Conjunctive representations in learning and memory Principles of cortical and hippocampal f
教育游戏化:将课堂变成一场协同冒险游戏——以Classcraft为例
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PUBLISHING REFERENCE
海外市场
“对战”形式完成教学评测。学生按时完成任务可 以获得奖励，并用来升级角色的经验值（Experience Points，XP）——这将使其角色提高战斗水平并学 习新的技能。如果一个学生违反了课堂纪律，就会 失去生命值，甚至最终导致角色在“对战”中失败。 如果学生获得经验值点数，对相应角色及其团队都 有益处；相反，如果一个学生失去了生命值点数， 其团队的其他成员角色也会受到伤害，并且大家必 须完成各种额外任务。无论如何，学生们需要共同 努力才能使团队获得成功。一般而言，没有学生愿 意自己的不当行为损害团队利益，导致他人失败。 游戏团队中，学生还可以帮助彼此成长。例如，如 果学生的虚拟角色是一名战士，而队友因为上课迟 到面临生命值点数降低，则该学生可以通过完成额 外的学习任务来挽救队友。学生知道他们在课堂上 的行为会影响整个团队的进度、这会激励他们强化 课堂上的积极行为和团队合作，提升课堂学习效率。 Classcraft 每个月都会发布新的故事情节和场景供教 育工作者选择，帮助提升学生的课堂参与感 [19]。除 了在预制故事中添加课程任务外，Classcraft 还允许 教师自己编写课程，通过上传不同的学习任务来教 授不同的科目。根据在课堂活动中收集的数据，教 师还可以查看学生的行为并进行分析。
是以游戏软件为基础的学习，教育游戏（Educational Games）的设
计与开发是当前研究的主流方向。教育游戏模糊了学习与游戏、正式 学习与非正式学习的边界 [13]；但是有别于教育游戏的软件性质（见表
1），教育游戏化是一套解决方案，服务于教育情境中的各类问题，
如激发学习者动机和兴趣、引导学习者面对学业失败、激发其学校生
研究表明，随着游戏在当代文化中的地位日益 提高，其在教育中能够扮演的角色也越来越多样化。 Classcraft 作为受到游戏启发开发的教育解决方案， 它对于学习的积极作用和游戏非常相似。
09第九讲 联言、选言命题及其推理
＊＊（2004年B类）81. 甲、乙、丙、丁四人的 血型各不相同，甲说：“我是A型。”乙说： “我是O型。”丙说：“我是AB型。”丁说： “我不是AB型。”四个人中只有一个人的话 是假的。 以下哪项成立? ( ) A. 无论谁说假话，都能推出四个人的血型情况。 B. 乙的话假，可推出四个人的血型情况。 C. 丙的话假，可推出四个人的血型情况。 D. 丁的话假，可推出四个人的血型情况。 【答案】B
1）张小平或者犯杀人罪，或者犯抢劫罪； 张小平没有犯杀人罪； 所以张小平犯抢劫罪。 *2）张小平或者犯杀人罪，或者犯抢劫罪； 张小平犯杀人罪； 所以张小平没有犯抢劫罪。 3）克林顿是美国总统， 所以克林顿或者是美国总统，或者是美 国国务卿。 ******
4）鱼，我所欲也，熊掌亦我所欲也；二者不 可得兼，舍鱼而取熊掌者也。生亦我所欲 也，义亦我所欲也，二者不可得兼，舍生 而取义者也。（孟子《告子章句上》） 或者要鱼，或者要熊掌，二者不可得兼； 不要鱼， 所以要熊掌。 5）要么为玉碎，要么为瓦全； 宁为玉碎， 所以，不为瓦全。 ******
1、定义：断定事物若干种可能情况（至少有 一种存在）的命题。相容与不相容 2、构成：选言肢(disjuncts)，联结词。 3、相容选言命题：（ inclusive disjunction） 1） 常用联结词：或者，可能…也可能，或许， 也许。 2） 逻辑形式：p或者q p∨q(析取式) 3）逻辑性质：当且仅当选言肢都假，相容选言 命题假。 选言肢不可同假(选言)，可以同真(相容)。 ******
• the truth value of the compound proposition is completely determined by the truth values of its components. • A truth table is an arrangement of truth values that shows in every possible case how the truth value of a compound proposition is determined by the truth values of its simple components. • ******
The Importance of Self-Reflection in Learning
The Importance of Self-Reflection in Learning Self-reflection is an essential element in the learning process. It involves taking a step back from the learning experience and analyzing one's thoughts, feelings, and actions. Self-reflection allows learners to understand their strengths and weaknesses, identify areas for improvement, and set goals for future learning. In this essay, I will discuss the importance of self-reflection in learning from multiple perspectives.From a cognitive perspective, self-reflection enhances learning by engaging learners in metacognition. Metacognition is the process of thinking about one's own thinking. When learners engage in self-reflection, they are actively thinking about their learning process, which allows them to identify what they understand and what they don't understand. This awareness helps learners to identify their strengths and weaknesses, which in turn helps them to set appropriate learning goals. By setting goals, learners can focus their efforts on areas that require improvement, which leads to better learning outcomes.From an emotional perspective, self-reflection helps learners to develop a sense of self-awareness. Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand one's own emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. When learners engage in self-reflection, they are better able to recognize their emotional responses to different learning situations. This awareness helps learners to regulate their emotions, which in turn helps them to stay focused and engaged in the learning process. By being aware of their emotions, learners can also develop empathy for others, which is an important social skill.From a social perspective, self-reflection helps learners to develop their communication skills. Communication is a vital skill in today's world, and self-reflection can help learners to become better communicators. When learners engage in self-reflection, they are better able to understand their own communication style, which in turn helps them to communicate more effectively with others. By understanding their own communication style, learners can also become more aware of the communication styles of others, which is an important skill in building relationships.From a cultural perspective, self-reflection helps learners to become more culturally aware. Cultural awareness is the ability to recognize and understand different cultural perspectives. When learners engage in self-reflection, they are better able to understand their own cultural biases and assumptions, which in turn helps them to recognize and appreciate different cultural perspectives. By being culturally aware, learners can become more effective communicators and collaborators in multicultural settings.From a professional perspective, self-reflection helps learners to develop their professional skills. Professional skills are the skills that are required to succeed in the workplace. When learners engage in self-reflection, they are better able to identify their professional strengths and weaknesses, which in turn helps them to develop the skills that are required to succeed in their chosen profession. By developing their professional skills, learners can become more effective employees and leaders.In conclusion, self-reflection is an essential element in the learning process. It enhances learning by engaging learners in metacognition, helps learners to develop a sense of self-awareness, improves communication skills, promotes cultural awareness, and develops professional skills. As learners engage in self-reflection, they become more effective learners, communicators, collaborators, and leaders. Therefore, it is essential for learners to engage in self-reflection as part of their learning journey.。
Results of a Study using the Motivation Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) in an Introduct
Results of a Study using the Motivation Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) in an Introductory Engineering Graphics CourseAaron C. Clark1 Jeremy V. Ernst2 Alice Y. Scales3Abstract – This paper will present data related to a study conducted at NC State University in the spring of 2008 that focused on student motivation in an introductory graphics course. This study conducted a motivation and learning assessment using the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) Attitude Survey. The motivational portion of MSLQ focuses on six areas associated with student learning and motivation. These areas were intrinsic goal orientation, extrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy learning performance, and test anxiety. Findings from the study included the identification of enduring motivational factors for learning graphics education. Insights into the strategic learning process of students in a graphics education course will be discussed. Also, areas of concern for future pedagogical development and course improvement will be highlighted.Keywords: MSLQ, Introductory Graphics Course,I NTRODUCTIONMany motivational processes are responsive to individual properties associated with tasks, the classroom, or the context within student engagement [Wolters & Pintrich, 11]. Literature on student motivation identifies many beliefs and constructs, but control, competence, and self-regulated strategic learning remain chief among them [Shell & Husman, 9]. Internal pressures also serve as strong motivators in adult learners [Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 4, pp. 64-66]. An attitude of self-determination resides at the nucleus of intrinsic motivation [Johari & Bradshaw, 5]. This self-determined attitude is primarily a result of feeling competent and/or independent. In adults, feelings of intellectual competence can be highly motivational when paired with internal pressures that serve as a driving force. Self-determination theory research has placed a large amount of attention on, not only intrinsic motivation, but also extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation refers to “engaging in an activity to obtain an outcome separable from the activity itself” [Vansteenkiste, Timmermans, Lens, Soenens, & Van den Broeck, 10, pp. 388]. A study conducted by Bye, Pushkar, & Conway [2] at Concordia University identifies intrinsic motivation as a predictor of positive classroom effect, while self-improvement and personal growth were found to be highly valued in comparison with extrinsic goals, further distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.1 NC State University, Box 7801, Raleigh, NC 27695-7801, aaron_clark@2 NC State University, Box 7801, Raleigh, NC 27695-7801, jeremy_ernst@3 NC State University, Box 7801, Raleigh, NC 27695-7801, alice_scales@Student motivation possesses a value component involving students’ goals and beliefs about the importance of a task or their personal interest in an application. Motivational value has been conceptualized through various approaches (e.g., learning vs. performance goals, intrinsic vs. extrinsic orientation, task value, and intrinsic interest); this motivational component effectively concerns students' motives for the completion of a task [Pintrich & De Groot, 8]. Beyond beliefs pertaining to importance and interest is self-efficacy. Students’ perceived self-efficacy might influence the process by which he or she selects activities to participate in or complete. There are many circumstances where students assume and perform activities they deem themselves capable of successfully completing and avoid those they believe exceed their ability [Yang, 12]. This paper will examine the results of a study conducted at North Carolina State University that looked at the type of motivation exhibited by students taking an introductory engineering class.M OTIVATED S TRATEGIES FOR L EARNING Q UESTIONNAIRET he Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) is an instrument designed to evaluate “college students’ motivational orientation and use of different learning strategies for a college course” [Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, and McKeachie, 8]. The broad cognitive analysis of motivation and learning strategy, paired with the social cognitive view of motivation and self-regulated learning, serves as the foundation of MSLQ. The MSLQ consists of two major sections: a motivation section and a learning strategies section. The motivation segment has 31 items that evaluate students’ goals and value beliefs, students’ beliefs about skills necessary to succeed, and test anxiety associated with a specific course [Duncan & McKeachie, 3]. Duncan & McKeachie further differentiate the learning strategy section of the MSLQ as identifying students’ use of different cognitiv e and metacognitive strategies as well as student management of resources. The motivation section and the learning strategies section of the MSLQ include 81 items. Each item is rated using a 7-point Likert-type scale. The rating scale ranges from one (not at all true of me) to seven (very true of me).Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie [8] describe the motivation scales of the MSLQ as vehicles to acquire information associated with value, expectancy, and affect. Value assists in exploring intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation, expectancy targets beliefs about learning and self-efficacy, and affect gauges test anxiety. Learning strategies investigated through the motivation scales are drawn from a broad compilation of cognitive research representing cognitive processing and its affect on student learning [Lynch, 6].Numerous MSLQ studies have been conducted that present evidence of internal consistency, reliability, and predictive validity of the instrument [Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 8; Artino, 1; Duncan & McKeachie, 3]. The MSLQ represents a method to accurately and holistically gage student motivation and self-regulated learning grounded by a theoretical basis. The MSLQ allows student learning researchers to move beyond traditional examinations of individual differences in learning styles to gain insight into the motivation and learning specifically occurring in a targeted college course. In this investigation, an introductory engineering graphics course wasselected to investigate intrinsic goal orientation, extrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy learning performance, and test anxiety with the MSLQ Attitude Survey.M ETHODOLOGYThis targeted investigation utilized the results of 31 motivational questions MSLQ Attitude Survey to examine six proposed null hypotheses concerning motivation and satisfaction of student learning. These null hypotheses were: 1) Ho: Student intrinsic goal orientation elements are independent components of motivation and learning. 2) Ho: Student extrinsic goal orientation elements are independent components of motivation and learning. 3) Ho: Student task value elements are independent components of motivation and learning. 4) Ho: Student controls of learning beliefs are independent components of motivation and learning. 5) Ho: Student self-efficacy and learning performance elements are independent components of motivation and learning. 6) Ho: Student test anxiety elements are independent components of motivation and learning.These hypotheses guided the motivation and learning investigation utilizing the MSLQ Attitude Survey as the means for data acquisition. Specifically, the six hypotheses structure the investigation to identify enduring motivational factors for learning graphics in the introductory engineering graphics course at NC State University.To better gauge indicators of student attitude and motivation, the MSLQ data analysis was shortened. As prescribed by Matthews [7] to solely measure motivation concerning goal orientation, extrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy learning performance, and test anxiety, the MSLQ analysis was limited to 31 questions specifically targeted to student motivation. Additionally, Matthews identified the MSLQ item equivalent subsets to provide a targeted analysis of the six focal areas associated with student learning and motivation.In the 10th week of the 2008 spring semester the course instructors administered the MSLQ instrument to student participants in the introductory engineering graphics course. The questionnaire took the participants approximately 15 minutes to complete. One hundred and sixty one students in seven separate sections of GC 120 (Foundations of Graphics) completed and returned the instrument. One of the 161 participants failed to complete items 24 and 29 of the targeted subgroup analysis, but the researchers decided to include this questionnaire in the completed group. The researchers gathered the completed instruments from the course instructors, entered the MSLQ data, tabulated the questionnaire results, analyzed the target items, and formed conclusions based on the six identified student learning and motivation areas.R ESULTSThe proposed hypotheses were evaluated using a one-sample calculation of variance. The test of independence tabulates MSLQ instrument items in their designated categories and computes a chi-square value. This procedure uses the critical value to evaluate the proportional value derived from the Chi-Square table. A significant p-value foran item in a category demonstrates that it is independent of the other items and, therefore, has no relationship to the other items in its category or the category itself.The identified MSLQ item equivalents to investigate intrinsic goal orientation were 1, 16, 22, and 24 (See Table 1). Within the item equivalents that measured intrinsic goal orientation, item 16 had the highest average, while item 24 had the lowest. As a group, the intrinsic goal orientation items averaged 4.68 on the seven-point scale. The sampling variance, reported in the data summations, was due to a statistical fluctuation in the responses on intrinsic goal orientation sub grouped items identified in the six student learning and motivation areas. Additionally, evaluation of the chi-square statistic and the proportional value associated with each item identified all four MSLQ items within their student learning and motivation area as significantly different from one another, given the predetermined alpha level of significance (0.05). Items 1, 16, 22, and 24 all had p-values smaller than 0.05, therefore the null hypothesis that intrinsic goal orientation elements are independent components of motivation and learning could not be rejected because there is evidence that the questions were independent of the category and each other by virtue of their significant p-values.Table 1. MSLQ Intrinsic Goal OrientationThe identified item equivalents to investigate extrinsic goal orientation were MSLQ items 7, 11, 13, and 30 (See Table 2). Within the item equivalents of extrinsic goal orientation, item 13 had the highest average, while item 30 had the lowest. As a group, the extrinsic goal orientation items averaged 5.35 on the seven-point scale. Additionally, reporting and evaluation of the chi-square statistic and the proportional value associated with each item identified three of the four items were significantly different from one another. Item 13 was found not to significantly differ within the subgroup. Items 7, 11, and 30 all had a p-value smaller than 0.05, therefore, the null hypothesis that statedthat extrinsic goal orientation elements are independent components of motivation and learning also failed to be rejected.Table 2. MSLQ Extrinsic Goal OrientationThe identified item equivalents to investigate task value were MSLQ items 4, 10, 17, 23, 26, and 27 (See Table 3). Within the item equivalents for task value, the six items provide participant averages relatively close to one another. As a group, the task value items averaged a 5.16 on the seven-point scale. The sampling variance again was due to a statistical fluctuation in participant responses on the task value sub grouped items. Likewise, reporting and evaluation of the chi-square statistic and the proportional value associated with each item identified all six of the MSLQ items within their student learning and motivation area as significantly different from each other. The p-values for items 4, 10, 17, 23, 26, and 27 were all lower than the established cut-off value of 0.05, therefore, the null hypothesis that stated that task value elements are independent components of motivation and learning could not be rejected.Table 3. MSLQ Task ValueThe identified item equivalents that examined control of learning beliefs were MSLQ items 2, 9, 18, and 25 (See Table 4). Within the item equivalents of control of learning beliefs, item 18 had the highest average while item 25 had the lowest. As a group, the control of learning beliefs items averaged 5.62. The sampling variance was due to the variation in the participants’ responses on control of learning beliefs sub grouped items identified within the six student learning and motivation areas. The reporting and evaluation of the chi-square statistic, and the proportional value associated with each item, identified three of the four MSLQ items within their student learning and motivation area as significantly different from one another, given the predetermined alpha level of significance (0.05). Item 18 was found not to differ within the response subgroup. Items 2, 9, and 25 had a p-value lower than the critical value of 0.05, therefore, again the results failed to reject the null hypothesis that control of learning beliefs is an independent component of motivation and learning.Table 4. MSLQ Control of Learning BeliefsThe identified item equivalents to investigate self-efficacy learning performance are MSLQ items 5, 6, 12, 15, 20, 21, 29 and 31 (See Table 5). Within the item equivalents of self-efficacy learning performance, the eight items present participant averages relatively close to one another. As a group, the self-efficacy learning performance items averaged a 5.47 on a seven-point scale. The sampling variance again is due to the statistical fluctuation in participant response on this sub group of items. Additionally, the evaluation of the chi-square statistic and the proportional value associated with each item identified six of the eight MSLQ items within their student learning and motivation area as significantly differing from one another based on the predetermined alpha level of significance (0.05). Items 20 and 21 were found not to significantly differ within the response subgroup; however, items 5, 6, 12, 15, 29 and 31 were lower than the critical p-value set at 0.05; therefore, it was not possible to reject the null hypothesis that self-efficacy and learning performance are independent components of motivation and learning.Table 5. MSLQ Self-Efficacy Learning PerformanceThe identified item equivalents to investigate test anxiety are MSLQ items 3, 8, 14, 19, and 28 (See Table 6). Within the items used to examine test anxiety, item 14 had the highest average while item 3 had the lowest. As a group, the task value items averaged 3.74 on the seven-point scale. The sampling variance was again due to the fluctuation in participants’ responses. Evaluation of t he chi-square statistic and the proportional value associated with each item indicated that all five of the MSLQ items significantly differed from each other and were smaller than the predetermined value for significance. Since items 3, 8, 14, 19, and 28 were not found to be significant, the null hypothesis that test anxiety is an independent component of motivation and learning failed to be rejected.Table 6. MSLQ Test AnxietyC ONCLUSIONSItem 13 (“If I can, I want to get better grades in this class than most of the other students”); in the Extrinsic Goal Orientation subgroup, item 18 (“If I try hard enough, then I will understand the course materials”); in the Control of Learning Beliefs subgroup, item 20 (“I’m confident I can do an excellent job on the assignments and test in this course”) and item 21 (“I expect to do well in this class”) of the Self-Efficacy Learning Performance subgroup were identified by the study as continuing motivational and learning factors for learning engineering graphics in the introductory engineering graphics course at NC State University. Considering the fact that these statements “standout” among the others and that each in some way is associated with the level of understanding and the grade they wish to receive in class, grades are still a good motivation factor to consider with these participants. The ability to do well and see relevance in what is being taugh t is also paramount to a student’s motivation in a course, like a fundamentals of engineering graphics. From the data collected for this study, it can be observed that grades, relevance of content, and understanding subject matter are the main factors tha t affect students’ motivation. Based on these findings, more research in areas of strategic learning of students in engineering graphics courses as it relates to their abilities to be self-motivated needs to be conducted, particularly as the structure and delivery methods of engineering graphics courses are rapidly changing. Also, considering the change and growth of new areas and concepts in the engineering graphics profession, how can we utilize contemporary methods to increase student motivation? Again, more investigation is needed in this area of student motivation as the profession works to educate future professionals that use graphics for the 21st century.R EFERENCES[1] Artino, A.R. (2005). Review of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire, ERIC documentsED499083.[2] Bye, D., Pushkar, D. & Conway, M. (2007). Motivation, interest and positive affect in traditional andnontraditional undergraduates. Adult Education Quarterly, 60, # 9, PP1275-1288.[3] Duncan, T.G. & McKeachie, W.J. (2005). The making of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire.Educational Psychologist. 40(2), 117-128.[4] Knowles, M., Holton, E., & Swanson, R. (1998). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education andhuman resource development. Burlington, MA: Gulf Professional Publishing.[5] Johari, A. & Bradshaw, A.C. (2006). Project-based learning in an internship program: A qualitative study ofrelated roles and their motivational attributes. ETR&D.[6] Lynch, D.J. (2006). Motivational factors, learning strategies and resource management as predictors of coursegrades. College Student Journal.40(2), 423-428.[7] Matthews, B. (2004). The effects of direct and problem-based learning instruction in an undergraduateintroductory engineering graphics course. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.[8] Pintrich, P.R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. InternationalJournal of Educational Research. 31(6), 459-470.[9] Shell, D. F., Husman, J. (May, 2008). Control, motivation, affect, and strategic self-regulation in the collegeclassroom: A multidimensional phenomenon. Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol 100(2), 443-459.[10] Vansteenkiste, M., Timmermans, T., Lens, W., Soenens, B., Van den Broeck, A. (May, 2008). Does extrinsicgoal framing enhance extrinsic goal-oriented individuals' learning and performance? An experimental test of the match perspective versus self-determination theory. Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol 100(2), 387-397.[11] Wolters, C.A. & Pintrich, P.R. (1999). Contextual differences in student motivation and self-regulated learningin mathematics, English, and social studies classrooms. Instructional Science, 26: 27-47.[12] Yang, N.D. (1999). The relationship between EFL learners' beliefs and learning strategy use. System. 27(4), 515-535.Aaron C. ClarkAaron C. Clark is an Associate Professor of Graphic Communications and Technology Education at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, North Carolina. He received his B.S. and M.S. in Technology and Technology Education and earned his doctoral degree in Technology Education. His teaching specialties are in visual theory, 3-D modeling, gaming, and technical animation. Research areas include graphics education, leadership, andscientific/technical visualization. He presents and publishes in both technical/technology education and engineering education. He is currently a Co-PI on grants related to visualization and education and has started new research in areas related to STEM integration and gaming.Jeremy V. ErnstJeremy V. Ernst is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education at North Carolina State University. He currently teaches a variety of courses and supervises student teachers in the Technology Education Program. Jeremy specializes in research involving instruction, learning, and visualization for university students, students with disabilities and other at-risk populations in Career and Technical Education. He also has curriculum research and development experiences in technology, trade and industrial education.Alice Y. ScalesAlice Y. Scales is an Assistant Professor and the Assistant Department Head of the Department of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education at North Carolina State University. She has taught at NC State University since 1988. She has a B.S. in Science Education, a M.Ed. in Industrial Arts Education, and an Ed.D. in Occupational Education. She currently teaches courses in desktop publishing, website development, and introductory engineering graphics.2009 ASEE Southeast Section Conference。
大学进阶英语教材2笔记
大学进阶英语教材2笔记Unit 1: Academic Writing SkillsIn this unit, we learned essential academic writing skills that are necessary for university-level English. One of the key elements we discussed was the importance of formulating a clear thesis statement and structuring our essays effectively. By using appropriate transitions and organizing our ideas logically, we can ensure that our essays flow smoothly and are easy to follow. Additionally, we explored various types of academic writing, including argumentative essays, literature reviews, and research papers.Unit 2: Critical Thinking and AnalysisCritical thinking plays a significant role in academic success, and this unit reinforced its importance. We examined different techniques for critically analyzing texts, such as identifying biases, evaluating evidence, and recognizing fallacies in arguments. By developing our critical thinking skills, we are better equipped to engage with academic materials and contribute to meaningful discussions in the classroom.Unit 3: Advanced Grammar and VocabularyUnit 3 focused on advancing our understanding of English grammar and expanding our vocabulary. We delved into complex sentence structures, including compound-complex sentences and reduced relative clauses. Moreover, we explored strategies for acquiring new vocabulary, such as using context clues, memorization techniques, and extensive reading. By improving our grammar and vocabulary, we can express ourselves more precisely and effectively in both spoken and written English.Unit 4: Academic Listening and Note-TakingEffective listening and note-taking skills are crucial for success in university lectures and seminars. In this unit, we learned techniques to enhance our listening comprehension, such as active listening strategies, identifying key points, and making concise notes. Furthermore, we practiced different note-taking formats, including outlines, concept maps, and Cornell notes. By honing our listening and note-taking abilities, we can absorb information more effectively and retain it for future use.Unit 5: Oral Presentation SkillsPublic speaking is a fundamental skill that is often required in academic and professional settings. Unit 5 focused on developing our oral presentation skills, including structuring presentations, using visual aids effectively, and engaging with the audience. Through practice and feedback, we improved our ability to deliver clear, concise, and engaging presentations. These skills will undoubtedly benefit us in future academic and professional endeavors.Unit 6: Research Skills and Project ManagementConducting research and managing projects are integral parts of the university experience. This unit provided us with valuable insights into effective research techniques, including evaluating sources, conducting literature reviews, and organizing research materials. Additionally, we learned essential project management skills, such as setting milestones, managing time effectively, and collaborating with peers. By mastering these skills, we can ensure the successful completion of our research projects and enhance our overall academic experience.Unit 7: Reading Strategies and Speed ReadingUnit 7 focused on improving our reading skills through various strategies and techniques. We explored methods for active reading, including skimming, scanning, and annotating texts. Moreover, we learned speed reading techniques to increase our reading efficiency without sacrificing comprehension. By applying these strategies, we can handle the extensive reading load in university and extract pertinent information more efficiently.Unit 8: Cross-Cultural CommunicationIn an increasingly globalized world, cross-cultural understanding and effective communication are vital skills. This unit emphasized the importance of cultural awareness and sensitivity when interacting with people from different backgrounds. We discussed strategies to overcome communication barriers, such as differences in non-verbal cues and speech patterns. By embracing cultural diversity and developing intercultural communication skills, we can foster meaningful connections and enhance our global perspectives.Overall, the advanced English curriculum in University English 2 has equipped us with the necessary skills to excel academically and professionally. From academic writing to critical thinking, research skills to cross-cultural communication, this course has provided us with a solid foundation to navigate the challenges of university-level English. By continuously practicing and applying these skills, we can confidently engage with academic texts, express our ideas effectively, and communicate across diverse cultural contexts.。
二语习得引论读书笔记chapter
一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语） also commonly called a target language (TL)Refers to: any language that is the aim or goal of learning.3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge3). Why are some learners more successful than othersDifferent answers from different fields4.3 main perspectives:linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can onlybe estimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may notbe reliable.3)A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school andthe development normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through theschool years.Time Children will< 6 months (infant)Produce all of the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of any language in the world. Learn to discriminate the among the sounds that make a different in the meaning of words (the phonemes)< < 3 years old Master an awareness of basic discourse patterns < 3 years old Master most of the distinctive sounds of L1< 5 or 6 years old Control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns2. The role of natural ability1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much thesame way.…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that partof language structure is genetically “given”to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and mayhave little effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural andsocial factors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources haslittle effect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learning1.L1 and L2 development:2.Understanding the statesⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie languageacquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned fromthe input.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.Children use language in accordance with general universalrules of language though they have not developed thecognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learnedfrom deduction or imitation.Patterns of children’s language development are notdirectly determined by the input they receive.Ⅴ. Frame works for SLA≤1950s1960s1970s1980s1990s。
英语课程目标中的情感态度界定及理据
英语课程目标中的情感态度：界定及理据摘要：情感态度是阻碍学生学习和进展的重要因素，维持踊跃的情感态度是英语学习成功的关键。
本文简要分析情感态度在《英语课程标准》中的界定，并从神经生物学、教育心理学及语言习得学等不同视角探悉情感态度作为英语课程目标的理论依据，以期为基础教育英语课程改革更好地实施情感教学提供理论支持。
关键词：情感态度；英语课程目标；情感教学在英语课堂教学活动以教师为中心慢慢转向以学生为中心的今天，咱们在关注教材教法及学生认知能力进展的同时，未能对学生的情感方面予以应有的重视。
早在1987年我国学者张正东就把“注重情感因素，排除心理障碍”视作英语教学原那么之一。
刘学惠（1988）也曾撰文指出，重视外语教学的情感因素，不该仅仅出于手腕和策略考虑，而应同时从外语教学目的本身来考虑，并呼吁“将进展情感作为外语教学目的之一写进有关文件”。
时至本世纪之初，“情感态度”作为基础教育英语课程目标之一已写入教育部公布的《英语课程标准》（实验稿）（以下简称《课标》）。
本文试图对此作理论探讨，以期为基础教育英语课程改革更好地实施情感教学提供理论支持。
一、情感及情感目标作为人类所特有的一种心理现象，情感是人在活动中对客观事物所持有的态度体验，是以客观事物可否知足人的需要为中介的反映。
人的情感与认知进程是紧密联系的，任何认知进程都伴随着必然的情感。
同时，情感又对人的认知行为起着踊跃和消极的作用。
有研究说明，当人处于某种消极的情感状态时，认知活动自行停止，即便不断止，认知活动也可不能有什么实际成效（Arnold,1999）。
情感不单单是教学手腕，而应第一作为教学目标来优化教学。
以布卢姆为代表的教育目标分类学创建者们构建了认知、情感和动作技术三位一体的教育目标体系（克拉斯沃尔等,1989）。
其中，情感目标在教学活动中的进展分为同意、反映、评判、组织及价值体系的性格化五个层次。
层层递进、紧密衔接的情感心理的内化和升华进程形成一个动态的目标体系，从单纯的同意开始，通过一系列的复杂时期，最后达到性格化。
2024年考研英语二核心词汇知乎
2024年考研英语二核心词汇知乎Title: Core vocabulary for 2024 postgraduate entrance examination (English) on ZhihuIntroduction:Zhihu is a popular question-and-answer platform in China, where users can ask questions, answer questions, and share insights on various topics. With the increasing globalization and importance of English proficiency, mastering core vocabulary for the 2024 postgraduate entrance examination is crucial for Chinese students.Core Vocabulary List:1. Analyze: Examine in detail, typically for purposes of explanation and interpretation.2. Evaluate: Assess the implications and quality of a statement or event.3. Interpret: Explain the meaning of language or actions.4. Critique: Review and give an opinion on a work or performance.5. Synthesize: Combine information or elements to form a new whole.6. Comprehend: Understand the meaning or significance of something.7. Contrast: Identify the differences between two or more elements.8. Analytical: Relating to or using analysis or logical reasoning.9. Interpretation: Explanation or understanding of the meaning of something.10. Comprehensive: Including all elements or aspects of something.Strategies for Mastering Core Vocabulary:1. Flashcards: Create flashcards with a word on one side and the definition on the other. Review them regularly.2. Contextual learning: Use the word in a sentence or paragraph to reinforce understanding.3. Visual aids: Associate the word with a visual image to aid memory retention.4. Practice: Write essays, articles, or short stories using the core vocabulary to improve retention and application.Conclusion:Mastering core vocabulary for the 2024 postgraduate entrance examination on Zhihu is essential for Chinese students aiming to enhance their English proficiency. By utilizing strategies like flashcards, contextual learning, visual aids, and regular practice, students can effectively increase their vocabulary repertoire and boost their language skills for success in the examination and beyond.。
大学英语写作教程1第九单元
第二小节
Writing skills
paragraph structure
Paragraph Unity
Paragraph Development
Paragraph Coherence
Ensure that each paragraph has a clear topic sentence that ties all the sentences together.
Synonyms
Know synonyms for common words and use them to add variety and freshness to your writing.
Technical Vocabulary
Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary specific to your field of study and use it appropriately.
• Key concepts explained: The unit delves into the importance of a strong thesis statement, the role of evidence in supporting arguments, and the effective use of transitions to link ideas. It also explores different types of argumentative essays, such as persuasive and analytical essays.
Sentence Fluency
Eliminate redundancy, clarify meaning, and ensure smooth transitions between sentences.
阅书心自明的英语作文
Reading is a journey that enlightens the mind and enriches the soul.It is an activity that transcends time and space,allowing us to explore the depths of human experience and knowledge.The saying Reading a book is like having a conversation with the wise encapsulates the essence of this profound connection between the reader and the written word.When we immerse ourselves in a book,we are not merely passively consuming information we are actively engaging with the ideas and perspectives of the author.This interaction stimulates our intellect and broadens our horizons.The more we read,the more we learn about the world,ourselves,and the myriad of cultures and societies that exist.Reading also serves as a catalyst for personal growth and selfimprovement.It challenges our preconceived notions and encourages us to question and reevaluate our beliefs. Through the stories and experiences of others,we gain insights into different ways of thinking and living,which can inspire us to make positive changes in our own lives.Moreover,reading is a source of comfort and solace.It provides an escape from the stresses and pressures of daily life,offering a sanctuary where we can lose ourselves in the beauty of language and the power of storytelling.Whether its a gripping novel,an enlightening nonfiction work,or a collection of poetry,books have the ability to transport us to different worlds and realities,allowing us to experience a range of emotions and perspectives.In addition to intellectual and emotional benefits,reading also enhances our cognitive abilities.It improves our vocabulary,comprehension,and critical thinking skills,making us more effective communicators and problem solvers.Furthermore,it fosters creativity and imagination,as we visualize the scenes and characters described in the text,and engage with the narrative on a deeper level.Despite the digital age and the rise of electronic devices,the value of traditional reading remains undiminished.The tactile experience of holding a book,turning its pages,and immersing oneself in the narrative is a unique and irreplaceable experience.The physical act of reading,coupled with the intellectual and emotional engagement,creates a holistic experience that enriches our lives in ways that digital media cannot replicate.In conclusion,reading is a transformative and enriching activity that offers numerous benefits,both tangible and intangible.It is a means of selfdiscovery,intellectual growth, and emotional fulfillment.By opening ourselves to the world of books,we embark on a journey of enlightenment and selfimprovement that can profoundly impact our lives.So,let us cherish the power of reading and continue to explore the vast universe of knowledge and experience that lies within the pages of the books we hold dear.。
educational research and evaluation
Educational research and evaluation involve the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data to improve educational practices and policies. This field encompasses a wide range of activities, including developing and testing educational interventions, assessing the effectiveness of existing programs, and evaluating the impact of policy changes on student outcomes.Some common types of educational research and evaluation include:1. Action research: A form of inquiry that involves teachers or other practitioners working collaboratively with researchers to identify problems in their own classrooms or schools, develop solutions, and test the effectiveness of those solutions through ongoing experimentation.2. Experimental studies: Research designs in which participants are randomly assigned to different groups (e.g., treatment vs. control groups), allowing researchers to determine whether specific interventions have a causal effect on student learning or behavior.3. Quasi-experimental studies: Research designs that use non-random methods to assign participants to conditions but still attempt to control for extraneous variables and establish causality. Examples include pretest-posttest designs and regression discontinuity designs.4. Longitudinal studies: Research designs that follow participants over an extended period of time, allowing researchers to examine how factors such as age, gender, socioeconomic status, and educational experiences influence student outcomes.5. Cross-sectional studies: Research designs that collect data from multiple sources ata single point in time, providing insights into relationships between variables but not allowing for causal inferences about temporal sequences.6. Case studies: In-depth investigations of individual cases or small groups, often focusing on unique contexts or phenomena that cannot be studied through larger-scale research methods.7. Program evaluation: The systematic assessment of the extent to which an educational program achieves its intended goals and objectives, typically involving both quantitative and qualitative methods.。
disentangled_representations_learning_概述及解释说明
disentangled representations learning 概述及解释说明1. 引言1.1 概述引言部分将对本篇长文的主题进行概述。
本篇文章将讨论"disentangled representations learning"（解缠结表示学习）的概念、基本原理、相关方法和应用场景。
通过该主题的介绍，我们将进一步探讨如何学习和理解disentangled representations，并深入分析其局限性和挑战。
1.2 文章结构在本部分中，我们将简要介绍文章的结构，以便读者能够了解整个文章所涵盖的内容。
文章将按照以下顺序展开讨论：首先是引言部分，此后是disentangled representations learning的定义和概念部分，然后是基本原理部分，紧接着是相关方法和应用场景部分。
随后我们会详细解释这一主题并探讨其重要性，在之后的部分中将研究具体案例并进行讨论。
最后，我们将总结回顾研究内容与发现，并提出未来研究方向和建议。
1.3 目的本文旨在提供关于disentangled representations learning的全面概述，并帮助读者深入了解其重要性以及如何学习这种表示形式。
同时，我们还将探索当前领域中的相关方法和应用场景。
通过案例分析与讨论，我们将进一步加深对这一主题的理解，并提出未来研究方向和建议。
通过本篇文章的阅读，读者将对disentangled representations learning有更全面的认识，并能够在实践中探索其潜力和应用价值。
2. disentangled representations learning:2.1 定义和概念:在机器学习中，disentangled representations learning（分解表示学习）是指通过学习编码数据的低维表示，将数据的不同因素进行分离和独立地表示出来。
这些不同因素可以是数据中的可解释属性，例如物体的形状、颜色、姿势等。
《英语单词归类》课件
Root Memory Method
Target audience
Suitable for students with a certain foundation in English, which can improve the efficiency of memorizing words.
Usage tips
04
Examples of English word applications
Daily English
Basic greetings and introductions
PPT courseware can provide examples of common expressions used in daily life, such as "Hello, how are you?" and "Nice to meet you."
Detailed description
This method helps students understand the composition and meaning of words by learning common English word roots, such as "bio", "geo", etc., thereby more effectively memorizing words.
Provide rich example sentences and paragraphs in the PPT courseware, allowing students to learn and memorize words in practical contexts. At the same time, encourage students to create their own sentences and apply the learned words to practical communication.
学术思维的英语
学术思维的英语Developing Academic Thinking in EnglishThe ability to think critically and analytically is a fundamental skill in the academic realm. As students, we often find ourselves immersed in a world of theories, research, and complex ideas that require a level of intellectual engagement beyond mere memorization. Developing academic thinking in English is not only a valuable asset for success in our studies but also a crucial step in preparing us for the challenges and opportunities that await us in the professional world.One of the key components of academic thinking is the capacity to approach problems and ideas from a multifaceted perspective. This involves the ability to consider different viewpoints, challenge assumptions, and engage in thoughtful discourse. In an academic setting, where diverse backgrounds and perspectives converge, the ability to articulate one's ideas and engage in constructive dialogue becomes paramount.Mastering the art of academic writing is another essential aspect of developing academic thinking in English. Crafting coherent and well-structured essays, research papers, or reports requires a deep understanding of the subject matter, a clear organizational structure, and the ability to express complex ideas with precision and clarity. This process of translating abstract concepts into written form not only hones our communication skills but also forces us to refine our own understanding of the material.Furthermore, the cultivation of academic thinking in English encompasses the skill of critical analysis. This involves the ability to critically evaluate sources, identify biases, and draw informed conclusions based on evidence. In an era where information is readily available, the capacity to discern credible sources, question underlying assumptions, and synthesize information into meaningful insights becomes increasingly valuable.Equally important is the development of research skills, which are integral to academic thinking. The ability to navigate databases, curate relevant literature, and rigorously investigate a topic demonstrates a level of intellectual curiosity and discipline that is highly prized in academic settings. By engaging in research, students not only deepen their understanding of a subject but also contribute to the ongoing discourse within their fields of study.Ultimately, the cultivation of academic thinking in English is a multifaceted endeavor that requires a combination of criticalreasoning, effective communication, and a genuine thirst for knowledge. As students navigate the challenges of higher education, the development of these skills not only enhances their academic performance but also prepares them for the intellectual demands of the modern world.In conclusion, the journey of developing academic thinking in English is a transformative process that equips students with the necessary tools to navigate the complexities of the academic landscape. By embracing the challenges and opportunities presented by this pursuit, we can cultivate a mindset that values rigorous analysis, effective communication, and a genuine passion for learning. This foundation will not only serve us well in our academic pursuits but also empower us to make meaningful contributions to the intellectual discourse that shapes our world.。
实践与认识关系的方法论
实践与认识关系的方法论Practical knowledge is essential in the process of learning. Through the application of theories and concepts, individuals are able to gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter. In order to bridge the gap between theory and practice, it is important for individuals to engage in experiential learning opportunities. These experiences enable individuals to apply what they have learned in the classroom to real-world situations, thus solidifying their understanding of the subject matter.实践知识在学习过程中至关重要。
通过理论和概念的应用，个人能够更深入地理解主题。
为了弥合理论与实践之间的差距，个人需要参与体验式学习机会很重要。
这些经验使个人能够将他们在课堂上学到的知识应用到现实中，从而巩固他们对主题的理解。
From a philosophical perspective, the relationship between practice and knowledge has been examined by numerous scholars. The concept of praxis, as theorized by philosophers such as Aristotle and Marx, emphasizes the importance of practical action in the pursuit of knowledge. Praxis involves the integration of theory and practice, asindividuals engage in reflective action to enact change in the world. This philosophical perspective underscores the idea that knowledge is not purely a product of abstract thinking, but rather is derived from the active engagement with the world.从哲学的角度来看，实践和知识之间的关系已经被许多学者所研究。
古今同育良才的英语作文
In the vast expanse of history,the cultivation of talent has always been a pivotal concern for any society.The pursuit of nurturing individuals who are capable,virtuous, and innovative transcends time and culture.This essay aims to explore the common threads that run through the education of talents in both ancient and modern times, highlighting the enduring principles and practices that have shaped the development of exceptional individuals.Ancient Wisdom for Modern MindsThe ancients had a profound understanding of the importance of education.In ancient China,Confucius emphasized the importance of moral education alongside academic learning,advocating for the development of a wellrounded individual who is not only knowledgeable but also virtuous.His teachings,encapsulated in the Analects,continue to influence educational philosophies to this day.Similarly,in ancient Greece,Socrates questioned the nature of knowledge and virtue, promoting the idea that an unexamined life is not worth living.His Socratic method of teaching,which involves dialogue and critical thinking,is still a cornerstone of modern pedagogical approaches.The Role of Discipline and DedicationDiscipline and dedication are timeless virtues that have been recognized as essential for the education of talents.In ancient times,students were expected to adhere to strict codes of conduct and to dedicate long hours to their studies.This discipline was seen as a necessary foundation for the mastery of any subject.In the modern era,the concept of discipline has evolved to include not only adherence to rules but also selfmotivation and time management.Students are encouraged to take ownership of their learning,setting goals and working diligently to achieve them.The Integration of Theory and PracticeAncient and modern educators alike have recognized the importance of integrating theory with practice.In ancient Rome,for instance,the liberal arts were taught with a focus on practical application,preparing students for public service and leadership roles.Today,this principle is reflected in the emphasis on experiential learning and the application of knowledge to realworld problems.Internships,projectbased learning,and community service are all examples of how modern education seeks to bridge the gapbetween the classroom and the world outside.The Cultivation of Critical ThinkingCritical thinking is a skill that has been valued in the education of talents throughout history.Ancient philosophers like Aristotle taught their students to analyze arguments and to question assumptions,fostering a spirit of inquiry and skepticism.In contemporary education,critical thinking is a central component of the curriculum. Students are encouraged to think independently,to evaluate information critically,and to form their own opinions based on evidence and reason.Adaptation to Change and InnovationThe ability to adapt to change and to innovate is a hallmark of the educated individual, both in the past and in the present.Ancient civilizations,such as the Egyptians with their advancements in architecture and the Mayans with their complex calendar systems, demonstrated a remarkable capacity for innovation.Modern education places a premium on creativity and innovation,with an emphasis on problemsolving skills and the development of new ideas.The rapid pace of technological change demands that students be prepared to embrace new concepts and to think creatively in their professional and personal lives.ConclusionThe education of talents is a pursuit that has remained constant across the ages,with ancient wisdom and modern practices converging to shape the minds of future generations.By understanding the enduring principles of education and adapting them to the needs of our time,we can continue to cultivate individuals who are not only knowledgeable and skilled but also ethical,innovative,and capable of making meaningful contributions to society.。
求知心向知识的英语作文
The pursuit of knowledge has been an integral part of human civilization.It is the thirst for learning that has propelled humanity forward,enabling us to explore the depths of the oceans,scale the highest mountains,and venture into the far reaches of space.This essay will delve into the importance of the quest for knowledge and how it shapes our lives.First and foremost,the desire for knowledge is the driving force behind innovation and progress.As individuals and societies,we are constantly seeking to improve our lives and solve complex problems.This pursuit leads to the development of new technologies, medical breakthroughs,and scientific discoveries that enhance our understanding of the world and improve our quality of life.Moreover,the quest for knowledge fosters personal growth and selfimprovement. Engaging in lifelong learning helps individuals to expand their horizons,develop critical thinking skills,and become more wellrounded and adaptable.This continuous learning process not only enriches ones intellectual life but also contributes to personal satisfaction and fulfillment.Furthermore,the pursuit of knowledge is essential for societal development.A society that values education and the acquisition of knowledge is more likely to be progressive, tolerant,and open to new ideas.This openness fosters a culture of innovation,where new ideas are welcomed and explored,leading to advancements that benefit the entire community.In addition,the quest for knowledge plays a crucial role in addressing global challenges. Climate change,poverty,and inequality are complex issues that require a deep understanding of various disciplines to develop effective solutions.By seeking knowledge in these areas,we can work towards creating a more sustainable and equitable world.However,the pursuit of knowledge is not without its challenges.The rapid pace of information dissemination can sometimes lead to misinformation and confusion.It is essential for individuals to develop the ability to discern reliable sources of information and to think critically about the knowledge they acquire.In conclusion,the quest for knowledge is a fundamental aspect of human nature that has the power to transform lives and societies.It is through this relentless pursuit that we can continue to innovate,grow,and address the challenges of our time.As we move forward, it is crucial to nurture a culture of learning and curiosity,ensuring that the thirst for knowledge remains unquenched.。
Representational Learning
2
Representational Learning
One rather abstract and general notion comes from considering casual models. The idea is that an input, such as the image of a scene, has distal causes, such as objects at given locations illuminated by some particular lighting scheme observed from a particular viewing direction. These causes make for the structure in the input, and, since inferences and decisions are normally based on underlying causes, make for appropriate representations of input. To put it another way, the images that we see live in an O (108 )dimensional space which has one dimension for each photoreceptor (plus one dimension for time). However, the set of all images we might ever naturally see is much smaller, since it is constrained by how images are actually generated. The image generation process specifies the natural coordinates for the observable images, in terms of the things that cause them, and it is these coordinates that we seek to use in order to represent new images. More concrete notions about extracting the structure in the input (and therefore also about extracting causes) include finding lower dimensional projections of the input that nevertheless convey most of the information in the input, or code the input in a way that makes it cheap to communicate, finding projections whose activities are mutually independent (also known as factorial) or sparse, or with distributions that are statistically unlikely and therefore potentially unusually informative. A major source of statistical structure in the input comes from groups of transformations – for instance translation and scale for visual images. Extracting the structure correctly requires respecting (or discovering) these transformations. We consider a number of learning methods that are classed as being unsupervised or self-supervised, in the sense that no information other than the patterns themselves is explicitly provided to guide the representational choice. This is by contrast with supervised methods described in chapter 8, which learn appropriate representations in the service of particular tasks. A main reason for studying unsupervised methods is that they are likely to be much more common than supervised ones. For instance, there is only a derisory amount of supervisory information available to learn how to perform a task such as object recognition that is based on the activities in the O (108 )-dimensional space of activities of the photoreceptors. Unsupervised learning is also often used to try to capture what is happening during activity-dependent development. We saw in chapters 8 and 9 mathematical models that capture the nature and plasticity of the development of cells in visual cortex on the basis of the activity of input neurons. We seek to provide quantifiable goals for this unsupervised process. As will become evident, in neural terms, unsupervised learning methods are still in their infancy – they are only barely capable of generating the forms of sophisticated population code representations that we have discussed and dissected, and even central concepts, such as the notion of causes in causal models and the groups of relevant transformations that particular inputs undergo are only relatively weakly formulated. The two things that unsupervised learning methods have to work with are Peter Dayan and L.F. Abbott Draft: March 13, 1999
推理能力英语
推理能力英语In the realm of language learning, the significance of deductive reasoning cannot be overstated. English, being a global language, poses unique challenges for learners, especially when it comes to grasping its nuances and applying them in real-world contexts. The ability to reason deductively not only enhances vocabulary retention but also facilitates a deeper understanding of grammar rules, sentence structure, and the overall flow of a conversation. Deductive reasoning, often referred to as top-down processing, involves making predictions or hypotheses based on general principles or rules. In the context of English learning, this skill becomes crucial when trying todecipher unfamiliar vocabulary, infer meanings from context, or predict the outcome of a conversation. For instance, when encountering an unknown word in a sentence, adeductive learner might analyze the word's root, affixes,or the overall context to guess its meaning.Moreover, deductive reasoning sharpens one's ability to analyze and interpret complex grammatical structures. By understanding the logic behind English grammar, learnerscan better predict sentence patterns and avoid common mistakes. This ability to generalize and apply rules is invaluable in achieving fluency in the language.In conversation, deductive reasoning helps listeners interpret implicit meanings, detect sarcasm or irony, and respond appropriately. By analyzing the speaker's tone, word choice, and context, a deductive learner can make informed guesses about the intended meaning, leading to more effective communication.Additionally, deductive reasoning supports independent learning by encouraging learners to explore and discover new language patterns rather than simply memorizing them. This approach fosters a deeper understanding of the language and enhances retention, as learners are actively engaged in the process of discovery and generalization.In conclusion, deductive reasoning is a critical component of effective English learning. It empowers learners to go beyond rote memorization and develop a nuanced understanding of the language. By harnessing the power of deductive reasoning, individuals can enhance theirvocabulary retention, deepen their grasp of grammar rules, and improve their overall communication skills in English.**推理能力在英语学习中的重要性**在语言学习领域，演绎推理的重要性不言而喻。