 3,2007to April 27,2012.Several volatility models are ﬁtted to the data and the relevant R output is attached.Answer the following questions.1.(2points)A volatility model,called m1in R,is entertained.Write down the ﬁtted model,including the mean equation.Is the model adequate?Why?Answer:ARCH(1)model.r t =0.0018+a t ,a t =σt t with t being iidN(0,1)and σ2t =7.577×10−4+0.188a 2t −1.The model is inadequatebecause the normality assumption is clearly rejected.2.(3points)Another volatility model,called m2in R,is ﬁtted to the returns.Write down the model,including all estimated parameters.3Answer:ARCH(1)model.r t=4.907×10−4+a t,a t=σt t,where t∼t∗3.56with t∗vdenoting standardized Student-t distribution with v degreesof freedom.The volatility equation isσ2t =7.463×10−4+0.203a2t−1.3.(2points)Based on theﬁtted model m2,test H0:ν=5versus H a:ν=5,whereνdenotes the degrees of freedom of Student-t distribution.Perform the test and draw a conclusion.Answer:t-ratio=3.562−50.366=−3.93,which compared with1.96is highlysigniﬁcant.If you compute the p-value,it is8.53×10−5.Therefore, v=5is rejected.4.(3points)A third model,called m3in R,is also entertained.Writedown the model,including the distributional parameters.Is the model adequate?Why?Answer:Another ARCH(1)model.r t=0.0012+a t,a t=σt t,where t are iid and follow a skew standardized Student-t distribution with skew parameter1.065and degrees of freedom3.591.The volatility equationisσ2t =7.418×10−4+0.208a2t−1.Ecept for the insigicant mean value,theﬁtted ARCH(1)model appears to be adequate based on the model checking statistics shown.5.(2points)Letξbe the skew parameter in model m3.Does the estimateofξconﬁrm that the distribution of the log returns is skewed?Why?Perform the test to support your answer.Answer:The t-ratio is1.065−10.039=1.67,which is smaller than1.96.Thus,the null hypothesis of symmetric innovations cannot be rejected at the 5%level.6.(3points)A fourth model,called m4in R,is alsoﬁtted.Write downtheﬁtted model,including the distribution of the innovations.Answer:a GARCH(1,1)model.r t=0.0017+a t,a t=σt t,where t are iid and follow a skew standardized Student-t distribution with skew parameter1.101and degrees of freedom3.71.The volatility equationisσ2t =1.066×10−5+0.0414a2t−1+0.950σ2t−1.7.(2points)Based on model m4,is the distribution of the log returnsskewed?Why?Perform a test to support your answer.Answer:The t-ratio is1.101−10.043=2.349,which is greater than1.96.Thus,the distribution is skew at the5%level.48.(2points)Among models m1,m2,m3,m4,which model is preferred?State the criterion used in your choice.Answer:Model4is preferred as it has a smaller AIC value.9.(2points)Since the estimatesˆα1+ˆβ1is very close to1,we consideran IGARCH(1,1)model.Write down theﬁtted IGARCH(1,1)model, called m5.Answer:r t=a t,a t=σt t,whereσ2t =3.859×10−5+0.85σ2t−1+0.15a2t−1.10.(2points)Use the IGARCH(1,1)model and the information providedto obtain1-step and2-step ahead predictions for the volatility of the log returns at the forecast origin t=1340.Answer:From the outputσ21340(1)=σ21341=3.859×10−5+0.85×(0.02108)2+0.15(.146)2=0.00361.Therefore,σ21340(2)=3.859×10−5+σ2 1340(1)=0.00365.The volatility forecasts are then0.0601and0.0604,respectively.11.(2points)A GARCH-M model is entertained for the percentage logreturns,called m6in the R output.Based on theﬁtted model,is the risk premium statistical signiﬁcant?Why?Answer:The risk premium parameter is−0.112with t-ratio−0.560, which is less than1.96in modulus.Thus,the risk premium is not statistical signiﬁcant at the5%level.12.(3points)Finally,a GJR-type model is entertained,called m7.Writedown theﬁtted model,including all parameters.Answer:This is an APARCH model.The model is r t=0.0014+a t,a t=σt t,where t are iid and follow a skew standardized Student-tdistribution with skew parameter1.098and degrees of freedom3.846.The volatility equation isσ2 t =7.583×10−6+0.0362(|a t−1|−0.478a t−1)2+0.953σ2t−1.13.(2points)Based on theﬁtted GJR-type of model,is the leverage eﬀectsigniﬁcant?Why?Answer:Yes,the leverage parameterγ1is signﬁicantly diﬀerent from zero so that there is leverage eﬀect in the log returns.5Problem C.(14pts)Consider the quarterly earnings per share of Abbott Laboratories(ABT)stock from1984.III to2011.III for110observations.We analyzed the logarithms of the earnings.That is,x t=ln(y t),where y t is the quarterly earnings per share.Two models are entertained.1.(3points)Write down the model m1in R,including residual variance.Answer:Let r t be the log earnings per share.Theﬁtted model is=0.00161.(1−B)(1−B4)r t=(1−0.565B)(1−0.183B4)a t,σ2a2.(2points)Is the model adequate?Why?Answer:No,the Ljung-Box statistics of the residuals give Q(12)=25.76with p-value0.012.3.(3points)Write down theﬁtted model m2in R,including residualvariance.Answer:Theﬁtted model is=0.00144.(1−B)(1−B4)r t=(1−0.470B−0.312B3)a t,σ2a4.(2points)Model checking of theﬁtted model m2is given in Figure1.Is the model adequate?Why?Answer:Yes,the model checking statistics look reasonable.5.(2points)Compare the twoﬁtted model models.Which model ispreferred?Why?Answer:Model2is preferred.It passes model checking and has a smaller AIC value.6.(2points)Compute95%interval forecasts of1-step and2-step aheadlog-earnings at the forecast origin t=110.Answer:1-step ahead prediction:0.375±1.96×0.038,and2-step ahead prediction:0.0188±1.96×0.043.(Some students may use2-step ahead prediction due to the forecast origin confusion.)Problem D.(22pts)Consider the growth rate of the U.S.weekly regular gasoline price from January06,1997to September27,2010.Here growth rate is obtained by diﬀerencing the log gasoline price and denoted by gt in R output.The growth rate of weekly crude oil from January03,1997to September24,2010is also obtained and is denoted by pt in R output.Note that the crude oil price was known3days prior to the gasoline price.61.(2points)First,a pure time series model is entertained for the gasolineseries.An AR(5)model is selected.Why?Also,is the mean of the gtseries signiﬁcantly diﬀerent from zero?Why?Answer:An AR(5)is selected via the AIC criterion.The mean of g tis not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent from zero based on the one-sample t-test.The p-value is0.19.2.(2points)Write down theﬁtted AR(5)model,called m2,includingresidual variance.Answer:Theﬁtted model is=0.000326.(1−0.507B−0.079B2−0.136B3+0.036B4+0.086B5)g t=a t,σ2a3.(2points)Since not all estimates of model m2are statistically signiﬁ-cant,we reﬁne the model.Write down the reﬁned model,called m3.Answer:Theﬁtted model is=0.000327.(1−0.504B−0.074B2−0.122B3+0.101B5)g t=a t,σ2a4.(2points)Is the reﬁned AR(5)model adequate?Why?Answer:Yes,the Ljung-Box statistics of the residuals give Q(14)=10.27with p-value0.74,indicating that there are no serial correlationsin the residuals.5.(2points)Does the gasoline price show certain business-cycle behavior?Why?Answer:Yes,theﬁtted AR(5)polynomial contains compplex solutions.6.(3points)Next,consider using the information of crude oil price.Writedown the linear regression model,called m4,including R2and residualstandard error.Answer:Theﬁtted linear regression model isg t=0.287p t+ t,σ =0.0184,and the R2of the regression is33.66%.7.(2points)Is theﬁtted linear regression model adequate?Why?Answer:No,because the residuals t are serially correlated based onthe Ljung-Box test.78.(3points)A linear regression model with time series errors is enter-tained and insigniﬁcant parameters removed.Write down theﬁnalmodel,including allﬁtted parameters.Answer:The model is(1−0.404B−0.164B2−0.096B3+0.101B5)(g t−0.191p t)=a t,σ2=0.000253.a9.(2points)Model checking shows that theﬁttedﬁnal model has noresidual serial correlations.Based on the model,is crude oil pricehelpful in predicting the gasoline price?Why?Answer:Yes,because theﬁtted coeﬃcient of p t is signﬁcantly diﬀerentfrom zero.10.(2points)Compare the pure time series model and the regression modelwith time-series errors.Which model is preferred?Why?Answer:The regression model with time series error is preferred as ithas a smaller AIC criterion.8。

2012年英语2text4

2012年英语2text4英文回答：The Impact of Technology on Communication: A Double-Edged Sword.Technology has profoundly reshaped the way we communicate, offering unprecedented opportunities for connection and information exchange. However, this technological revolution has also brought about a range of challenges that necessitate a critical examination of its impact on communication.Positive Impacts.Increased Accessibility and Convenience: Technology has made communication more accessible and convenient than ever before. With smartphones, social media platforms, and video conferencing tools, we can connect with people across vast distances in real-time. This has facilitated globalcollaboration, fostered relationships, and enabled individuals to stay in touch with loved ones who live far away.Enhanced Efficiency and Speed: Technological advancements have significantly increased the speed and efficiency of communication. Email, instant messaging, and social media allow us to send and receive messages instantly, eliminating the delays associated withtraditional mail or phone calls. This has streamlined business processes, improved productivity, and enabled us to respond to inquiries and resolve issues more quickly.Access to Information and Knowledge: The internet has become an invaluable source of information and knowledge. Search engines, online libraries, and educational platforms provide access to a vast repository of knowledge that can inform our decisions, expand our perspectives, and enhance our learning. This has fostered a culture of continuous learning and empowered individuals to become more informed and enlightened.Negative Impacts.Reduced Face-to-Face Interaction: While technology has increased our connectedness, it has also diminished the frequency and quality of face-to-face interactions. The convenience of virtual communication may lead people to withdraw from in-person conversations, resulting in a loss of non-verbal cues and the personal touch that is essential for building strong relationships.Increased Social Isolation: Excessive use of social media and technology can contribute to social isolation, particularly among vulnerable individuals. The constant comparison of oneself to others on social media platforms can foster negative body image, anxiety, and feelings of inadequacy. Additionally, the tendency to interact with others primarily through virtual channels may lead to a decline in real-world social skills and a diminished sense of belonging.Spread of Misinformation: The internet and social media have enabled the rapid spread of information, bothaccurate and inaccurate. This poses a significant challenge, as it becomes increasingly difficult to discern the truth from falsehoods. Misinformation can shape public opinion, influence decision-making, and even incite violence.Conclusion.Technology has had a profound impact on communication, offering both benefits and drawbacks. While it has enhanced accessibility, convenience, and information exchange, ithas also diminished face-to-face interaction, fosteredsocial isolation, and contributed to the spread of misinformation. As technology continues to evolve, it is essential to approach its use with a critical mindset, recognizing its potential for both good and harm. We must strive to harness its benefits while mitigating itsnegative consequences, ensuring that communication technology serves as a tool for progress and human connection.中文回答：科技对交流的影响，一把双刃剑。

CSRF漏洞及防御技术(IJCNIS-V4-N1-4)

I. J. Computer Network and Information Security, 2012, 1, 31-37Published Online February 2012 in MECS (/)DOI: 10.5815/ijcnis.2012.01.04CSRF Vulnerabilities and Defensive TechniquesRupali D. Kombade, Dr. B.B. Meshram,Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute, Matunga, Mumbai.rupalikombade@, bbmeshram@vjti.ac.inAbstract- Web applications are now part of day to daylife due to their user friendly environment as well as advancement of technology to provide internet facilities, but these web applications brought lot of threats with them and these threats are continuously growing, one of the these threat is Cross Site Request Forgery(CSRF). CSRF attack is immerged as serious threat to web applications which based on the vulnerabilities present in the normal request response pattern of HTTP protocol. It is difficult to detect and hence it is present in most of the existing web applications. CSRF attack occurs when a malicious web site causes a user’s web browser to perform an unwanted action on a trusted site. It is listed in OWASP’s top ten Web Application attacks list. In this survey paper we will study CSRF attack, CSRF vulnerabilities and its defensive measures. We have compared various defense mechanisms to analyse the best defense mechanism. This study will help us to build strong and robust CSRF protection mechanism. Index Terms- Web Application, Vulnerability, Attacks, Defensive measures, Cross-Site Request forgery.I.INTRODUCTIONUse of internet tremendously increasing with technology, it is now used for each possible function that can perform online, web applications playing important role to provide these functions. Web applications are become part of life of human beings. Some of these are reducing their efforts like (reservation systems, online banking etc...) and some are entertaining and connecting them socially (facebook, myspace etc...). But with all these facilities they have also bring some problems i.e. web application attacks. Web application attacks create insecure environment for web application’s users. It can be result in huge loss. Web applications are a major target for hackers. According to the study, websites experience an average of 27 attacks per hour or about once every two minutes. However, 27 attacks per hour is only an average. When sites come under automated attack, the target can experience up to 25,000 attacks per hour or 7 per second. [1] OWASP (open source web application security project) has listed the top ten web application attacks of 2010 as below. [2]•Injection•Cross site scripting•Broken authentication and session management•Insecure direct object reference•Cross site request forgery•Security misconfiguration•Failure to restrict URL access•Unvalidated redirects and forwards•Insecure cryptographic storage•Insufficient transport layer protectionIn this paper we are concentrating on Cross Site Request Forgery Attack (CSRF). This attack is less known to developers, some considers it same as XSS and some considers that XSS mitigation techniques will work for this attack. But it is different from XSS and its mitigation techniques need something extra efforts than XSS defensive measures. CSRF attacks have been known as “sleeping giant” of web-based vulnerabilities [3], because many sites on the Internet fail to protect against them and they have been largely ignored by the web development and security communities. Cross-Site Request Forgery Attacks are also known as Cross-Site Reference Forgery, XSRF, session Riding and Confused Deputy attacks. [4]This survey paper is divided into following sections. Section II describes how CSRF attack is carried out. Section III describes various CSRF vulnerabilities present in web applications; Section IV contains available CSRF Mitigation techniques, section V compares the CSRF mitigation techniques discussed in section IV, section VI concludes this survey paper, and then referenced material and author’s introductions are listed.II.OVERVIEW OF CSRF ATTACK CSRF is an attack which forces an end user to execute unwanted actions on a web application, in which he/she is currently authenticated [2]. It takes the advantage of HTTP protocols functionality to send32 CSRF Vulnerabilities and Defensive Techniquessession cookie for each request to server once user authenticate successfully, which helps server to confirm that the request is coming from authenticated user. CSRF attacker first study the request pattern i.e. type of request (GET request or POST request), parameters names, type of parameters values etc.. Once studied the request’s URL pattern deeply, he embed this URL in html tags of web pages or emails. Then attacker forces the authenticated user to execute this request. As user is authenticated browser automatically sends session cookie value with this request, server accepts this request and execute it. Figure 1 shows the scenario of CSRF attack.Following example shows how CSRF attacker uses ‘img’or ‘script’ tag to send request to server without knowledge of user. Consider, the user logged in to hisemail account and found email saying that ‘check jobsmatching to your profile’, If user open this email andfollow the link given there, in next tab jobs website pagewill get open. If attacker also has email account in samesite as user and he know how ‘change password’ functionality works, he can put the corresponding actionURL in some HTML tag. Consider attacker has addedthis URL in image tag as given below.<imgsrc=/changepass. php?newpass=s omevalue >This will not affect the GUI of jobs website page and URL embed in ‘src’ tag will get called as page will be loaded. As user is already logged in, browser will automatically send session id to server while sending this request. Hence server will accept the request as valid request. This way without knowledge of user the CSRF attack is carried out. Figure 1 CSRF Attack scenario Figure 2 Working of Http request and response Effects of CSRF attacks may differ based on thevulnerabilities exploited and privilege of the user exploited. A successful CSRF exploit can compromise end user data and operations when it targets a normal user, for example transfer of amount from user account to attacker account. If the targeted end user is the administrator account, a CSRF attack can compromisethe entire web application. It’s not just your public Web applications that are at risk, CSRF tactics can be used to attack servers behind corporate firewalls. Following image tag shows such example. [14]<imgsrc="http://intranet/admin/purgedatabase?rowslike=%2A &confirm=yes">If the attacker knows enough to make a URL and can get you to open a message, that's all it takes. Such effects of CSRF can result in huge loss of web application’s user as well as owner; that’s why it is very important to stop this attack. CSRF can affects web devices same as web sites. For Example in January 2008 attackers sent out e-mail having request embedded in image tag having URI 192.168.1.1 which is the default IP address of web enabled Linux based router, if web interface is vulnerable to CSRF and authentication is also vulnerable then on opening email image tag get loaded and shell commands can be execute on router of email account holder. [9] Following URL shows how shell command can be executed on router.http://192.168.1.1/cgi-bin/;rebootCSRF vulnerabilities are present in so many existing websites; some of these are described in [6]. Hence in this paper we are studying CSRF vulnerabilities as well as mitigation techniques which help us to build strong and robust protection mechanism against CSRF.III.CSRF VULNERABILITIESAttackers are not required to do extra efforts to carry out attack because the way web handles the web application traffic between client and server allowing attacker to carry out attacks. So many flaws are there which helps attackers and make their job easy to satisfy their requirement. In this section we will take review of such vulnerabilities presents in web applications.a.HTTP session handling mechanismNumber of website required user authentication while accessing it, which is most important requirement to carry out user specific tasks as well as to provide privacy to user’s data and information. To simplify this requirement HTTP protocol provides facility of session and cookie, which allow web server to differentiate the request coming from different users. Once user gets authenticated, this session cookie information gets passed in every request from server to client and vice versa. Following code shows the format of HTTP request and response; also figure 2 shows how web request and response are carried out.HTTP requestGET /books/search.asp?q=wahh HTTP/1.1Accept: image/gif, image/xxbitmap, image/jpeg, image/pjpeg, application/xshockwaveflash, application/vnd.msexcel, application/vnd.mspowerpoint, application/msword, */* Referer: /books/default.asp Accept-Language: en-gb,en-us;q=0.5Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflateUser-Agent: Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 7.0; Windows NT 5.1)Host: Cookie:JSESSIONID=0000tI8rk7joMx44S2Uu85nSWc_:vsnlc502 HTTP responseHTTP/1.1 200 OKDate: Sat, 19 May 2007 13:49:37 GMTServer: IBM_HTTP_SERVER/1.3.26.2 Apache/1.3.26 (Unix) Set-Cookie: tracking=tI8rk7joMx44S2Uu85nSWcPragma: no-cacheExpires: Thu, 01 Jan 1970 00:00:00 GMTContent-Type: text/html;charset=ISO-8859-1Content-Language: en-USContent-Length: 24246<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC “-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN”><html lang=”en”><head><meta http-equiv=”Content-Type” content=”text/html;charset=iso-8859-1”>...So whenever server gets request having valid session information it executes that request without bothering the origin of the request. Hence when CSRF attacker sends request to sever through browser by embedding it in exploited site, it executes on server successfully and no one can detect that request has come from other domain and it is invalid.b.HTML tagsCSRF attackers embed the request they want to execute in HTML tags due to which attack become invisible and while loading particular page (with page, it loads the all elements present on page), request gets executed. Also sometime it is embedded into the tags where it will get execute only if user click on that tag’s user interface like ‘href tag’. In this case attacker forces the user to click on such tags by showing text which attracts user e.g. “50% discount on jwelleries” etc. There are so many tags present in HTML which can send request to server, but each and every tag is made for particular type of request like for image file, JavaScript file etc.. HTML does not check the tag source property contains the valid URL or not, and CSRF attackers take advantage of this vulnerability. Table1shows the list of HTML tags that can be used by attacker to carry out CSRF. We have already seen example of exploiting HTML tag to carry out CSRF attack in section II.Table1- Various html tags used to carry out CSRF attackHTML tag Exploited format of HTML tagbody <body { background:url(‘attack_request’)}><body onload=”attack_request”> img<img src = “attack_request” />input <input type = “image” src =“ attack_request” alt = “Submit” />link <link rel = “stylesheet” type = “text/css”href = “attack_request” />script <script type = “text/javascript” src =“attack_request” > </script>table <table background = “attack_request” >td <td background = “attack_request”>th <th background = “attack_request”>iframe <iframe src=”attack_request”>This problem might be even worse, since in integrated mail/browser environments simply displaying an email message containing the image would result in the execution of the request to the web application with the associated browser cookie. [2] And in case if anyone put check on the ‘src’ field of tag to contain valid URL specific to particular tag then this may be obfuscated further, by referencing seemingly valid image URLs such as <{element}onload=javascript:document.myform.submitO > <img src=”h ttps:// [attackers url]/picture.gif” width=”0” height=”0”>Where [attacker] is a site controlled by the attacker andby utilizing a redirect mechanism on http://[attacker]/picture.gif to http://[third party]/action. c. Browser’s view Source optionThere are various different ways by which attacker get knowledge of functionality used by web application, which helps attacker to generate valid request. Attacker can himself log on the website and check the whole functionality, also information about working of forms on the web pages can be easily available by facility provided by web browser using option ‘View Source’, Which shows all the information of the fields present on forms, validation for each field can be accessed by using JavaScript files and much more information attacker can collect. If web application using extra session variable oneach request to protect application from CSRF and if thatsession information is saved in hidden field, using view source option attacker can get the logic used to generate this session field unless until it is not strongly generated random token. d. GET and POST method of form submissionInformation in the form fields sends to the server by using two methods GET and POST, where GET methodgenerate a request which contain all the informationitself in request and it is also visible to the user, so attacker can make use of this easily available informationto generate valid request. It was suggested that to usePOST instead of GET method to stop this vulnerability .But POST method is also not helped to protect webapplications from CSRF attack. Once attacker get all form fields he can embed these fields into his web page, which he is going to force the victim to open and can put the JavaScript function which allow form to submit on onload event. Following example describe this scenario. Where {element} = HTML element<form name="myform" method="POST" action=" {vulnerable site}"> <input name="variablel" value="attackl" > <input name="variable2" value="attack2" > <input name="variable3" value="attack3" > </form> Here we can see that form is submitting directly on onload event, without knowledge of user. e. Input Validation Error CSRF can be divided into two forms stored and reflected [4], Stored CSRF is when the attacker gets the CSRF to be executed within the domain of the targeted websites, while the reflected CSRF is when the attack is triggeredfrom a different domain. In case of Stored CSRF we can give example of social networking site where user canadd a post which contain malicious request which can perform some malicious action on that site. In this case attacker uses the vulnerabilities present in input validation functionality. While processing input data submitted by user, its format should be well specified and well checked. If this validation functionality is weak, it can allow attackers malicious content to get into the system, which will help them to carry out CSRF.f.Handling of data through JavascriptJavascript is also used to transfer the data in application using AJAX. AJAX uses XMLhttpRequest to communicate to action to server and server returns lightweight response containing data in JSON format. This returned response is then processed and used by client. Such use of Javascript make possible for malicious website to exploit same origin policy handling of javascript and gain access to data generated by other website. Malicious site can perform this using two ways, overriding the default array constructor and by implementing a suitable callback function. [10]Number of times the data return by XMLhttprequest contains a serialized array, malicious website can override the default constructor for this array or object to gain access to the data. This can be done by retrieving script tag’s target and executing it. Such vulnerability was discovered within GMAIL functionality by Jeremiah Grossman in 2006. Sometime javascript does not only return data but also invokes callback function on returned data. For example:showContacts([[ ‘Jeff’, ‘1741024918’, ‘ginger@’ ],[ ‘C Gillingham’, ‘3885193114’,‘c2004@’ ],[ ‘Mike Kemp’, ‘8041148671’,‘fkwitt@’ ],[ ‘Wade A’, ‘5078782513’,kingofbeef@’ ]]);This can be exploited by simply implementing the showcontacts function and include the target script. [13] For example:<script>function showContacts(a) {alert(a);}</script><scriptsrc=”/private/contacts.json?callback=showContacts”></script>IV.CSRF DEFENSIVE MECHANISMAs CSRF become popular various defensive measures against it were suggested, but none of these is able to defence against CSRF completely. But these helps to minimised the risk of CSRF up to certain extent. In this section we are going to review such defensive measures which will help us to build more robust technique to mitigate CSRF.a.Checking Referer Header HTTP request contain different parameters, one of these parameters contain the URL of site from which request originates, that parameter name is ‘Referer’. This parameter can be used by browser to check requests domain on client side before forwarding request to server. So web developers check Referer header to protect applications from CSRF. This can be applied in case of critical operation like password change, amount transfer, purchasing items and changing user privileges etc. This will allow only same domain request to execute.b. Custom HeaderCustom headers, those prefixed with X-, are sent to the client together with the default HTTP header. One important property of these headers is that they cannot be sent cross domain [9]. With the help of custom headers we can identify that the request has come from same domain, as browser prevent to send custom header from one site to another. To use this mechanism web application must issue all state modifying requests using XMLHttpRequest and attach the custom header. The state modifying request having no custom header will considered as invalid request. [10] For example request with custom header will look like as below:GET /auth/update_profile.cgi?email=victim@social.site HTTP/1.1Host: social.siteX-CSRF: 1Here X-CSRF represents that this request consist of custom header and it also confirm that the request has come from same domain. Browser should not forward custom header between domains. But vulnerability arise due to exception to security rules, in this case Plug-ins like Flash or Silverlight might allow request to include any number or type of headers regardless of the origin and destination of the request.[9] This vulnerability could expose users to CSRF even with application of custom header.c.Client side tool with white listingAs we know there are so many websites which need cross domain operation to perform, in such cases ‘Referer’ mechanism cannot be used. Hence it was suggested to use a tool which maintains white listing of websites having cross domain operations. This implement a client-side defence measure that previews the HTML code before each page load and detects potential CSRF attack. The detector would first find all form tags and check the “action” attribute of the “form” tags for deep linking. If such forms are found, the CSRF detector will prompt the user ‘if they want to add the pairing of the URL of the website the code is located on and the URL of the form action to a white list'. IF user will add that URL to whitelist then whitelist get updatedand this updated whitelist will be used further. This tool can be installed as an extension to browser. [5]d.Limiting the lifetime of authentication cookies: CSRF attacks can be minimised by limiting the lifetime of cookies to a short period of time. If user will open the other website and started surfing on it, it will cause cookies of previous site to expire and after a short period of time and user have to login again for any action he want to perform. If the attacker will try to send any HTTP request, he will not successful as server rejects the request, because it will not get session information due to cookies expiration. [6]e.Anti CSRFIt is a library developed in C# for developers to guard themselves from CSRF attacks. It is HTTP module which can be added to web application to protect application against CSRF. This module itself takes care of token generation and checking it on every page of web site, assuming it inherits from System.Web.Page and contains form [11].This library need to be added as a reference to web application and related settings has to be done in web configuration file. Normal way of adding CSRF token to the application is to use ViewState in combination with ViewStateUserKey. This requires ViewState to be enabled and as well as session to be enabled because sessionid will be used as a unique key to identify user. AntiCSRF module works without these requirement and hence provide more independent environment. AntiCSRF requires Cookies to be enabled on Users browser and cookies used on browser get cleared when browser will get closed. It uses hidden field to carry out CSRF token. [12]f.CSRF detectorCross Site Request Forgery (CSRF) can be carried out using XSS attacks and maximum protection mechanism suggested against CSRF are depend on cross origin policies and that also not completely protects web applications from CSRF. CSRF detector detects CSRF attacks with the notion of visibility and content checking of suspected requests. The idea is to intercept a suspected request containing parameters and values and relate them with one of the visible forms present in an open window. If there is an exact match, the suspected request is modified to make it benign, then it is launched to the remote website to identify the content type, this content type is then matched with the expected content type. Any mismatch between request attribute values or content type results in a warning. [7] This approach does not rely on cross-origin policy or server side program states. Moreover, it does not require storing URLs or tokens to be matched at a later stage for attack detection. This can be implemented as a Firefox plug-in. Once it detected the CSRF attack we can stop that request or blacklist that particular site if it is cross site request. Hence this detector will be useful to prevent CSRF attack.PARISIONAs we have discussed various defensive mechanisms against CSRF in previous section, we will see which is more useful. Very first we have seen is checking Referer header, this method will help in very few cases because most of the sites don’t use Referer header for security purpose. This mechanism is useful for reflected CSRF only i.e. CSRF carried out from other domains; this drawback is applicable to white listing defensive measure also. Custom header is also used to detect only reflected CSRF as well as its required to use XMLHTTPrequest each time we need to protect system from CSRF, which make protection mechanism dependent on particular technology. Whereas CSRF detector allows us to detect both reflected and stored CSRF attacks. Limiting the lifetime of Authenticated cookies is needed to be implemented on server side, i.e. application developer can implement this mechanism into their application. This method can minimize the CSRF attacks but cannot provide complete protection. CSRF Guard is technique provided by OWASP which need to implement with application code and it can well protect the system. AntiCSRF working same as CSRF Guard and it is specifically used for applications. Both these implementations are vulnerable to session hijacking attacks and social engineering through different ways to capture the session token [8] and both of these are technology specific. In case of CSRF detector, it checks content type of response with expected content type of request to decide suspiciousness of request. This may produce wrong result as some servers may return incorrect content type or some may have not sending content type at all.VI.CONCLUSIONIn this survey paper we discussed CSRF vulnerabilities which will help to understand CSRF attack scenario and causes behind it. Also we discussed various CSRF defensive techniques suggested yet. In section V we compared all the techniques we discussed as per their ability to protect web application against CSRF attacks. As per analysis it is found that CSRF guard and CSRF detector are most powerful techniques but still cannot provide full protection, they can only minimise the CSRF attacks. Hence complete protection against CSRF is not available and our discussed techniques need more improvement so that they can completely protect the application. Robust and strong protection mechanism against CSRF is needed to protect the web applications.REFERENCES[1].Imperva’s Web application Attack Report July 2011Edition #1, [2]. OWASP. https:///index.php/CSRF,Cross-Site Request Forgery, Testing for CSRF(OWASP-SM-005)[3].Grossman, “Cross Site Request Forgery ‘The SleepingGiant of Website Vulnerabilities’”, in RSAConference, San Francisco, April 2008.[4].Xiaoli Lin, Pavol Zavarsky, Ron Ruhl, Dale Lindskog,“Threat Modeling for CSRF Attacks”, InternationalConference on Computational Science and Engineering,2009[5].Tatiana Alexenko, Mark Jenne, Suman Deb Roy,Wenjun Zeng , “Cross-Site Request Forgery: Attackand Defense”, IEEE CCNC 2010[6].Mohd. Shadab Siddiqui, Deepanker Verma, “Cross SiteRequest Forgery: A common web applicationweakness”, 2011 IEEE[7].Hossain Shahriar and Mohammad Zulkernine “Client-Side Detection of Cross-Site Request ForgeryAttacks”, 21st International Symposium on SoftwareReliability Engineering, 2010 IEEE[8].Boyan Chen, Pavol Zavarsky, Ron Ruhl and DaleLindskog, “A Study of the Effectiveness of CSRFGuard”, 2011 IEEE[9].“Seven Deadliest Web Application Attacks”, MikeSharma.[10].Adam Barth, Collin Jackson, John C. Mitchell”Robust Defenses for Cross-Site Request Forgery”,CCS’08, October 27–31, 2008, Alexandria, Virginia,USA.[11]./ AntiCSRF - A Cross SiteRequest Forgery (CSRF) module for [12].http://netappsec.blogspot.in/2011/05/anti-csrf-viewstate.html “Anti-CSRF & ViewState”[13].“The Web Application Hackers Handbook”,discovering and exploiting security flaw”, DafyddStuttard, Marcus Pinto[14].Peter W “Cross Site Request Forgeries” –/~peterw/csrf.txtDr. B. B. Meshram is working as Professor in Computer Technology Dept., VJTI, Matunga, Mumbai, INDIA. He is Ph.D. in Computer Engineering and has published international journal is 25, National journal is 1, international conference is 70 and national conference 39 papers to his credit. He has taught various subjects such as Object Oriented Software Engg., Network Security, Advanced Databases, Advanced Computer Network (TCP/IP), Data warehouse and Data mining, etc at Post Graduate Level.He has guided several projects at graduate and post graduate level. He is the life member of CSI and Institute of Engineers, etc.Rupali Kombade received her B.E. Degree in Computer Engineering from RTM Nagpur university. She has worked as PHP and .NET Web developer. She is pursuing M.Tech degree in Network Infrastructure Management System from VJTI, Matunga, Mumbai, INDIA. Her research interest includes web development, web security, web application attacks and its defense.。

学位英语历年真题带答案12-11

成人本科学士学位英语统一考试2012年11月03日Part I Reading Comprehension (30%)Directions: There are three passages in this part. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Y ou should decide on the best choice and blacken the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet. Passage 1Questions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage:It seems like every day there’s some new research about whether our favorite drinks are good for us. (76) One day, science says a glass of red wine a day will help us live longer. The next day, maybe not. It seems journalists are pretty interested in wine research and the same might be said for coffee. Now，there’s been a lot of research into whether coffee’s good for our health.“The results have really been mixed，”admits Neal Freedman who led the coffee study and published his findings in a medical journal recently. “There’s been some evidence that coffee might increase the risk of certain diseases and th ere’s also been maybe more recent evidence that coffee may protect against other diseases as well.”Freedman and his colleagues undertook the biggest study yet to look at the relationship between coffee and health. They analyzed data collected from more than 400,000 Americans ages 50 to 71 participating in the study. “We found that the coffee drinkers had a modestly lower risk of death than the non-drinkers，”he said. Here’s what he means by“modestly”：those who drank at least two or three cups a day were about 10 percent or 15 percent less likely to die for any reason during the 13 years of the study. When the researchers looked at specific causes of death, coffee drinking appeared to cut the risk of dying from heart disease, lung disease, injuries, accidents and infections.Now, Freedman stressed that the study doesn’t prove coffee can make people live longer. A study like this can never prove a cause-and-effect relationship. (77) All it can really do is to point researchers in the right direction for further investigation. And even if it turns out that coffee is really good for you, scientists have no idea why.1. According to the first paragraph, reporters would like to know the research findings of .A. teaB. beerC. alcoholD. coffee2. According to the passage, which of the following is TRUE?A. Freedman and his colleagues hired 400,000 Americans to collect data.B. About four hundred thousand Americans worked for Freedman’s team full time for 13 years.C. People who t ook part in Freedman’s research are about 50 to 70 years old.D. People who are 50 to 70 years old seldom drink coffee.3. According to the author, scientists .A. have already proved that coffee is good for human healthB. have a long way to go before they find a way to study coffeeC. have avoided the cause-and-effect approach to study coffeeD. are still unable to figure out why coffee is good for us4. The word “mixed”in the first paragraph means “”.A. both good and badB. put togetherC. both sharp and softD. confused5. Which of the following is an appropriate title for this passage?A. Can Beer Help You Live Longer?B. Can Coffee Help You Live Longer?C. Can Wine Help You Live Longer?D. Can Tea Help You Live Longer?Passage 2Questions 6 to 10 are based on the following passage:When we’re learning a foreign language, making sense of what we hear is the first step toward fluency. It sounds obvious, but until recently, we didn’t know much about how listen ing works. New research demonstrates that effective listening involves more than simply hearing the words that float past our ears. Rather, it’s an active process of receiving information and making meaning. This kind of engaged listening is a skill that’s as critical for learning a range of subjects at school and work as it is for learning to understand a foreign tongue.(78) Studies of skilled language learners have identified specific listening strategies that lead to superior comprehension. Last year, for example, University of Ottawa researcher Larry Vandergrift published his study of 106 undergraduates who were learning French as a second language. Half of the students were taught in a conventional fashion, listening to and practicing texts spoken aloud. The other half, possessing the same initial (最初的) skill level and taught by the same teacher, were given detailed instruction on how to listen. It mined out that the second group “significantly outperformed”(胜过) the first one on a test of comprehension.So what are these listening strategies? Skilled learners go into a listening class with a sense of what they want to get out of it. (79) They set a goal for their listening and they generate predictions about what the speaker will say. Before the talking begins, they mentally review what they already know about the subject, and form an intention to “listen out for”what’s important or relevant. Once they begin listening, these learners maintain their focus; if their attention wanders, they bring it back to the words being spoken. They don’t allow themselves to be thrown off by confusing or unfamiliar details. Instead, they take note of what they don’t understand and make inferences about what those things might mean, based on other clues available to them: their previous knowledge of the subject, the context (语境) of the talk,, the identity of the speaker, and so on.6. What is the main idea of this passage?A. Effective listening means hearing the words that float past our ears.B. Developing your listening skills is the first step toward developing fluency.C. Skilled listeners use specific strategies to get the most out of what they hear.D. Listening is one of the most powerful tools we have to gain information.7. What does Vandergrift’s r esearch show?A. Learners who adopt specific listening strategies become better listeners.B. Learners taught in the traditional way are better at reinforcing what they learn.C. Learners are more confident if they make fewer mistakes.D. Learners who listen on a regular basis improve faster.8. Which of the following statements about Vandergrift’s research is TRUE?A. The participants were postgraduates learning French as a second language.B. All the participants were taught using the conventional method, with the focus on listening strategies.C. The two groups were taught by different teachers.D. The participants were at the same initial skill level.9. The expression“thrown off”in the third paragraph is closest in meaning to“”.A. infectedB. confusedC. ruinedD. informed10. According to the passage, which of the following strategies is NOT used by skilled learners?A. Review their prior knowledge of the subject.B. Concentrate on the speaker’s words.C. Translate into their native language.D. Predict what the speaker will say.Passage 3Questions 11 to 15 are based on the following passage:(80) As the Titanic was sinking and women and children climbed into lifeboats, the musicians from the ship’s ba nd stood and played. They died when the ship went down. Men stood on the deck and smoked cigarettes. They died, too. This behavior is puzzling to economists, who like to believe that people tend to act in their own self interest. “There was no pushing,”says David Savage, an economist at Queensland University in Australia who has studied witness reports from the survivors. It was “very, very orderly behavior.”Savage has compared the behavior of the passengers on the Titanic with those on the Lusitania, another ship that also sank at about the same time. But when the Lusitania went down, the passengers panicked(恐慌). There were a lot of similarities between these two events. These two ships were both luxury ones, they had a similar number of passengers and a similar number of survivors.The biggest difference, Savage concludes, was time. The Lusitania sank in less than 20 minutes. But for the Titanic, it was two-and-a-half hours. “If you’ve got an event that lasts two-and-a-half hours, social order will take over and everybody will behave in a social manner,”Savage says.“If you’re going down in under 17 minutes, basically it’s instinctual.”On the Titanic, social order ruled, and it was women and children first. On the Lusitania, instinct won out. The survivors were largely the people who could swim and get into the lifeboats.Yes, we’re self-interested, Savage says. But we’re also part of a society. Given time, social norms (规范) can beat our natural self-interest. A hundred years ago, women and children always went first. Men were stoic (坚忍的). On the Titanic, there was enough time for these norms to become forceful.11. According to the author, economists were confused because .A. people’s behavior was disorderly on the TitanicB. people did not act in their own interest on the TitanicC. most men did not act in their own interest on the LusitaniaD. women and children could not climb into the lifeboats12. The expression“won out” in the third paragraph is closest in meaning to“”.A. took the upper handB. went out of controlC. ran wildD. shut down13. According to David Savage, was a critical factor in determining people’s behavior in the sinking of these two ships.A. social orderB. placeC. instinctD. time14. According to the passage, which of the following is NOT TRUE?A. Both ships were expensive ones.B. A similar number of women and children from both ships survived.C. About the same number of people from each ship died.D. Both ships had a similar number of passengers.15. Which of the following is an appropriate title for this passage?A. Why Didn’t Musicians Play on the Lusitania?B. Why Did Musicians Play on the Titanic?C. Why Didn’t Passengers Panic on the Titanic?D. Why Did Men Smoke on the Titanic?Part ⅡVocabulary and Structure (30%)Directions: In this part there are 30 incomplete sentences. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the ONE answer that best completes the sentence. Then blacken the Corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet.16. Have you ever visited the Summer Palace，there are many beautiful halls, ridges and a huge lake?A. whichB. thatC. whereD. when17. Mr. Obama will give a speech on the current situation at the meeting next week inBeijing.A. to holdB. heldC. holdingD. to be held18. It was in a small village in the south he spent his childhood and met his life-longfriend—the local schoolmaster.A. whereB. whenC. whichD. that19. First of all, a teacher should show love for his students on top of his academicknowledge. , he is not qualified for his position.A. ThereforeB. OtherwiseC. HoweverD. Because20. For many overseas Chinese, China is their real , because they were born and grew up there.A. homeB. familyC. houseD. household21. With all your brains you the math test, but you failed. You were too careless.A. should passB. should have passedC. must passD. must have passed22. When he entered the room he found a cat quietly under the desk.A. lieB. liesC. to lieD. lying23. Today Mrs Smith _ herself in white like a nurse at the garden party.A. woreB. putC. sentD. dressed24. In road rules the red light is a _ for traffic to stop.A. signB. sightC. siteD. size25. I can you for your rude manners but you must apologize in public.A. forbidB. forgetC. forecastD. forgive26. General Blair had been in the army for 35 years when he retired from the navy.A. serviceB. workC. jobD. homework27. Linda is quite different her sister in character：she likes friends and goes out a lot whileher sister always stays alone at home.A. toB. fromC. atD. on28. Jim was absent from school for the whole week a bad cold.A. because ofB. in addition toC. according toD. in front of29. Some people like to a small sum of money in case of urgent need.A. deal withB. use upC. set asideD. take off30. Mr. Smith feels greatly with his son’s performance in school as he is always the top ofhis class.A. disturbedB. worriedC. distressedD. satisfied31.Skating is such a_____sport in the northeast of China that almost everybody there knows howto skate.A. likelyB. famousC. popularD. long32. The teacher suggested that they __ in the exercise at once.A. had handedB. should have handedC. handedD. hand33. He did not go to school yesterday because he _ __ his father who was ill.A. must have looked afterB. would have to look afterC. had to look afterD. should have looked after34. After walking for half an hour, she realized that she in the wrong direction.A. had been walkingB. has been walkingC. walkedD. would have walked35. Don’t smoke in the classroom, ?A. do youB. will youC. can youD. could you36. There is not much time left, so I shall tell you about it .A. in detailB. in briefC. for shortD. in all37. _ _ the room than the telephone rang once more.A. Hardly when he enteredB. Hardly he enteredC. No sooner he had enteredD. No sooner had he entered38. My bike is old, it is in good condition.A. thereforeB. soC. neverthelessD. moreover39. There is that he has tried his best in the examination.A. not to denyB. not denyingC. no denyingD. without denying40. Would you to come to the meeting this weekend?A. be so kindB. be kind asC. be so kind asD. be kind41. He will write to me as soon as he home.A. will have returnedB. returnsC. returnedD. will return42. is generally believed, there is no water on the moon.A. AsB. WhatC. ThatD. It43. He devoted his whole life to care of the disabled children.A. takesB. takingC. tookD. take44.The student continued his university study his family -,vas poor.A. even thoughB. as thoughC. now thatD. since45. His father was put into_ prison，and he had to go to _prison to visit him once in a while.A. a; theB. the; aC. a;/D. /;thePart III Identification (10%)Directions: Each of the following sentences has four underlined parts marked A, B, C and D. Identify the one that is not correct. Then blacken the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet.46. Putting the bottles, boxes and books back where they belong, please. Don’t leaveA B C Dthem on the desk.47. Though Jack is only 7 years old but he is clever enough to work out that puzzleA B Cdifficult even for a grown-up.D48. I opened the letter and it contained an important information that told us to stayA B Cwhere we were.D49. Unlike Jim, I go to work by foot instead of by car every morning.A B C D50. If heating, ice will change into water or steam.A B C D51. Weather permit, we’ll have the match tomorrow.A B C D52. Don’t you think it’s the most worst film we have seen since we came here ten years ago?A B C D53. She is as gifted as she is more intelligent.A B C D54. The teacher, as well as his students, were present at the meeting.A B C D55. Walking alone in the desert, the traveler is boring.A B C DPart IV Cloze (10%)Directions: There are 20 blanks in the following passage, and for each blank there are 4 choices marked A, B, C and D at the end of the passage. Y ou should choose ONE answer that best fits into the passage. Then blacken the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet.Visitors to the zoo usually pity the animals owing to their particular emotional associations (联想). Which animals should be indeed pitied?The first type are those clever and 56 developed animals 57 lively intelligence and desire for activity can 58 no outlet behind the bars of the cage. Those animals living in a free state before 59 in the zoo have a strong desire for moving about 60 , but have to mm around repeatedly in their quarters. Owing to this disappointment, foxes and wolves 61 in places which are far too small, are among the most 62 of all zoo animals.Another sad scene, seldom 63 by ordinary zoo visitors, is the 64 flying trials of swans (天鹅) at migration (迁徙) time. These creatures, like most other water birds, are generally made unable to fly by the 65 of cutting off a tip of the wing bone. 66 such swans in the zoo generally seem happy under 67 care and they raise their young without any trouble, at migration time things become 68 . The birds never really 69 that they can no longer fly, and repeatedly swim to the 70 of the pond so that they can have the whole extent of its surface when trying to 71 against the wind. Meanwhile, their loud flying calls can be heard as they try to 72 , and again and again the grand preparations end in 73 .I do not like seeing those 74 water birds in the zoo. The missing tip of one wing and thestill sadder picture that the bird makes when it 75 its wings hurt me badly. What a truly sorry picture it is!56. A. high B. highly C. deep D. deeply57. A. whose B. whom C. that D. which58. A. find B. lose C. declare D. transform59. A. to be put B. being put C. to put D. putting60. A. partly B. highly C. deeply D. freely61. A. kept B. keeping C. rose D. rising62. A. victorious B. thoughtful C. miserable D. fortunate63. A. scattered B. written C. noticed D. wakened64. A. similar B. suitable C. apparent D. constant65. A. experiment B. operation C. treatment D. movement66. A. Although B. When C. Since D. Because67. A. original B. proper C. parallel D. precious68. A. private B. public C. different D. similar69. A. suggest B. assure C. underline D. realize70. A. limit B. side C. middle D. center71. A. take off B. stand up C. take up D. stand by72. A. spring B. raise C. swell D. rise73. A. passage B. support C. failure D. success74. A. upright B. powerful C. valuable D. unlucky75. A. spreads B. strengthens C. enlarges D. inspectsPart V Translation (20%)Section ADirections: In this part there are five sentences which you should translate into Chinese. These sentences are all taken from the 3 passages you have just read in Reading Comprehension. You can refer back to the passages to identify their meanings in the context.76.One day, science says a glass of red wine a day will help us live longer.77.All it can really do is to point researchers in the right direction for further investigation.78.Studies of skilled language learners have identified specific listening strategies that lead tosuperior comprehension.79.They set a goal for their listening, and they generate predictions about what the speaker willsay.80.As the Titanic was sinking and women and children climbed into lifeboats, the musicians fromthe ship’s band stood and played.SectionBDirections：In this part there are five sentences in Chinese．You should translate them into English．Be sure to write clearly．81．他是第一个在月球上行走的人。

2012年考研英语二真题答案解析完整版

详解1.【答案】B 从空后的句子“他们解放的人们”可以看出，空前的句子表示的应该是参加了第二次大战的男人和女人。

只有serve有“服兵役”的意思，所以选B。

其他都不符合题意。

2.【答案】B空内信息应该是与hero“英雄”意思相对，后面的分句说他背井离乡，经历了很多苦难，显然这里应该是说由普通人平凡人(common man)成长为英雄，所以选B。

3.【答案】A 本题考查的是词语的搭配关系，承担战争带来的负担，应该用动词bear或shoulder，所以这里选A，bore。

4.【答案】A necessities表示“生活必需品”，空外信息food和shelter(食物和住宿)这些就是维持生存最起码的条件。

Facilities是设备设施，commodities商品，properties财产，均不符合题意。

5.【答案】C not…but，“不是，而是”表转折，不是自愿兵，也没有高的报酬，而是一个普通人。

所以选C。

6.【答案】D这道题主要考查介词的搭配。

根据up______(the best trained, best equipped, fiercest, most brutal).enemies可以知道是起来反抗敌人，所以选D选项against。

7.【答案】C GI。

在军事上是Government Issue 的缩略语，所以，GL。

这个符号就是象征着这个全称Government Issue。

选C。

8.【答案】A 该句意思为，GI。

这个符号出现在给士兵分发的所有物品上，hand out “分发，发放”符合题意。

Turn over “移交”，bring back“带回”，pass down“传承，一代一代传下来”在句意上都说不通。

9.【答案】C 空所在句子的语境为：Joe是个普通名词，一个从未爬到社会顶层的人的名字。

Manage表示再怎么经过努力，最终也未获得成功，所以选C。

10.【答案】B结合第9题的分析可知，空所在句子实际上是进一步举例说明Joe 没有取得大的成就：从来都不曾出现叫做Joe的总统、副总统、国务卿。

micro_2012S1_final

<Year 2012 Spring Semester>
<Microeconomics: Final Exam>
(2012. 6. 19.) * Answer the questions after reading them carefully. * Please note that: (i) Answers should be written in English. (ii) Answers should be in the form of complete sentences so that the meaning is clear. (iii) Answers should be legible. (iv) When a graph is drawn, it is recommended to indicate all the information in the graph so that the meaning is clear. (v) It is recommended to show all the process for deriving answers when the calculation is needed. (vi) It is not allowed to use a calculator. (vii) Total score is 80.
6.
[6
points]

A
competitive
firm
has
the
following
short-run
cost
function:
. (1) Average variable cost is falling as output rises if output is less than and rising as output rises if output is greater than . what is the value of ? (2) The firm will supply zero output if the price is less than _____. (3) The smallest positive amount that the firm will ever supply at any price is ______.

2012年研究生英语二真题答案：考研英语真题及答案

Section 1 Use of Eninglish Directions : Millions of Americans and foreigners see GI.Joe as a mindless war toy ,the symbol of American military adventurism, but that’s not how it used to be .To the men and women who 1 )in World War II and the people they liberated ,the GI.was the 2) man grown into hero ,the pool farm kid torn away from his home ,the guy who 3) all the burdens of battle ,who slept in cold foxholes,who went without the 4) of food and shelter ,who stuck it out and drove back the Nazi reign of murder .this was not a volunteer soldier ,not someone well paid ,5) an average guy ,up 6 )the best trained ,best equipped ,fiercest ,most brutal enemies seen in centuries。

His name is not much.GI. is just a military abbreviation 7) Government Issue ,and it was on all of the article 8) to soldiers .And Joe? A common name for a guy who never 9) it to the top .Joe Blow ,Joe Magrac …a working class name.The United States has 10) had a president or vicepresident or secretary of state Joe。

2012英语二作文

2012英语二作文Title: Exploring Cultural Exchange through Language Learning。

Language is not merely a tool for communication; it embodies the essence of culture and serves as a bridge connecting people from different backgrounds. As anintegral part of language learning, cultural exchange plays a pivotal role in fostering mutual understanding and appreciation among individuals. In this essay, we will delve into the significance of cultural exchange in language acquisition, exploring its benefits and implications.First and foremost, cultural exchange enriches the language learning experience by providing learners with authentic contexts for language use. Through exposure to diverse cultural perspectives, learners gain insights into the nuances of language usage, including idiomatic expressions, cultural references, and social norms. Forexample, by engaging in conversations with native speakers or immersing oneself in authentic cultural settings, learners not only enhance their linguistic proficiency but also develop a deeper understanding of the cultural context in which the language operates.Moreover, cultural exchange fosters empathy and tolerance by promoting intercultural communication skills. By interacting with individuals from different cultural backgrounds, learners develop sensitivity to cultural differences and learn to navigate cultural nuances with respect and openness. This not only enhances their interpersonal skills but also cultivates a global mindset, enabling them to thrive in an increasingly interconnected world. For instance, through cross-cultural dialogue and collaboration, learners gain valuable insights into the complexity of human experiences and learn to appreciate diversity as a source of strength rather than division.Furthermore, cultural exchange facilitates the exchange of ideas and knowledge across borders, contributing to mutual learning and intellectual growth. By engaging withdiverse perspectives, learners are exposed to new ways of thinking and problem-solving, challenging their preconceived notions and broadening their horizons. This not only stimulates intellectual curiosity but also encourages innovation and creativity, as individuals draw inspiration from a multiplicity of cultural influences. For instance, by studying literature, art, and history from different cultures, learners gain a deeper appreciation for the richness and diversity of human creativity, inspiring them to explore new avenues of self-expression and self-discovery.In addition, cultural exchange promotes cross-cultural understanding and diplomacy, fostering peaceful coexistence and cooperation among nations. By breaking down barriers of ignorance and prejudice, language learners become cultural ambassadors who bridge divides and build connections across borders. Through their linguistic and cultural proficiency, they facilitate meaningful dialogue and collaboration, contributing to mutual respect and mutual benefit. For example, by serving as interpreters, translators, or language teachers, individuals play a pivotal role inpromoting cross-cultural communication and fostering international cooperation.In conclusion, cultural exchange is an essential component of language learning, enriching the learning experience, fostering empathy and tolerance, facilitating mutual learning and intellectual growth, and promotingcross-cultural understanding and diplomacy. By embracing cultural diversity and engaging with different perspectives, language learners not only enhance their linguistic proficiency but also become global citizens who contributeto a more harmonious and interconnected world. As we embark on our language learning journey, let us embrace the transformative power of cultural exchange and celebrate the beauty of linguistic diversity.。

2012spring复习题 print2 大部分答案(1)资料

选择和填空题1. 1 mol 非理想气体经节流膨胀(即Joule-Thomson 实验)压力自p 1降低到p 2，下列何者为零 (b) .a △U ； .b △H ； .c △S ； .d △G ；。

2. 系统经过一个不可逆循环后，其S ∆( b)。

0,0.=∆>∆环系统S S a ； ;0,0.>∆=∆环系统S S b0,0.=∆=∆环系统S S c ； 0,0.>∆>∆环系统S S d 。

3. 1 mol 、300K 、100 kPa 的理想气体，在外压恒定为10 kPa 条件下，体积等温膨胀为原来的10倍，此过程的=∆G ( d )。

.a 0； .b 19.1 J ； .c 5743 J ； .d －5743 J 。

∆S T = nR ln(p 1/p 2)= nR ln(10)= 19.1448 J/K , ∆G=∆H －T ∆S=－T ∆S=-5743.5 J4. p θ压力下，2 mol 、90℃的H 2O(l)与1 mol 、20℃的H 2O(l)在一绝热器中混合，此过程( a )。

0.>∆S a ；0.=∆S b ； 0.<∆S c ； d.不能判断S ∆的符号。

5. 某纯物质的液体凝固时，液体的密度大于固体的密度，则该液体的凝固点随压力升高而( b )a. 升高； b. 降低； c .不变； d .不能确定其变化。

6. 298 K 和101.325 kPa 下，若把Pb 和Cu(CH 3COO)2的反应安排在电池中以可逆的方式进行。

系统作出电功91.84 kJ,同时电池吸热213.6 kJ 。

则(d)：a . △U ＞0，△S ＜0； b . △U ＜0，△S ＞0； c . △U ＜0，△S ＜0； d . △U ＞0，△S ＞0。

∆G=-91.84 kJ , Q r,m =213.6 kJ=T ∆S , ∆U=∆G+T ∆S-∆(pV)>0 [凝聚相的∆(pV)很小]7. 一定量的理想气体经一等温不可逆压缩过程，则有（C ）：a . △S ＞0；b . △S ＝0；c . △S ＜0；d . 无法判断△S 的正负。

2012年英语二真题和参考解析(专硕)

2012年全国硕士研究生招生考试英语（二）（科目代码：204）☆考生注意事项☆1.答题前，考生须在试题册指定位置上填写考生编号和考生姓名；在答题卡指定位置上填写报考单位、考生姓名和考生编号,并涂写考生编号信息点。

2.考生须把试题册上的“试卷条形码”粘贴条取下，粘贴在答题卡的“试卷条形码粘贴位置”框中。

不按规定粘贴条形码而影响评卷结果的，责任由考生自负。

3.选择题的答案必须涂写在答题卡相应题号的选项上，非选择题的答案必须书写在答题卡指定位置的边框区域内。

超出答题区域书写的答案无效；在草稿纸、试题册上答题无效。

4.填（书）写部分必须使用黑色字迹签字笔书写，字迹工整、笔迹清楚；涂写部分必须使用2B铅笔填涂。

5.考试结束，将答题卡和试题册按规定交回。

（以下信息考生必须认真填写）考生编号考生姓名2012年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语（二）试题Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (IO points)Millions of Americans and foreigners see G.I. Joe as a mindless war toy, the symbol of American military adventurism, but that's not how it used to be. To the men and women who 1 in World War II and the people they liberated, the G.I. was the 2 man grown into hero, the poor farm kid tom away from his home, the guy who 3 all the burdens of battle, who slept in cold foxholes, who went without the 4 of food and shelter, who stuck it out and drove back the Nazi reign of murder. This was not a volunteer soldier, not someone well paid, 5 an avera ge g u y, up 6 the best trained, best equipped, fiercest, most brutal enemies seen in centuries.His name isn't much. G.I.is just a military abbreviation_]_ Government Issue, and it was on all of the articles 8 to soldiers. And Joe? A common name for a guy who never 9 it to the top. Joe Blow, Joe Palooka, Joe Magrac…a working class name. The United States has_lQ had a president or vice-president or secretary of state Joe.G .I. Joe had a 11 career fighting German, Japanese, and Korean troops. He appears as a character, or a 12 of American personalities, in the 1945 movie The Story of G.I. Joe, based on the last days of war correspondent Ernie Pyle. Some of the soldiers Pyle 13 portrayed themselves in the film. Pyle was famous for covering the 14 side of the war, writing about the dirt-snow-and-mud soldiers, not how many miles were 15 or what towns were captured or liberated. His reports 16 the "Willie" cartoons of famed Stars and Stripes artist Bill Maulden. Boh men 17 the dirt and exhaustion of war, the 18 of civilization that the soldiers shared with each other and the civilians: coffee, tobacco, whiskey, shelter, sleep. 19 Egypt, France, and a dozen more countries, G.I. Joe was any American soldier, 20 the most important person in their lives.1.[A] served[B]perforn记d[C]rebelled[D]betrayed2.[A] actual[B]common[C]special[D]normal3.[A] loaded[B]eased[C]removed[D]bore4.[A] necessities[B]facilities[C]commodities[D]pr o p erties5.[A] and[B]nor[C]but[D]hence6.[A] for[B]into[C]fr om[D]against7.[A] im p lying[B]m e an in g[C]sy mb olizing[D]cl ai m ing8.[A] handed out[B]turned over[C]brought back[D]passed down9.[A] pushe d[B]got[C]made[D]m a na ged10.[A] ever[B]never[C]either[D]neither11.[A] disguised[B]disturbed[C]di s pu ted[D]distinguished12.[A]com p any[B]comm u nit y[C]collection[D]c olo n y13.[A] employed[B]a pp ointed[C]interviewed[D]questioned14.[A] human[B]military[C]political[D]ethical15.[A] ruined[B]commuted[C]patrolled[D]gained16.[A] paralleled[B]counteracted[C]d up li c at e d[D]contradicted17.[A] neglected[B]emphasized[C]avoided[D]admired18.[A] stages[B]illusions[C]fra gments[D]advances19.[A] With[B]To[C]Am on g[D]B eyond20.[A] on the contrary [B] by this means [ C] fr om the outset[D]at that pointSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions after each text by choosing A, B, C or D. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (40points)Text 1Homework has never been terribl y popular with students and even man y parents, but in recent y ears it has been particularl y scorned. School districts across the country, most recentl y Los An g eles Unified, are revisin g their thinkin g on this educational ritual. Unfortunatel y, L.A. Unified has produced an inflexible polic y which mandates that with the exception of some advanced courses, homework ma y no lon g er count for more than 10% of a student's academic grade.This rule is meant to address the difficulty that students from impoverished or chaotic homes mi g ht have in completin g their homework. But the polic y is unclear and contradictory. Certainl y, no homework should be assigned that students cannot complete on their own or that the y cannot do without expensive equipment. But if the district is essentiall y g ivin g a pass to students who do not do their homework because of complicated famil y lives, it is g oin g riskil y close to the implication that standards need to be lowered for poor children.D istrict administrators sa y that homework will still be a part of schoolin g; teachers are allowed to assign as much of it as the y want. But with homework countin g for no more than 10% of their grades, students can easil y skip half their homework and see very little difference on their report cards. Some students mi g ht do well on state tests without completin g their homework, but what about the students who performed well on the tests and did their homework? It is quite possible that the homework helped. Yet rather than empowerin g teachers to find what works best for their students, the polic y imposes a flat, across-the-board rule.At the same time, the polic y addresses none of the trul y thorn y questions about homework. If the district finds homework to be unimportant to its students' academic achievement, it should move to reduce or eliminate the assignments, not make them count for almost nothin g. Conversel y, if homework matters, it should account for a significant portion of the grade. Meanwhile, this polic y does nothin g to ensure that the homework students receive is meanin g ful or appropriate to their a g e and the subject, or that teachers are not assignin g more than the y are willin g to review and correct.The homework rules should be put on hold while the school board, which is responsible for settin g educational polic y, looks into the matter and conducts public hearin g s. It is not too late for L.A. Unified to do homework ri g ht.21.It is implied in Paragraph 1 that nowadays homework.[A]is receiving more criticism[B]is gaining more preferences[C]is no longer an educational ritual[D]is not required for advanced courses22.L.A. Unified has made the rule about homework mainly because poor students[A]tend to have moderate expectations for their education[B]have asked for a different educational standard[C]may have problems finishing their homework[D]have voiced their complaints about homework23.According to Paragraph 3, one problem with the policy is that it may.[A]result in students'indifference to their report cards[B]undermine the authority of state tests[C]restrict teachers'power in education[D]discourage students from doing homework24.As mentioned in Paragraph 4, a key question unanswered about homework 1swhether[A]it should be eliminated[B]it counts much in schooling[C]it places extra burdens on teachers[D]it is important for grades25. A suitable title for this text could be[A]A Faulty Approach to H omework[B]A Welcomed Policy for Poor Students[C]Thorny Questions about Homework[D]Wrong Interpretations of an Educational PolicyText2Prett y in pink: adult women do not remember being so obsessed with the colour, y et it is pervasive in our y oung girls'lives. It is not that pink is intrinsicall y bad, but it is such a tinv slice of the rainbow and, though it ma y celebrate girlhood in one wa y, it also repeatedl y and firml y fuses girls'identity to appearance. Then it presents that connection, even among two-y ear-olds, between girls as not onl y innocent but as evidence of innocence. Looking around, I despaired at the singular lack of imagination about girls'lives and interests.Girls'attraction to pink ma y seem unavoidable, somehow encoded in their D NA, but according to Jo Paoletti, an associate professor of American Studies, it is not. Children were not colour-coded at all until the earl y 20th century: in the era before domestic washing machines all babies wore white as a practical matter, since the onl y wa y of getting clothes clean was to boil them. What's more, both bo y s and girls wore what were thought of as gender-neutral dresses. When nursery colours were introduced, pink was actuall y considered the more masculine colour, a pastel version of red, which was associated with strength. Blue, with its intimations of the Virgin Mary, constanc y and faithfulness, symbolised femininit y. It was not until the mid-1980s, when amplifying age and sex differences became a dominant children's marketing strategy, that pink full y came into its own, when it began to seem inherentl y attractive to girls, part of what defined them as female, at least for the first few critical y ears.I had not realised how profoundl y marketing trends dictated our perception of what is natural to kids, including our core beliefs about their ps y chological development. Take the toddler. I assumed that phase was something experts developed after y ears of research into children's behaviour: wrong. Tums out, according to Daniel Cook, a historian of childhood consumerism, it was popularised as a marketing trick b y clothing manufacturers in the 1930s.Trade publications counselled department stores that, in order to increase sales, the y should create a "third stepping stone" between infant wear and older kids' clothes. It was onl y after "toddler" became a common shoppers'term that it evolved into a broadl y accepted developmental stage. Splitting kids, or adults, into ever-tinier categories has proved a sure-fire wa y to boost profits. And one of the easiest wa y s to segment a market is to magnify gender differences or invent them where the y did not previousl y exist.26.By saying "it is…the rainbow" (Line 3, Para. 1), the author means pink.[A]cannot explain girls'lack ofimagination[B]should not be associated with girls'innocence[C]should not be the sole representation of g irlhood[D]cannot influence girls'lives and interests27. According to Paragraph 2, which of the following is true of c olours?[A]Colours are encoded in girls'DNA.[B]Blue used to be regarded as the colour for girls.[C]White is preferred by babies.[D]Pink used to be a neutral colour in symbolising genders.28.The author suggests that our perception of children's psychological developmentwas much influenced by .[A]the observation of children's nature[B]the marketing of products for children[C]researches into children's behaviour[D]studies of childhood consumption29.We may learn from Paragraph 4 that department stores were advised t o[A]classify consumers into smaller groups[B]attach equal importance to different genders[C]focus on infant wear and older kids'clothes[D]create some common shoppers'terms30.It can be concluded that girls'attraction to pink seems to be ·[A]fully understood by clothing manufacturers[B]clearly explained by their inborn tendency[C]mainly imposed by profit-driven businessmen[D]well interpreted by psychological expertsText3In 2010, a federal judge shook America's biotech industry to its core. Companies had won patents for isolated D NA for decades—b y 2005 some 20% of human genes were patented. But in March 2010 a judge ruled that genes were unpatentable. Executives were violentl y agitated. The Biotechnology Industry Organisation (BIO), a trade group, assured members that this was just a "preliminary step" in a longer battle.On Jul y 29th the y were relieved, at least temporaril y. A federal appeals court overturned the prior decision, ruling that Myriad Genetics could indeed hold patents to two genes that help forecast a woman's risk of breast cancer. The chief executive of Myriad, a compan y in Utah, said the ruling was a blessing to firms and patients alike.But as companies continue their attempts at personalised medicine, the courts will remain rather bus y. The Myriad case itself is probabl y not over. Critics make three main arguments against gene patents: a gene is a product of nature, so it ma y not be patented; gene patents suppress innovation rather than reward it; and patents'monopolies restrict access to genetic tests such as Myriad's. A growing number seem to agree. Last y ear a federal task-force urged reform for patents related to genetic tests. In October the D epartment of Justice filed a brief in the M y riad case, arguing that an isolated DNA molecule "is no less a product of nature…than are cotton fibres that have been separated from cotton seeds."D espite the appeals court's decision, big questions remain unanswered. For example, it is unclear whether the sequencing of a whole genome violates the patents of individual genes within it. The case ma y y et reach the Supreme Court.As the industr y advances, however, other suits ma y have an even greater impact. Companies are unlikel y to file man y more patents for human DNA molecules most are alread y patented or in the public domain. Firms are now stud y ing how genes interact, looking for correlations that might be used to determine the causes of disease or predict a drug's efficac y. Companies are eager to win patents for "connecting the dots," explains Hans Sauer, a law y er for the BIO.Their success ma y be determined b y a suit related to this issue, brought b y the Ma y o Clinic, which the Supreme Court will hear in its next term. The BIO recentl y held a convention which included sessions to coach law y ers on the shifting landscape for patents. Each meeting was packed.31.It can be learned from Paragraph 1 that the biotech companies would like.[A]genes to be patentable[B]the BIO to issue a warning[C]their executives to be active[D]judges to rule out gene patenting32.Those who are against gene patents believe that.[A]genetic tests are not reliable[B]only man-made products are patentable[C]patents on genes depend much on innovation[D]courts should restrict access to genetic tests33.According to Hans Sauer, companies are eager to win patents for.[A]discovering gene interactions[B]establishing disease correlations[C]drawing pictures of g enes[D]identifying human DNA34.By saying "Each meeting was packed" (Line 4, Para. 6), the author means that[A]the supreme court was authoritative[B]the BIO was a powerful organisation[C]gene patenting was a great concern[D]lawyers were keen to attend conventions35.Generally speaking, the author's attitude toward gene patenting is.[A]critical[B]supportive[C]scornful[D]objectiveText4The great recession ma y be over, but this era of hi g h joblessness is probabl y be g innin g. Before it ends, it will likel y chan g e the life course and character of a eneration of y oun g adults. And ultimatel y, it is likel y to reshape our politics, our gculture, and the character of our society for y ears.No one tries harder than the jobless to find silver linings in this national economic disaster. Man y said that unemployment, while extremel y painful, had improved them in some wa y s: the y had become less materialistic and more financiall y prudent; the y were more aware of the stru gg les of others. In limited respects, perhaps the recession will leave society better off. At the very least, it has awoken us from our national fever dream of eas y riches and bi gg er houses, and put a necessary end to an era of reckless personal spendin g.But for the most part, these benefits seem thin, uncertain, and far off. In The Moral Consequences of Economic Growth, the economic historian Benjamin Friedman ar g ues that both inside and outside the U.S., len g th y periods of economic sta g nation or decline have almost alwa y s left societ y more meanspirited and less inclusive, and have usuall y stopped or reversed the advance of ri g hts and freedoms. Anti-immigrant sentiment typicall y increases, as does conflict between races and classes.Income inequalit y usuall y falls durin g a recession, but it has not shrunk in this one. Indeed, this period of economic weakness ma y reinforce class divides, and decrease opportunities to cross them especiall y for y oun g people. The research of Till Von Wachter, the economist at Columbia Universit y, su gg ests that not all people g raduatin g into a recession see their life chances dimmed: those with de g rees from elite universities catch up fairl y quickl y to where the y otherwise would have been if the y had graduated in better times; it is the masses beneath them that are left behind.In the Internet a g e, it is particularl y eas y to see the resentment that has alwa y s been hidden within American society. More difficult, in the moment, is discernin g precisel y how these lean times are affectin g societ y's character. In man y respects, the U.S. was more sociall y tolerant enterin g this recession than at an y time in its history, and a variety of national polls on social conflict since then have shown mixed results. We will have to wait and see exactl y how these hard times will reshape our social fabric. But the y certainl y will reshape it, and all the more so the lon g er the y extend.36.By saying "to find silver linings" (Line 1, Para. 2) the author suggests that thejobless try to .[A]seek subsidies from the government[B]make profits from the troubled economy[C]explore reasons for the unemployment[D]look on the bright side of the recession3 7. According to Paragraph 2, the recession has made people .[A]struggle against each other[B]realize the national dream[C]challenge their prudence[D]reconsider their lifestyle38.Benjamin Friedman believes that economic recessions may.[A]impose a heavier burden on immigrants[B]bring out more evils of human nature[C]promote the advance of rights and freedoms[D]ease conflicts between races and classes39.The research of Till Von Wachter suggests that in the recession graduates fromelite universities tend to[A]lag behind the others due to decreased opportunities[B]catch up quickly with experienced employees[ C]see their life chances as dimmed as the others'[D]recover more quickly than the others40.The author thinks that the influence of hard times on society is.[A]trivial[B]positive[C]certain[D]destructivePartBDirections:Read the followin g text and answer the questions b y findin g information from the left column that corresponds to each of the marked details g iven in the ri g ht column. There are two extra choices in the ri g ht column. Mark y our answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)"Universal history, the history of what man has accomplished in this world, is at bottom the History of the Great Men who have worked here," wrote the Victorian sa g e Thomas Carl y le. Well, not an y more it is not.Suddenl y, Britain looks to have fallen out with its favorite historical form. This could be no more than a passin g literary craze, but it also points to a broader truth about how we now approach the past: less concerned with learnin g from our forefathers and more interested in feelin g their pain. Toda y, we want empath y, not inspiration.From the earliest da y s of the Renaissance, the writin g of histor y meant recountin g the exemplary lives of great men. In 1337, Petrarch be g an work on his ramblin g writin g De Viris Illustribus On Famous Men, hi g hli g htin g the virtus (or virtue) of classical heroes. Petrarch celebrated their g reatness in conquerin g fortune and risin g to the top. This was the bio g raphical tradition which Niccolo Machiavelli turned on its head. In The Prince, he championed cunnin g, ruthlessness, and boldness, rather than virtue, merc y and justice, as the skills of successful leaders.Over time, the attributes of g reatness shifted. The Romantics commemorated the leadin g painters and authors of their da y, stressin g the uniqueness of the artist's personal experience rather than public g lory. B y contrast, the Victorian author Samuel Smiles wrote Self-Help as a catalo g ue of the worth y lives of en g ineers, industrialists and explorers. "The valuable examples which the y furnish of the power of self-help, of patient purpose, resolute workin g, and steadfast integrity, issuin g in the formation of trul y noble and manl y character, exhibit," wrote Smiles, "what it is in the power of each to accomplish for himself." His bio g raphies of James Watt, Richard Arkwri g ht and Josiah Wedgwood were held up as beacons to guide the workin g man throu g h his difficult life.This was all a bit bour g eois for Thomas Carl y le, who focused his bio g raphies on the trul y heroic lives of Martin Luther, Oliver Cromwell and Napoleon Bonaparte. These epochal fi g ures represented lives hard to imitate, but to be acknowled g ed as possessin g hi g her authority than mere mortals.Not everyone was convinced b y such bombast. "The history of all hitherto existin g societ y is the history of class stru gg les," wrote Marx and En g els in Th eCommunist Manif esto. For them, history did nothin g, it possessed no immense wealth nor wa g ed battles: "It is man, real, livin g man who does all that." And history should be the story of the masses and their record of stru gg le, As such, it needed to appreciate the economic realities, the social contexts and power relations in which each epoch stood. For: "Men make their own history, but the y do not make it just as the y please; the y do not make it under circumstances chosen b y themselves, but under circumstances directl y found, g iven and transmitted from the past."This was the tradition which revolutionised our appreciation of the past. In place of Thomas Carl y le, Britain nurtured Christopher Hill, EP Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm. History from below stood alon g side biographies of g reat men. Whole new realms of understandin g—from g ender to race to cultural studies—were opened up as scholars unpicked the multiplicity of lost societies. And it transformed public history too: downstairs became just as fascinatin g as upstairs.[A]emphasized the virtue of classical heroes.41.Petrarch[B]hi g hli g hted the public g lory of the leadin gartists.42.Niccolo Machiavelli[C]focused on epochal fi g ures whose lives werehard to imitate.43.Samuel Smiles[D]opened up new realms of understandin g thegreat men in history.44.Thomas Carl y le[E]held that history should be the story of themasses and their record of struggle.45.Marx and En g els[F]dismissed virtue as unnecessary for successfulleaders.[G]depicted the worth y lives of en g ineers,industrialists and explorers.Section III Translation46.Directions:Translate the followin g text from En g lish into Chinese. Write y our translation on ANSWER SHEET 2. (15 points)When people in developin g countries worry about migration, the y are usuall y concerned at the prospect of their best and bri g htest departure to Silicon Valle y or to hospitals and universities in the developed world. These are the kind of workers that countries like Britain, Canada and Australia try to attract b y usin g immigration rules that privile g e colle g e graduates.Lots of studies have found that well-educated people from developin g countries are particularl y likel y to emigrate. A bi g surve y of Indian households in 2004 found that nearl y 40% of emigrants had more than a hi g h-school education, compared with around 3.3% of all Indians over the a g e 25. This "brain drain" has lon g bothered polic y makers in poor countries. The y fear that it hurts their economies, deprivin g them of much-needed skilled workers who could have tau g ht at their universities, worked in their hospitals and come up with clever new products for their factories to make.Section IV WritingPart A47.Directions:Suppose you have found something wrong with the electronic dictionary that you bought from an online store the other day. Write an email to the customer service center to1)make a complaint, and2)demand a prompt solution.You should write about 100 words on ANSWER SHEET 2.Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use "Zhang Wei" instead.Do not write the address. (10 points)Part B48.Directions:Write an essay based on the following table. In your writing, you should1)describe the table, and2)give your comments.You should write at least 150 words.Write your essay on ANSWER SHEET 2. (15 points)某公司员工工作满意度调查二满意不清楚不满意:::;40岁16.7% 50.0% 33.3%41�50岁0.0% 36.0% 64.0%>50岁40.0% 50.0% 10.0%2012年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语（二）试题Section I: Use of English (10 points)1 - 5: ABDAC6 - 10: DBACB11-15: DCCAD16-20: A BCBDSection II: Reading Comprehension (50 points)21-25: ACDBA26-30: CBBAC31-35: ABACD36-40: DDBDC41-45: AFGCESection III :Translation (15 Points)当发展中国家的人们担心移民问题时，他们通常会考虑前往硅谷或发达国家的医院和大学最美好、最光明的前景。

EdexcelGCSE2012Chinese（Mandarin）

Editable scheme of workWe are happy to provide this scheme of work for you to amend and adaptto suit your teaching purposes.We hope you findthis useful.Edexcel GCSE 2012 Chinese (Mandarin)Practical support to help you deliver this Edexcel specificationScheme of workThis scheme of work has been produced to help you implement this Edexcel specification. It is offered as an example of one possible model that you should feel free to adapt to meet your needs and is not intended to be in any way prescriptive. It is in editable Word format to make adaptation as easy as possible.Teaching resource exemplarsThe scheme of work contains suggestions for resources or textbooks that you can use to support your teaching. These are suggestions only of material you may find useful and you are encouraged to use a wide range of resources that suit the needs of your students.Other Edexcel teaching resourcesPearson Education have published teaching resources that support the Edexcel in Chinese (Mandarin) specification that include:∙ a Student book — a full colour textbook∙ a Teacher’s Guide – with detailed teaching notes that support the Student Book∙an Audio CD Pack – which contains audio for the listening exercises in the Student Book∙an Assessment Pack – reading and listening tests in the style of the examination and writing and speaking controlled assessment tasks for you to use or adapt, along with a clear marking scheme.These resources have been written by a team of authors from the SSAT (Specialist Schools and Academies Trust) Confucius Insti tute. You’ll find details of all of these at /gcse2009— please look under Chinese/resources.Edexcel subject advisorsEdexcel has a team of specialist subject advisors available to help you with implementation of this specification. You can contact them by email or phone. Email: *****************************************.ukPhone: ***********Edexcel GCSE in Chinese specification Edexcel scheme of workYear 113393sb270410S:\LT\PD\SCHEME OF WORK (PHASE 2)\CHINESE MANDARIN SOW.DOC.1-18/0This grid is for you to create your own scheme of work if needed.。

2012年英语专业四级考试真题及答案

2012年英语专业四级考试真题PART I DICTATION [15 MIN]Listen to the following passage．Altogether the passage will be read to you four times．During the first reading, which will be done at normal speed, listen and try to understand the meaning．For the second and third readings，the passage will be read sentence by sentence, or phrase by phrase，with intervals of 15 seconds．The last reading will be done at normal speed again and during this time you should check your work．You will then be given 2 minutes to check through your work once more．Please write the whole passage on ANSWER SHEET ONE．PART II LISTENING COMPREHENSION [20 MIN]In Sections A,B and C you will hear everything ONCE ONLY. Listen carefully and thenanswer the questions that follow．Mark the best answer to each question on Answer Sheet Two．SECTION A CONVERSATIONSIn this section you will hear several conversations．Listen to the conversations carefully and then answer the questions that follow．Questions l to 3 are based on the following conversation．At the end of the conversation, you will be given 15 seconds to answer the questions．Now, listen to the conversation.l．The Ethical Consumer Research Association will provide information to shoppers onA．product price．B．product quality．C．manufacturers．D．production methods．2．According to the conversation，an ethical shopper shouldA．ask for others?advice before buying things．B．consider the worth of something to be bought．C．postpone buying things whenever possible．D．search for things that are less costly．3．According to the conversation，ethical shoppers can be best described asA．shrewd．B．thrifty．C．extravagant．D．cautious．Questions 4 to 7 are based on the following conversation．At the end of the conversation，you will be given 20 seconds to answer the questions．Now,listen to the conversation．4．Which of the following statements is CORRECT about Mary?A．She is enjoying her language study．B．She is enjoying her management study．C．She is not feeling very well at the moment．D．She is not happy about her study pressure．5．What does Mary think of the course initially?A．It is useful．B．It is difficult．C．It is challenging．D．It is interesting．6．What is Mary?s problem of living in a family house?A．She dislikes the food she eats．B．She is unable to sleep well．C．She has no chance to make friends．D．She finds the rent high．7．Which of the following is Mr．Davies?advice?A．To tryto make more friends．B．To try to change accommodation．C．To spend more time on English．D．To stop attending language classes．Questions 8 to 10 are based on the following conversation．At the end of the conversation，you will be given 15 seconds to answer the questions．Now,listen to the conversation．8．According to the conversation，the day is special becauseA．many people are surfing the net on that day．B．it is an anniversary of the internet．C．the net brought about no changes until that day．D．big changes will take place on that day．9．We learn from the conversation that peopleA．cannot Jive without the internet．B．cannot work without the internet．C．all use the internet to keep in touch．D．have varied opinions about internet use．10．At the end of the conversation．the speakers talk aboutA．the future of the internet．B．the type of office furniture．C．when changes will come．D．how people will use the internet．SECTION B PASSAGESIn this section，you will hear several passages．Listen to the passages carefully and then answer the questions that follow．Questions 11 to 13 are based on the following passage．At the end of the passage, you will be given 15 seconds to answer the questions．Now, listen to the passage．11．In order to open a bank account，you need to produce____in addition to your passport．A．a library card B．a registration formC．a telephone bill D．a receipt12．Which of the following might NOT be included in the,utility bill??A．Rent．B．Gas．C．Water．D．Telephone．13．According to the passage，what can one do in the post office?A．Getting contact details．B．Obtaining tax forms．C．Paying housing rents．D．Applying for loans．Questions 14 to 17 are based on the following passage．At the end of the passage, you will be given 20 seconds to answer the questions．Now, listen to the passage．14．According to the passage，,scheduling?means that youA．need to be efficient in work．B．plan your work properly．C．try to finish work ahead of time．D．know how to work in teams．15．According to the passage, one of the activities to relax could beA．protecting wild animals．B．spending time with your family．C．learning how to read efficiently．D．learning how to do gardening．16．One of the ways to reduce stress is toA．do better than anyone else．B．fulfill high ambitions in one's work．C．work and have reasonable aims．D．start with a relatively low aim．17．According to the passage，to reduce stress has something to do with the following EXCEPTA．one's position．B．one's interest．C．one's health．D．one's mood．Questions 18 to 20 are based on the following passage．At the end of the passage, you will be given 15 seconds to answer the questions．Now, listen to the passage．18．According to the passage，new words tend to come fromA．world politics．B．advances in science．C．areas of life．D．all the above．19．The passage explains the larger and richer vocabulary of English mainly from a viewpoint．A．historical B．culturalC．commercial D．colonial20．According to the passage，which of the following statements best describes the English language?A．It is outdated in grammar．B．It accepts new words from science．C．It has begun taking in new words．D．It tends to embrace new words.SECTION C NEWS BROADCASTIn this section，you will hear several news items．Listen to them carefully and then answer the questions that follow．Questions 21 and 22 are based OH the following news．At the end of the news item，you will be given 10 seconds to answer the questions．Now listen to the news．21．Where was the marble statue found?A．Out in the sea．B．Inside a bath house．C．On a cliff along the coast．D．On the coast outside Jerusalem．22．Which of the following best describes the condition of the statue?A．It was incomplete．B．It was recent artwork．C．It was fairly tall．D．It was in pieces．Questions 23 and 24 are based on the following news．At the end of the news item．you will be given 10 seconds to answer the questions．Now, listen to the news．23．The rescue efforts concentrated mainly onA．the U．S．-Canada border B．snow-stricken regions．C．highways．D．city streets．24．According to the news，the last group of people might have been stranded in their vehiclesfor more than ____ hours before being rescued．A．24 B．25 C．40 D．48Questions 25 and 26 are based on the following news．At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer the questions．Now, listen to the news．25．According to the 2006 anti-smoking restrictions，smoking was NOT allowed inA．offices．B．restaurants．C．bars．D．school playgrounds．26．According to the news，which of the following groups reacts negatively to the new law?A．Television producers．B．Hotel owners．C．Medical workers．D．Hospital management．Questions 27 and 28 are based on the following news．At the end of the news item，you will be given 10 seconds to answer the questions．Now, listen to the news．27．According to the news，who first discovered the fraud?A．A client．B．A bank manager．C．The police．D．Bank headquarters．28．When did the bank employee hand himself in?A．A month before the fraud was discovered．B．A day before the fraud was discovered．C．A day after the police launched investigation．D．A month after he transferred the money．Question 29 is based on the following news．At the end of the news item, you will be given 5 seconds to answer the question．Now, listen to the news．29．What is this news item mainly about?A．How to open Hotmail accounts．B．How to retrieve missing e-mails．C．New e-mail service by Microsoft．D．Problems and complaints about e-mails．Question30 is based on the following news．At the end of the news item, you will be given 5 seconds to answer the question．Now, listen to the news．30．Compared with 2009，which of the following figures remained about the same in 2010?A．Number of tickets sold．B．Box office revenues．C．Attendance rate． D Number of cinemasPART III CLOZE 【15 MIN】Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage if inserted in the corresponding blanks．Mark the best choice for each blank on Answer Sheet Two．The earthquake of 26th December 2004 resulted in one of the worst natural disasters in living memory．It was a (31) _____ underwater quake and occurred in the Indian Ocean．It (32) ____ coastlines，communities and brought death to many people．Why do earthquakes happen?The surface of the earth has not always looked as it does today；it is moving(33)____ (although very slowly)and has done so for billions of years．This is one(34)____ of earthquakes，when one section of the earth (tectonic plate)(35)____ another．Scientists can predict where but not(36)____ this might happen and the area between plates is called a fault line．On one fault line in Kobe，Japan in 1923 over 200,000 people were killed．(37)____，earthquakes do not alwayshappen on fault lines，(38)____ is why they are so dangerous and (39)____．Where do volcanoes happen?Volcanoes happen where the earth's(40)____ is thin：lava，dust and gases(41)____ from beneath the earth．They can rise into a huge cone shape like a mountain and erupt，(42)____ they can be so violent(43)____ they just explode directly from the earth with no warning．There are 1511(44)'____' volcanoes in the world．This means that they may(45)____ be dangerous．In 1985 the Colombian volcano Nevado del Ruiz erupted．The lava melted a glacier and sent tones ofmud(46)____ the town below．Twenty thousand people died．Natural disasters like volcanic eruptions are often unpredictable．We regularly do not know when they(47)____ pen，or (48)____ where they will happen．In the future，scientists may be able to watch and predict(49)____ before they happen．This could(50)____ many lives．31．A．massive B．significant C．great D．grand32．A．changed B．converted C．destroyed D．transformed33．A．frequently B．continuously C．regularly D．periodically34．A．source B．reason C．movement D．cause35．A．collides with B．confronts with C．meets with D．faces with36．A．how B．why C．when D．what37．A．Generally B．However C．Similarly D．Anyway38．A．that B．it C．this D．which39．A．unpredictable B．unaccountable C．inevitable D．irresistible40．A．surface B．appearance C．crust D．cover41．A．flowed out B．burst out C．1eaked out D．trickled out42．A．or B．and C．nor D．but43．A．like B．for C．as D．that44．A．living B．active C．alive D．live45．A．relatively B．hardly C．still D．gradually46．A．down B．on C．across D．beyond47．A．are to B．should C．must D．might48．A．else B．even C．though D．whether49．A．accidents B．incidents C．occasions D．events50．A．rescue B．save C．preserve D．shelterPART IV GRAMMAR ＆VOCABULARY 【15 MIN】There are thirty sentences in this section．Beneath each sentence there are four words, phrases or statements marked A，B, C and D．Choose one word, phrase or statement that best completes the sentence．Mark your answers on Answer Sheet Two．51．Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?A．Twenty miles seems like a long walk to him．B．No one except his supporters agree with him．C．Neither Julia nor I were going to the party．D．Few students in my class are really lazy．52．Which of the following determiners(限定词)can be placed before both singular count nouns and plural count nouns?A．many a B．few C．such D．the next53．Which of the following reflexive pronouns(反身代词)is used as an appositive(同位语)?A，He promised himself rapid progress．B．The manager herself will interview Mary．C．I have nothing to say for myself．D．They quarreled themselves red in the face．54．My boss ordered that the legal documents ____ to him before lunch．A．be sent B．were sent C．were to be sent D．must be sent55．Which of the following sentences expresses WILLINGNESS?A．By now she will be eating dinner．B．I shall never do that again．C．My brother will help you with the luggage．D．You shall get a promotion．56．Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT? A．How strange feelings they are!B．How dare you speak to me like that!C．What noise they are making!D. What a mess we are in!57．which of the italicized parts functions as a subject?A．We never doubt that her brother is honest．B．The problem is not who will go but who will stay．C．You must give it back to whoever it belongs to。