Commonization of proper names

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[转载]植物拉丁文命名法-双名命名法

[转载]植物拉丁⽂命名法-双名命名法CRTER及NRR的⽂章常常涉及⼀些药⽤植物名称的翻译，分为学名和俗名。

我们使⽤的拼⾳法及英译法通称只是翻译的植物的俗名或为地⽅名，⽽国际间进⾏交流的标准⽤名为其学名（scientific name），也就是我们说的拉丁名。

⽬前国际上有标准的“国际植物命名法规”（International Code of Nomenclature），为植物学界所普遍遵守。

但由于此法规的繁琐复杂及其不定期修改，要想完全掌握⾮常困难，所以我们只谈谈植物拉丁⽂命名的基本法则——双名命名体系。

双名命名体系是由瑞典植物分类学之⽗林奈(C. Linnaeus)在其1753年出版的《植物种志》（Species Plantarum）中创⽴的。

双名命名原则：所谓双名法，指⽤拉丁⽂给植物的种命名。

每给种名都由两个拉丁词或拉丁化的词构成，第⼀个词是属名，即学名的主体；第⼆个词是种加词，此外还需加上给这个植物命名的作者名。

因此，⼀个完整的学名形式应该为属名（genus）+种加词（specific epithet）+命名⼈。

如，何⾸乌的学名为Polygonum(属名) multiflorum（种加词）Thunb.（命名⼈Thunberg的缩写）书写原则：植物拉丁名的书写也有其特定原则：属名（⾸字母⼤写）+种加词（⼩写）=种的学名（⽤斜体），命名⼈（⽤正体）。

物种的亚属、组、亚组、系、命名⼈姓⽒⽤正体，属及种加词⽤斜体。

即使物种的属采取缩写的形式，亦必须⽤斜体。

属及命名⼈姓⽒的⾸字母要⼤写，即使缩写后的属和命名⼈姓⽒的字母亦必须⽤⼤写字母。

种加词通常情况下⼩写斜体，但在以下三种情况时，种加词的⾸字母可以⼤写：1）种加词源于⼀个⼈的⼈名；2）源于以前的⼀种属名；3）源于⼀个俗名。

如，⼤卫枫（David's Maple）可以写作Acer Davidii，因为种加词指Armand David（⼈名）。

Names of Books

• Eg.
Proper names
Commonization of the proper names Sir Thomas More’s book Utopia( an imaginary Utopia perfect society ) Sinclair Lewis’novel Babbitt battitt(a person converned mainly with business and position, caring little for art or culture)
Answer:尼克松访华 Odyssey 原为古希腊诗人荷马写的一部英雄史诗，描绘odyssey在古城特洛伊（Troy）陷落之后所经历的一段漫长而艰难的历程。
这里用来喻指w words come from names of books and thus take on the meanings associated with the names described in the books.
Champagne（法国香槟区，香槟酒的原产地） —champagne (a kind of wine，香槟酒)
Rugby（拉格比（英格兰中部的城市）） —rugby(a sort of ball games,英式橄榄球 )
Names of Books
请大家想想下面这短语的意思： Nixon’s odyssey to China
Names of Places
Many words denoting products, objects or materials come from the names of places where they were first produced. eg.

词汇学填空题

1. Narrowing of meaning is also known as__specialization____, which is the opposite of___extension ___.2. The extra-linguistic context refers to the____ physical_ ___situation, which may extend to embrace the entire____cultural background____.3. Linguistic context can be subdivided into____lexical___ context and__ grammatical___ context.4. Context can be divided into __linguistic__and ___non-linguistic__ context.5. Regarded as a derivational process without the addition of an affix, conversion can be called as ____ zero-derivation___.6. ___Unabridged dictionaries_____are the most complete description of words available to us. They are large in scope and size, containing at least 200 000 headwords.7. ____Desk dictionaries____ are medium-sized ones containing words ranging from 50 000 to 150 000. And they are most used on desk.8. Based on the degree of similarity, homonyms fall into three types: __perfect homonyms______, homographs and___homophones_____.9. In the sentence, "Knowledge of inequality has stimulated envy, ambition and greed. ", ambition has a ____negative____ connotation.10. Such words as goody-goody, willy-nilly and fiddle-faddle are known as ____ reduplicatives ____ in terms of word formation.11. Foot in "the foot of a page" is __semantically____ motivated.12. Pen is a/ an _____etymologically___ motivated word.13. Commence, which has the same meaning with begin, is __formal______ in style.14. Unlike conceptual meaning, ____associative____meaning is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc.15. ___ Ambiguity_____often arises due to polysemy and homonymy.16. When a word with multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates __ ambiguity______.17. ___Pocket dictionaries_____ contain about 50 000 entries or fewer. They are easy to carry and inexpensive, but they provide only the most common words and their meanings.18. ___General dictionaries_____ are compiled for general use — to look for spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, etc.. They can be monolingual or bilingual.19. ____Specialized dictionaries____concentrate exclusively on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, usages in language, and special subjects like architecture, engineering and literature.20. ___Dictionaries of usages_____are a kind of specialized dictionaries. They deal with disputed usages, clarify difficult grammatical points, and call attention to the language points which often give rise to errors.21. ____Context____helps to determine the meaning of the word that the speaker intends to convey.22. Compounds are largely the results of ____lexicalization____ of phrases.23. Affective meaning indicates the speaker's _____attitude___ towards the person or thing in question.24. ___Linguistic dictionaries_____ aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language. They usually cover information about spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, etc.25. ____ Bilingual dictionaries____ involve two languages. The headwords are defined in the same language with translations, or rather the entries are defined in another language or given their foreign equivalents.26. __Etymological dictionaries______belong to specialized dictionaries. They describe the origins, the date of entry and the changes that have taken place in the words.1. Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, studying the origins and ___meanings_____ of words.2. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and ____syntactic____function.3. Modern English expands its vocabulary chiefly through____ word formation____.4. The three main means of creating new words in modern English are ___affixation_____, compounding and conversion.5. The overwhelming majority of blends are____nouns____.6. Words imitating natural sounds are___onomatopoeic____ _words.7. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has __reference_____ .8. The relationship between the word form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, and most words can be said to be ___ non-motivated____.9. Componential analysis, according to Leech, is the process of breaking down the sense of a word into its ____minimal____ components.10. At the time when the words were created, it was endowed with only one meaning. The first meaning is the ___primary_____ meaning and the latter meanings are __derived______meaning.11. ___Radiation_____is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays.12. Extension and___ narrowing_ __are the most common modes of word meaning changes.13. Verb compounds are generally created either through ___conversion_____ or back formation.14. Compounds are largely the results of ___lexicalization_____ of phrases.15. If we need a word which is not found, we can easily make one through ____hyphenation____ or rearrangement of word-forming elements.16. Affective meaning indicates the speaker's ____attitude____ towards the person or thing in question.17. Contrary terms are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or ___extremes_____.18. __Extension______is a process by which a word which originally had a specific meaning has now become generalized.19. ___Elevation_____, also known as amelioration, refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance.20. Low, humble and despised occupations often take more appealing names due to psychological reasons. Besides, ____religious____ influence is another kind of psychological need.21. There are a lot of words whose structures are __opaque___ , i. e. their meanings are not the combinations of the separate parts.22. Semantic motivation explains the connection between the literal sense and ____figurative__ sense of the word.23. Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like a__chain______.24. Part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs all belong to ___grammatical__ meaning.25. Lexical meaning is made up of conceptual meaning and _ associative ___ meaning.26. Difference in connotation between synonyms refers to the difference in_ stylistic features____ and emotive coloring of words.27. ___Degradation _____of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation.28. Words which were used to designate one thing but later came to denote something else have experienced the process of semantic_____transfer___.29. Affixation is also known as __derivation_____.30. Conversion is also known as ____ functional shift____ since it does not change the morphological structure of words but their function.31. ___Conceptual____ meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.32. The hyponyms under the same superordinate are ____co-hyponyms____.33. __Associated transfer______is commonly known as figurative extension of meaning.34. Verb compounds are generally created either through ___conversion_____ or back formation.35. If we need a word which is not found, we can easily make one through __hyphenation______ or rearrangement of word-forming elements.36. Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and __spelling______ but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.37. Contrary terms are __ gradable______ antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.38. The change of meaning may be caused by___linguistic_ ____factors within the languagesystem and ___extra-linguistic_____ factors beyond language system.39. Context clues for inferring word meaning vary a great deal. The major ones include definition, explanation, _exemplification____, synonymy, antonymy, ___hyponymy____, relevant details and word structure.40. Words like nylon, orlon and rayon come from ___tradenames___, a type of proper names.41. The process is called ____commonization______ when proper names are changed into common words in use.42. ___ Nonbasic_____ vocabulary include cant, jargon and argot.43. There is no _ logical_relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself.44. Compounds can be written solid, ___ hyphenated__and open.45. A compound is a unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and____semantically ____as a single word.46. Martin Joos (1962) in his book The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of _formality_______: "frozen", "formal", "consultative", "casual" and "intimate".47. The ___basic_____ word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.48. ____ Words____are the basic units of sentences.49. Words of sensation associated with one sense are sometimes used to describe another sense. This kind of transfer is known as____ synesthesia____.50. The roles of context include__elimination of ambiguity______, indication of referents and provision of clues for inferring word meaning.。

英语词汇学知识点整理

词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。

词的总和构成语言的词汇。

词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。

三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。

(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。

word formation解读

1.1.2 Suffixation后缀
• 后缀通常会改变单词的词性，构成意义相近的其他词性；少数后缀还会改变词义，变为与原来词义相反的新词。
1.1.2 Suffixation后缀
• (1)构成名词的后缀常用的有-ence，-(e)r/ -or (从事某事的人),-ese (某地人)，-ess (雌性)，ian (精通……的人)，-ist (专业人员)，-ment (性质；状态)，-ness (性质；状态)，-tion(动作；过程)等。例如： differ不同于→difference区别 write写→writer作家 China中国→Chinese中国人 act表演→actress女演员 music音乐→musician音乐家
Word Formation
1. Types of Word Formation
• • • • • • • • 1.1 Derivation or Affixiation 派生法 1.2 Compouding 合成法 1.3 Conversion 转化法 1.4 Blending 混合法 1.5 Cliping 截短法 1.6 Acronyms 首尾字母缩略法 1.7 Backformation 逆生法 1.8 Sound reduplication &Commonization of proper names
1.1.2 Suffixation后缀
• (3)构成形容词的后缀常用的有-al，-able (有能力的)，(a)n(某国人的)，-en (多用于表示材料的名词后)，-ern (方向的)，-ese(某国人的)，-ful，-(ic)al，-ish，-ive，-less (表示否定)，-like (像……的)，-ly，-ous，-some，-y (表示天气) 等。例如： nature自然→natural自然的 reason道理→reasonable有道理的 America美国→American美国的 China中国→Chinese中国人的 gold金子→golden金的 east东→eastern东方的 child孩子→childish孩子气的 snow雪→snowy雪的

词汇学总结

Ⅰ。

What is lexicology?The study of words/lexical components of a language.Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage.Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human communication Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.the definition of a word comprises the following points:A minimal free form of a language A sound unity A unit of meaning A form that can function alone in a sentenceA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic functionWhat is vocabulary①The total number of the words in a language. ②All the words used in a particular historical period③.All the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.①．5 basic features of the basic word stock All national character 全民性 Stability 稳定性 Productivity 能产性 Polysemy 多义性 Collocability 搭配能力强Non-basic vocabulary includes the following:Terminology 专业术语technical terms （formal）Jargon 行话specialized vocabulary in certain professionsSlang 俚语substandard words often used in informal occasions (colloquial)Argot 隐语words used by sub-cultured groups (informal)Dialectal words 方言词only by speakers of the dialect (informal)Archaisms 古语词words no longer in common use or restricted (formal)Neologisms 新词语newly created words with new meaning (formal)②Content words/Notional words/full words/lexical wordsConstitute the main body of the English vocabulary, numerous and the number is ever growingFunctional words/ Grammatical wordsConstitute a very small number of the vocabulary; stable③Native words / Angle-Saxon words Native words are not native in fact but words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words.Native words are small in number, but form the mainstream of the basic word stock. What is true of the basic word stock is also true of the native words. Besides they are also (1) neutral in style, (2) frequent in use.Borrowed words/ loan words / borrowings Denizens 同化词Aliens 非同化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic loans 语义借词Ⅱ。

英语词汇学知识点整理

词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、V ocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。

词的总和构成语言的词汇。

词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。

三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional.二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oral form.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。

英语单词构词法

Word Formation* The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. Affixation （词缀法）30％－40％Compounding （复合法、合成法）28％－30％Conversion （转类法）26％Shortening/Clipping （缩略法）8％－10％Blending （拼缀法）1％－5% Acronymy (首字母拼音法)I.Affixation: the formation of words by adding affixes to the bases (stems).Prefixes (前缀): do not generally change the word- class of the bases but only modify its meaning.不改变词性，改变词义Suffixes (后缀): change the word class with a slight modification of meaning.改变词性，不（略微）改变词义1.Prefixes(1)Negative prefixes : 否定前缀dis--- dislike, disagree, disallow, disunite, disinterested, disobey, disorderin(ir, im, il)--- illiterate, illegal, immature, inaudible, injustice, irregular, irresponsiblenon--- nonhuman, nonsmoking, non-violenceun--- unimportant, unknown, unwilling, unsmiling, unable(2)Pejorative prefixes: 贬义前缀mis--- mislead, mistrust, misunderstandmal--- maltreat, malformed, malpracticepseudo--- pseudocide, pseudocode, pseudonym, pseudograph(3)Prefixes of Degree or Size: 表示程度大小的前缀co--- co-star, co-author, cohabit, co-workerextra--- extra-large, extra-strong, extra-brightmacro--- macrostructure, macroeconomics,micro--- microsurgery, microfilm, microwave, microcomputermini---minibus, minicamera, mini-market, mini-bikiniover---overexcited, overweight, over-anxious, over estimateunder--- under-age, underbred, underdo, undermannedultra--- ultraclean, ultracritical, ultraism, ultraleft, ultrasonicsuper---, ser---,(4)Prefixes of Orientation & Attitude 表示方向态度的前缀anti--- anti-aging, anti-nuclear, anti-climax, anti-governmentcounter--- counter-accuse, counterclockwise, counterattackpro--- proabortion, pro-common market(5)Locative prefixes: 表示位置的前缀extra--- extramarital, extraterrestrialinter--- interbreeding, interpersonal, interstatesuper--- superstructure, superscripttele--- telescope, telecommunication, telegram，telepathytrans--- translate, transform, transplant, transatlantic(6)Prefix of Time and Order: 表示时间顺序的前缀ex--- ex-lover, ex-husband, ex-convict, ex-presidentfore--- foresee, forethought, foreknowledge, forefatherspost--- post-war, post-independence, post-colonialpre--- prebiotic, precollege, precondition, predatere--- re-edit, retry, relive, remake(7)Number prefixes: 表示数目的前缀semi--- demi--- hemi--- : semi-naked, semi-automatic, semi-skilleduni--- mono--- uniform, unicolor, unicorn, monoculture, monologuebi--- di---: bicycle, bilingual, bilateral, bimonthly, diameter, dialoguetri--- triangle, tricolor, trilogymulti--- poly--- : multi-purpose, multitechnic, multi-industry, polysyllabic, polyatomiccenti--- centigrade, centimetermilli--- milliliter, milligram2.Suffixes 后缀(1)Noun suffix 名词后缀--eer, ---er/---ee, ----or, ---ist, ---ess, ---let, ---age, ---dom, ---hood, ---ism, ---ship, ---ment, ---ity, ---ness, ---ation, ---ese, ---- ful(2)Adjective suffixes 形容词后缀---ful, ---ish, ---like, ---less, ---y, ---al, ---ic, ---ous, ---ative(3)Adverb suffixes 副词后缀---wards, ---wise, ---ly(4)Verb suffixes 动词后缀---ate, ---en, ---ize, ---ifypounding: the formation of new words by joining two or more bases.-----Solid: silkworm-----Hyphenated: honey-bee-----Open: tear gas1. Noun compoundn + n: moonwalk, end product, match-maker, safety-belt, daydream, lighthouse, airspacen + v: toothache, handshake, daybreakv + n: telltale, crybaby, push-button, watchdoga + n: deadline, blueprintn + v-ing: brainwashing, air-conditioning, sunbathing, housekeeping, sleep-walkingv-ing + n: hiding place, sewing machine, dancing girl, laughing stock, walking dictionary, writing desk, chewing gum, investigating committee, walking stickv + adv: sit-in, have-not, breakthrough2. Adjective compoundn + v-ing: record-breaking, brainwashingn + v-ed: weather-bitten, panic-strickena + v-ing: easy-going, high-sounding, good-looking,n + a: snow-white, tax-freea + a: deaf-mute, bitter-sweet, socio-ecnomicn (a) + n-ed: short-sighted, lion-hearted,num + n: ten-storey, four-legnum +n-ed: one-eyed, two-leggedadv + v-ing: outgoing, everlasting, far-reaching3.Verb compound(1)Through conversionnickname------to nickname honeymoon-------to honeymoon moonlight------to moonlight (2)Through backformationlip-reading-----to lip-read chain-smoker ------to chain-smokemass production-----to mass-produce Sight-seeing------ to sight-see4.long compoundstake-home-paya pain-in-stomach gesturedo-it-yourselfa too-eager-not-to-lose championround-the-clock discussionIII.Conversion: the formation of new words by converting words from one class to another.n---v, n--- adj, v---adjEg: ten-year-old, newborns, two unknowns, advice--- advise, record--- recordEg: I eat what I can, I can what I can’t.This argument contains too many ifs and buts.Life is full of ups and downs.The photograph yellowed with age.I’m one of his familiars.He wolfed down his lunch.Rubber gloves are a must if you skin is sensitive to washing powder.IV.Blending: the formation of words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.Eg: hifi (high + fidelity) chocoholic (chocolate + alcoholic)Eurasia (Europe + Asia) comsat (communication + satellite)brunch (breakfast + lunch) bikethon (bike + marathon)talkathon (talk+ marathon)eggwich (egg+sandwich) motel (motor + hotel)lottizen (lottery + citizen) netizen (net + citizen)sit-com (situation+ comedy)medicare docudrama airtelV.Clipping: the formation of words by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.quake (earthquake) copter (helicopter) disco (discotheque) gent (gentleman)flu (influenza) fridge (refrigerator) jams (pajamas ) pop (popular music)pub (public house) perm (permanent wave) gym (gymnasia)ad, dorm, lab, gas, plane, phone, prof., coke，veganVI.Acronymy: the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of technical terms.VOA P.C. (post card) UFO (unidentified flying object) ID (identity card)PK (playkilling，Player Kill 单挑；Private Key 内线电键, 专用电键)M.A. (Master of Arts) B.M.E. (Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering)VIP WHO Kg ASAP FBIN-bomb: nuclear bomb G-man: government manV-day: victory day TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Languagemonization of Proper Names: names of people, places, books or trademarks. Eg: 1.How can such a disgusting yahoo really have charm and style?2. The Christian heaven can be seen as a sort of spiritual Utopia. (Thomas More)3. Simply because a black person is polite to white people does n’t make him or her guiltyof Uncle Tomism.4. Since then, he has become her Man Friday.5. John felt proud when he put his John Hancock on his very first driver’s license.6. The joke you told is as old as Adam, but I still think it’s funny.7. Please xerox this letter for me. (hoover, kleenex, google…)。

语言学题目

Comments on Arbitrariness(1)Arbitrariness at different levelsLanguage is arbitrary. There is no intrinsic connection between meanings and sounds.1.Arbitrariness at the morpheme level:Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, with the exception of onomatopoeic words, whose sound resembles its natural sound in reality. In different languages, the same idea is expressed by different forms. As Shakespeare says: A rose by any other name still smells as sweet as ever. Even for onomatopoeia, its sound varies from language to language.2. Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelThe order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings, though conjunctions can be used to changes the structure of a sentence while making it basically the same in meaning. So sentences enjoy less freedom or arbitrariness.(2)Arbitrariness and conventionalityIn principle, we can use any sound to stand for any idea we intend. But in reality, language is conventional at the same time. Words are associated with certain objects, actions, events or ideas. If language were entirely arbitrary in reality, communication would be impossible.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative and conventionality makes learning a language laborious.(3)Arbitrariness and motivationThere is an arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. In different languages, the same idea is usually expressed by different linguistic forms, e.g. the concept “书” is realized in English as book and书(shu) in Chinese.As for derivatives and compounds, their creation is based on words already existing, so there is a certain motivation behind their creation. For example, the meaning of simplify is derived from the word simple, and the meaning of classroom is based on the meanings of class and room.Chapter1 ：Body language doesn’t possess all of the design features of human language.The design features of human language includes Arbitrariness,Duality,Productivity and Displacement.Firstly,Arbitrariness means the sound doesn’t have logical relationship with the meaning.For example,a book wasn’t called “book” at first.The reason why we say it is a book is that we set the sound “book” as this thing’s name.This sound has no direct or meaningful connection with the thing.When we are using body language, the actions in different situations may mean totally opposite meanings.Different countries,different cultural backgrounds will influence the actions’ expression to a great extent.So arbitrariness also can be found in body language.Secondly,Duality means language is a system which consists of two sets of structures,one of sound and the other of meaning.It means that meaningless sounds can be combined into meaningful words.Sounds and meanings are two units.But body language only have primary units,which means it can only deliver meanings,but can’t be d ivided into elements.A action has its own meaning,however,it wasn’t composed of smaller elements.Thus,duality is the unique feature of human language.Thirdly,Productivity means the language is creative.Human language is resourceful because of its duality.The fundamental elements,such as different sounds or words can be used in new ways to create new meanings.As for body language,people can also create new actions to voicetheir thoughts,but the actions we can do are very limited.The movements we produce are not as various and changeable as human language.Lastly,Displacement means human languages enable their users to refer to objects,events and concepts which are not present at the moment of ing human language to express meanings in the future or in the past is a piece of cake due to the existence of tense.Referring to body language, the displacement of body language can only be reflected in the aspect of space.When we are pointing at something which are not in front of us,it’ll be easy for us to understand this gesture means “that thing”.However,the movements can only be used to describe things right now rather than in other times.Therefore,body language doesn’t possess all of design features of human language.Chapter2 What does phonetics differ from phonology?It is known to us that Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning. So from the definition, we can know that phonetics focuses more on language’s general nature. It is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced and how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. But phonology is more interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, aiming at discover how speech sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. In the conclusion, they both study speech sounds, but they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is more like a description, for it is strictly about audible sounds and the things that happen in our mouth, throat, nasal and sinus cavities, and lungs to make those sounds. It has nothing to do with its meaning. So it only deals with the process physically without any meanings. However, phonology explores the differences between sounds that change the meaning of an utterance and the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. So phonology is both physical and meaningful compared with phonetics. For example, the difference between [p] and [f] in “pork” and “fork” is the concern of phonology instead of the difference between two [p]s in “pot” and “spot”.Chapter3 Functions of Intonation(ⅰ) Attitudinal functionIntonation expresses emotions, feelings and attitudes of the speaker. A falling intonation is often associated with completeness and definiteness, for instance, /p I’ll NEver do it a↘GAIN/. The rising intonation is often associated with incompleteness, uncertainty, questioning or encouragement, like /r It’ll be all ↗RIGHT/. The falling-rising is to express feelings of hesitation, contrast, reservation or doubt, like /It’s↘↗MINE/. The rise-fall tone can be used to express surprise, for example, /SHE won the ↗↘RPIZE/.The same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labeled “bored”, “enthusiastic”, “sarcastic” and so on, as shown in the interpretation of the utterance /What a gorgeous girl/ :(a) /WHAT a GORgeous ↘GIRL/(b) /WHAT a GORgeous ↗GIRL/(c) /WHAT a GORgeous ↗↘GIRL/Simple fall pattern of intonation used in (a) shows that the sentence is uttered in a matter-of -fact way, without much interest, attention or feelings. Rising intonation used in (b) indicates thatthe sentence is said enthusiastically. Rise-fall intonation used in (c) suggests that the sentence is spoken sarcastically.(ⅱ) Accentual functionThe placement of the tonic syllable is of considerable linguistic importance. It is most common for the last word to bear the tonic stress. But for the purposes of contrast or emphasis, may any word be accentuated. In the following examples, sentence (a) represents the normal placement of the tonic stress while sentence (b) shows contrast as in the first example or emphasis as in the last two examples.Eaxmple (A)(a) /p I don't care what he does outside↘ CLASS/(b) /p I don't what he does ↘OUTside class/pI want to know what he does↘IN class/Example (B)(a) /p She was very res↘PONsible/(b) /p She was ↘VERY responsible/Example (C)(a) /p You can't stand↘HERE/(b) /pYou↘CAN'T stand here/(ⅲ) Grammatical functionIntonation becomes an important part of grammatical realization of an utterance. Different intonation patterns may indicate different sentence types. The following utterancecan be taken for a statement, a question or an exclamation, depending on different intonation patterns:/p She’s studying in ↘SINgapore/ (a pure statement)/r She’s studying in ↗SINgapore/ (a question)/p She’s↘STUdying/p in↘SINgapore/(an exclamation)(ⅳ) Discourse functionIntonation indicates the distribution of information in utterances. So the placement of the tonic stress depends on the “information content”. In general, a falling tone is used to indicate new information and a rising tone (including fall-rise) “shared” or “given” information. Look at the following examples:/p John was REAding a↘NOvel/ (normal placement of the tonic stress)/p↘JOHN was reading a novel/ (It’s John, not somebody else.)/p John was↘REAding a novel/ (What John was doing is reading not writing a novel.)/p John was reading a↘ Novel/ (What John was reading is a novel not a magazine.)Chapter 4 Factors Account for the Diverse Ways of Word FormationThereare various ways of word formation:compounding,derivation,conversion,blending,clipping,acronymy,back-formation,sound reduplication,commonization of proper names,analogical creations and borrowing.Then what factors can be considered for the diverse ways of word formation?To make out the question,we will go further discussion next.Firstly,in view of language itself,one of its design features is the creativity.There are numerous examples to illustrate that words can be used in new ways to mean new things,and can be instantly understood by people who never come across that usage before.Because language is created and used by people who are creative creatures.Secondly,the society we live change moment by moment in every field.Words increase innumber and vary on types with the economy development,technological progress and culture creation.For example,Chinese comprehensive national power has been gradually strengthened in recent years and Chinese culture has more influence over the world,Chinese language like Wenyen,Taikonaut and so on are produced.Thirdly,cro-communications take the active role in ways of word formation.Especially after the industrial revolution,interpersonal communication between regions and countries become more and more frequent.While people communicate across culture,they need interlanguage to establish an bridge between native language and foreign language.Accordingly,new words are formed.To sum up,we can account three factors for the diverse ways of word formtion:creativity of language,changes of the society and frequent cro-communication.Chapter 5 syntaxI think syntax has many functions in a language, and I will show them in the following passage. First, syntactic knowledge can decide which strings are grammatical and which are not, from which we are able to know which phrase or certain words are grouped together and have a good understanding of word order., For example, “She works hard” is a correct sentence, but if someone says “Works she hard”, nobody will understands it and thinks it right. What is more , syntax can sometimes has ambiguous meanings.For example, “a beautiful girl picture”can be understood that a beautiful girl’s picture or a beautiful picture of a girl.Second, syntactic knowledge also enables us to determine the grammatical relations on a sentence, such as subject and direct object, and how they are to be understood.Consider the following sentence:Mary like Bill. From this sentence,we can know that “Mary” is a subject and “Bill” is direct object.Third,syntax shows creative aspect in a language.After grasping the syntactic rules clearly, speakers can produce and understand a limitless number if sentences never produced or heard before.For example,if the word “Apple” is used, we can produce many sentences according to syntactic rules ,such as “The apple is red”., ,“My favorite fruit is the apple”, and “ Shangdong is famous for producing apples”.All in all, syntax has three major functions ,and they are the grouping of words in order, grammatical relations and creativity in a language.Chapter 6 Comments on the Referential TheoryThe Referential Theory have contributed greatly to the development of semantics. It also helps us to understand how can people use language to describe the word, or how can people convey meaning to a listener about what is going on in the real world.In the Referential Theory, the semantic triangle shows out that the relation between a word and thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by concept. In the diagram, wordrefers to the linguistic elements (words), the thing refers to the object in the world of experience, and concept refers to the meaning of the word. Thus the symbol of a word signifies "things" by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word. For example, when we heard the sentence" There is a dog at the school gate", we shall firstly connect the word "dog" with the existed imagine of a dog in our head. The image of the dog could be a small furry being with a cute tail, thus we pictured the dog at the school gate with relative similar features.However, the Referential theory also has some limitations and problems.First, the theory seems to predict that every word has a referent. But, there are many words that is very difficult to find a exact referent. For example, "ghost" and "dragon", "is" and "are", "play" and "jump" etc. For those words that have no concrete entities, the theory does not make any sense then.Second, according to the theory, a sentence is a list of names. But a mere list of names can mean nothing. For example, "Susan Mary Mike Jack" , this cannot be used to assert anything.Third, there are linguistic phenomena that seem to show that there is more to meaning than reference. For example, in synonyms, two terms can share their reference but differ in meaning--" Luke Jackson" and "the basketball player".To conclude, the Referential theory contributed greatly to the semantic research but also has some limitations need to be considered.Chapter 7 Sentence Meaning vs.Utterance MeaningThe difference of semantics and pragmatics lies in the consideration of context. If it is not considered, it is traditional semantics. Or it's being carried out in the area of pragmatics. Sentence meaning is the meaning of a sentence, which is studied as abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence, abstract, and decontextualized. Utterance meaning is concrete and contextualized, on the basis of sentence meanings. It is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply a context.The sentence meaning in semantics is related to the meanings of the words used in it. It just talks about the sentence itself, without basing on concrete context. But the sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the word meaning. Sentences using the same words may mean quite differently if they are arranged in different orders. For example," The man chased the dog" and "The dog chased the dog",two sentences have the same words but their subjects and objects are opposited.So they mean quite differently. When we analyze the sentence meaning in semantics, we are just talking on the basis of the sentence itself from different sides.However, when we talk about the utterance meaning in pragmatics, we usually put the sentence in concrete context and try to consider more than what the speaker says. For example, if it's cold in the dormitory and your roommate open the window, you may say "Are you cold?"It seems that you are caring about her in the area of semantics. But if you think a while, you ask her the question and she will think "I'm ok, and you ?"Then she knows you are cold, why?-she open the window. Consequently, she will realize that she should close the window. This is a common phenomenon in the world. We often express our idea friendly not to take a straight way.What's more, the same sentence has different utterance meanings in pragmatics but it just has one meaning in semantics. For example, "Would you like a cup of coffee? Coffee will keep me awake". If it's asked in the morning and you are sleepy, you mean that you want. But if it's asked in the midnight and you are going to sleep, you mean you don't want it. This is also different. It just means the influence of coffee toward you in semantics.In a word, whether considering the context is the difference between the sentence meaning in semantics and utterance meaning in pragmatics.。

词汇学名词解释

词汇学名词解释1.Slang:俚语word of this group belong to the sub-standard language (a category that seems to stand between the standard general words and informal ones available to everyone) eg roger(understand),catch(talk to)2.Archaisms:古语词archaisms are words or form that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. eg thou(you).wilt(will)3.Neologisms:新词语this category refer to newly-created words or expressions or words that have taken on new meanings. eg the pill=an oral contraceptive4.Denizens:同化词denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the english language.in the words they have come to conform to english way of pronunciation and spelling. eg pork from porc(F) .cup from cuppa(L)5.Aliens:非同化词aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Eg decor(F)6.translation loans:译借词translation loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the english language but modelled on the patterns taken from anther language. eg ketchup from fanqiejiang(CH dial) lama from lama(Tib)7.semantic loans:借义词words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form but to the meaning.in the other words ,english has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language. eg Pioneer once signified ‘explorer’ only or ‘person doing pioneering work’, and it now has taken on the new meaning of a member of the Young Pioneer’8.Free versus bound morphemes:自由语素粘着语素Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free .free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentence.eg they are identicalWith words,for example,man,earth,wind,car and anger.collect,ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes.all the rest re-,-ion,-ist,-ic,ex- and -er are bound as none of them freestanding units9.Derivational versus inflectional morphemes:①morphemes wich are u sed to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes.eg clear+ance,life+like.②.Inflection morphemes:曲折语素indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers.inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines,fridges,desks,radio and potatoes.10.affix:词缀affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Eg prefixes:pre-,ex-,and de- suffixes:-less,-dom,-ic,-s,-ed)11.Affixation:词缀法affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to base. Affixation fall into two subcategories:prefixation and suffixation.①prefixation前缀法is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to base.non-means not:non-smoker,non-classical.②suffixation:后缀法is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.eg -ful:meaning’amount’contained’一mouthful,handful./doc/be11048396.html,pounding:(复合法）compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. eg these example show that compounds can be writtensolid(silkworm),hyphenated(honey-bee) and open(tear gas).13.Conversion转类法conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Eg simple (adj)一simplify(v)简化14.Blending:拼缀法blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. eg smog is the result of putting smoke and fog together.15.Clipping：截短法another common way of making a word is to shorten,or clip a longer word,known as clipping. eg plane and exam are sometimes use in place of aeroplane.16.Acronymy:首字母拼写法acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms. Eg. V oa voice of america17.back-formation:逆生法back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. eg diagnosis一diagnose，donation一donate18.Sound reduplication(语音重叠法）sound reduplication is the formation compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change. eg flip一flop人字拖,fingle一fangle标立异/doc/be11048396.html,monization of proper names:专用名词普遍化when proper names are changed into words in use,the process is called commonization. eg ‘ohm from German physicist ohm .20.Onomatopoeic motivation:拟声理据in modern Englishone may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating,the natural sounds or noises.bang,ping一pong,haha.21.Morphological motivation:形态理据compounds and derived words are muti-morphemic words and the meaning many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. eg air mail means ‘to mail by air’22.Semantic motivation：语义理据semantic motivation is the mental associations bases on the conceptual meaning of a word.in other word,it is the figurative sense of the word. eg when we say the mouth of a river,we associate ‘the open ing part of the river’with ‘the mouth of a human being or an animal’23.Etymological motivation：词源理据the origins of words often throw light on their meanings. eg the word laconic meaning ‘brief ‘ or ‘short’ is derived form lacons.24.t ypes of homonyms①hom onyms：同形同音异义词perfect homonyms also known as absolute homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling. eg bear n(a large heavy animal) bear v (to put up with)②homographs:同形异义词are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. eg sow v(to scatter seeds)一sow n (female adult pig)③homophones:同音异义词are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Eg dear n(a love person) ;deer n (a kind of animal).25.Extension of meaning:词义的扩大extension of meaning refers to the process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. eg journal一daily paper一periodical26.Narrowing of meaning：(词义的缩小）narrowing of meaning is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. eg girl一young person of either sex 一female young person27.Elevation of meaning:(词义的升华)elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. eg angel一messenger一messenger of God. 28.Degradation of meaning:(词义的降格)degradation is a process whereby words of good originfall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. eg silly一happy一foolish.29.Transference of meaning:(词义的转移）words which were used to designated one thing later changed to mean something else.30.Euphemism:（委婉语）people tend to avoid mentioning taboo and specific unpleasantnesses directly and try to employ pleasant terms to express the ideas.。

词汇学构词法clipping

Clipping 截短法
4.1. Definition
In linguistics, clipping is the word formation process
which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its
parts (Marchand: 1969).
For convenience and casualness in speech, people often omit one or two syllables from a word, and when it’s written down, a new spelling form is coined to suit the oral form.
Chapter 4 --English Word Formation
Types of Word Formation
Affixation( Prefixation ,Suffixation) Compounding Conversion Blending
Clipping
Acronymy (Initialisms ,Acronyms) Back-formation Onomatopoeia Sound Reduplication Commonization of Proper Names
Eg.
refrigerator fridge
microphone mike
television telly
handkerchief hanky
comfortable comfy
可编辑
(5). Phrase clipping
popular music pop public house pub zoological garden zoo permanent wavesperm

专有名词普通化

分析人名普通化的来源及途径
借助文学作品中的形象(来源较多) b 通过历史人物特点展现 c 随着影视作品及流行趋势衍生 d 引用科学家等著名人物表现
a

地名普通化举例
白宫借指美国政府香格里拉用做人们心中的伊甸园 (原指外国人小说中的理想王国，以及藏语中的香巴拉）克林姆林宫指俄罗斯政府 Watergate 由美国民主党总部的所在地 Watergate Complex（水门大厦）后因克林顿总统的丑闻而后广指丑闻事件 Champagne 源于盛产香槟酒的 Champagne省，后用其指香槟
b通过历史人物特点展现c随着影视作品及流行趋势衍生d引用科学家等著名人物表现地名普通化举例白宫借指美国政府香格里拉用做人们心中的伊甸园
专有名词普通化
the Commonization of proper names
关于人名地名
人名的普通化举例
1.亚历山大用其谐音表示压力很大 2.爱迪生用科学家的名字指人很聪明 3.林黛玉用文学作品里的形象表示现在人的弱不禁风 4.雷锋用人物的品格代替助人为乐的精神 5.宋江引用文学作品及时雨宋江 6.说曹操曹操就到用文学作品中的专有语言使谈话更形象生动 7.沈佳宜用(那些年我们一起追过的女孩)影视作品中的语言普通化为生活中男孩心中的那个她
China 原china是中国瓷器现用来表示中国

张维友〈词汇学教程〉答案(第三版)

《英语词汇学教程》（2015年版）练习答案【Chapter 1】7． tart: loose woman bloke: fellow gat: pistol swell: great chicken: coward blue: fight smoky: police full: drunk dame: woman beaver: girl8. haply = perhaps albeit = although methinks = it seems to me eke = also sooth = truth morn = morning troth = pledge ere = before quoth = said hallowed = holy billow = wave/ the sea bade = bid12.Denizens Aliens Translation loansSemantic loanskettle die wall skirt husbandconfrere pro patria Wunderkind mikado parvenuchopstick typhoonblack humour long time no seedream13. 1) slangs; 2) jargon; 3) argot; 4) content words; 5) native words; 6) translation loans; 7) neologisms; 8) denizens; 9) semantic loans; 10) basic vocabulary【Chapter 2】1. The Indo-European Language Family is one of the most important language families in theworld. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European have more or less influence on English vocabulary. A knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately.2. Indo-European Language FamilyBalto-Slavic Indo-IranianCeltic Italic HellenicGermanic HindiBreton Spanish Greek English Lithuanian Persian Scottish French Dutch Prussian Irish Italian German PolishPortuguese Norwegian Bulgarian Roumanian Swedish Slovenian IcelandicRussianDanish6. When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.Most of the content words are either of Greek or Latin origin. What are left are mostly functional words. This shows that Greek and Latin play a very important part in the English vocabulary.8. eventful [Latin + English] hydroplane [Greek + Latin]falsehood [ Latin + English] pacifist [Latin + Greek]saxophone [German + Greek] heirloom [ French + English]joss house [ Portuguese + English] television [Greek + Latin]9. amateur (late) finacé (late) empire (early)peace (E) courage (E) garage (L)judgement (E) chair (E) chaise (L)grace (E) servant (E) routine (L)jealous (E) savaté (L) genre (L)gender (E) début (L) morale (L)state (E) chez (L) ballet (L)11. allegro, f 轻快andante, j 行板diminuendo, g 渐弱largo, d 缓慢pianoforte, a 轻转慢alto, i 女低音crescendo, b 渐强forte, e 强piano, h 轻soprano, c 女高音12. cherub (Hebrew) snorkel (G)coolie (Hindi) tulip (Turk)lasso (Sp) wok (Ch)shampoo (Indian) chocolate (Mex)tepee (Am Ind) jubilee (Gr)kibitz (G) Sabbath (Heb)chipmunk (Am Ind) tamale (Mex)cotton (Arab) voodoo (Afr)loot (Hindi) sauerbraten (G)13. a. alligator b. lococ. rodeod. bonanzae. igloof. blitzkriegg. wigwam h. canoei. hurricane j. boomerangk. ponchos【Chapter 3】1. a. morpheme b. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affix h. rooti. stem j. base6. individualistic undesirablesindividualist [stem, base] undesirable [stem, base]individual [stem, base] desirable [stem, base]dividual [stem, base] desire [root, stem, base] dividu [root, stem, base]7.free morpheme = free rootmorpheme bound rootbound morpheme inflectional affixaffix prefixderivational affixsuffix【Chapter 4】Affixation5. non-smoker incapable impracticaldisobey insecurity irrelevantimmature inability/disability unofficiallyunwillingness illegal disagreementillogical disloyal inconvenientnon-athletic6. harden horrify modernizememorize falsify apologizedeepen glorify sterilizelengthen intensify beautifyfatten sympathizea. apologizedb. beautifyc. lengtheningd. sympathizede. fatteningf. falsifyg. memorizing h. Sterilize7. a. employee b. politician c. participantd. waitresse. conductorf. teacherg. pianist h. examinee/examiner8. trans- = across: transcontinental, trans-Siberianmono- = one: monorail, monoculturesuper- = over, above: superstructure, supernaturalauto- = self: autobiography, automobilesub- = below: subdivide, subsectionmal- = bad, badly: malpractice, malnutritioninter-= between: international, interdependentmini- = little, small: mini-library, miniskirtpre- = before: prehistorical, preelectionex- = former:ex-president, ex-convictCompounding2.heartbeat [S + V] brainwashing [V + O]movie-goer [V + Adverbial (place)] baking powder [ V + Adverbial (instrument)] far-reaching [V + Adverbial] dog-tired [noun-adverbial + adj.]lion-hearted [noun-adverbial + adj.] love-sick [noun-adverbial + adj.]boyfriend [S + complement] peace-loving [V +O]snap decision [V + O] easy chair [ S+ C]on-coming [V +adv] tax-free [noun-adverbial + adj.]light-blue [adj + adj] goings-on [V +adv]3. well-bred / well-behaved culture-bound / homeboundneedle-work / homework praiseworthy / trustworthybar-woman / sportswoman nation-wide / college-wideclear-minded / strong-minded military-style / western-styleself-control / self-respect budget-related / politics-relatedwater-proof / fire-proof once-fashionable / once-powerfulnews-film / news-letter mock-attack / mock-sadnesssister-in-law / father-in-law home-baked / home-producedhalf-way / half-done ever-lasting / ever-greenage-conscious / status-conscious campus-based / market-basedConversion7. a. stomach [n → v]b. room [n → v]c. wolf [n → v]d. come / go [v → n]e. familiar [a → n]f. innocent [a → n]g. flat [a → v]h. ah / ouch [int → v]i. warm [a → n]j. has-been / might-have-been [finite v → n]k. Hamlet [proper n → v]l. buy [v → n]m. smooth [a → v]Blendingmotel (mo tor + ho tel) 汽车旅馆humint (hum an + int elligence) 人工情报，谍报advertisetics (advertise ment + statis tics) 广告统计学psywarrior (psy chological warrior) 心理战战士hoverport (hover craft + port) 气垫船港口chunnel (ch annel + t unnel) 水底火车隧道hi-fi (hi gh + fi delity) 高保真cinemactress (cinem a + actress) 电影女演员Clippingcopter (heli copter): front clipping dorm (dorm itory): back clippinglab (lab oratory) :front clipping prefab (pref abricated house): phrase clipping gas (gas oline): front clipping prof (prof essor): back clippingscope (tele scope): front clipping champ (champ ion): back clippingsarge (serge ant): back clipping mike (mic rophone): back clippingad (ad vertisement): back clipping tec (de tec tive): front and back clippingAcronymy1. kg = k ilo g ram ft = f oo t cf = c on f ercm = c enti m eter $ = dollaribid = ibid em etc. = et c eteraVIP = v ery i mportant p ersonOPEC = O rganization of P etroleum E xporting C ountries TOEFL = t esting o f E nglish as a f oreign l anguage2. a. SALTb. radarc. AIDSd. BASICe. Laserf. WHOg. sonarh. G-manBackformation2. lase (laser)escalate (escalator)babysit (babysitter)peeve (peevish)orate (orator)commute (commuter)Commonization of Proper Names3. a. tantalize—Tantalusb. Argus-eyed—Argusc. narcissism—Narcissusd. sabotage—sabotse. martinet—Martinetf. yahoo—Yahoog. Shylock—Shylockh. hoovering—Hooveri. utopia—Utopiaj. Uncle Tomism—Uncle Tom【Chapter 5】6. apes—b birds—a cattle—mcricket—n doves—c foxes—jgeese—k sheep—f wolves—gmonkeys—e pigs—l hyenas—hturkeys—d swans—i9. a. A scientist working in a project to develop industrial uses for nuclear power might have all the positive associations with “atomic”, such as “benefit, energy”, etc.b. A Japanese resident of Hiroshima, victim of the atomic explosion at the end of World War II, might have all the negative associations with “atomic”, such as “suffering, killing, death, horror", etc.c. To a student of nuclear physics, “atomic” might be associated with “mystery, science, knowledge”, etc.10. talkative: implying a fondness for talking frequently and at length (neutral)articulate: expressing oneself easily and clearly (positive)gossip: indulging in idle talk or rumours about others (negative)rambling: talking aimlessly without connection of ideas (negative)fluent: speaking easily, smoothly, and expressively (positive)mouthy: overtly talkative, especially in a rude way (negative)11.No Appreciative Neutral Pejorative1 particular fastidious / fussy2 critical fault-finding / picky3 style/vogue fad4 artful cunning / sly5 unstable fickle / capricious6 developing underdeveloped / backward7 encourage/ promote instigate8 group clique / gang14. bull [-HUMAN +MALE +ADULT +BOVINE]cow [-HUMAN -MALE +ADULT +BOVINE]calf [-HUMAN OMALE -ADULT +BOVINE]rooster [-HUMAN +MALE +ADULT +GALLINE]hen [-HUMAN -MALE +ADULT +GALLINE]chicken [-HUMAN OMALE -ADULT +GALLINE]-HUMANbull cow calf +BOVINErooster hen chicken +GALLINE+MALE -MALE -ADULT【Chapter 6】Polysemy4. The word board first denoting "a table" has later acquired two very divergent senses. Each of them has given rise to another sense from which the original notion has disappeared. The process can be shown as follows:Homonymy4. 1) Make both ends meat is a parody of make both ends meet which means “have enoughmoney for one’s needs”. Here the butcher cleverly uses the pair of homonyms meat and meet to make a pun. It makes a proper answer to the lady’s question. (1) Butchers cannot make both ends meat (make whole sausages with all meat) because they cannot make both ends meet (If they made sausages with all meat, which is more costly, they would not earn enough money to survive.) (2) Don’t complain. All the butchers do the same. I am not the only one who is making sausages with bread.2) Swallow is a bird which is seen in summer. But by one swallow we see, we cannotdeduce that it is already summer time. Swallow can also mean a mouthful of wine. On a cold winter day, if one has a swallow of wine, one may feel warm.3) Arms has two meanings: weapons; the human upper limbs. Since “a cannon ball took offhis legs”, the soldier was not able to fight on, so he “laid down his arms”, which means “surrender”. It can also mean he laid down his upper limbs.Synonymy3. avaricious: greedy courteously: politelyemancipate: set free customary: usualwidth: breadth adversary: opponent gullible: deceived remainder: residueinnocent: sinless obstacle: obstruction vexation: annoyance5. a. identifiable b. safetyc. motivatesd. delicatee. surroundingsf. artificialg. prestige h. perspirei. accomplishment j. silentk. impressive l. evaporate6. run move spinturn whirl roll7. a. stead b. gee-gee c. riped. maturee. effectivef. efficientg. fatigued, children h. tired, kids i. declinedj. refused k. rancid l. addledm. Penalties n. fines o. rebukedp. accusedAntonymy5. a. similar/same b. safec. sharp/ smartd. sende. stingy/ selfish h. simplef. significant/sensible i. sureg. skeptical/ suspicious l. smoothj. slipshod/ slovenly/ sloppy k. sleepiness/ sleep / slumberm. subjective n. sob/ scowl6. a. old-fashioned b. completelyc. moistured. speciale. essentialf. similarityg. innocent h. rigidi. loosen j. clarityk. deserted l. fruitfulm. peremptory n. depressedo. indifferent7. a. feed—starve, cold-fever b. wisdom—folliesc. haste—leisured. penny—pound, wise—foolishe. speech—silencef. absence—presenceg. admonish—praise i. wise men—foolsh. young—old private—public saint—devilj. mind—body k. foul—fairl. danger—security m. deliberate--promptn. children—parents o. bully—cowardp. head—tail8. right—wrong single—returndry—sweet hard—easystrong—faint rough—calmlight—dark cold—warmhigh—low/deepHyponymy3.furniture: desk, chair, table, bedmatter: liquid, gas, solidmeat: pork, beef, muttongo: run, fly, walk4.profession workplacesurgeon: clinic, hospitalplumber: house, buildinglawyer: office, law courtsmechanic: garagephotographer: studioforeman: worksite, factory5.6. In Sentence 1), got, furniture, recently are superordinates because they are general and convey a very vague idea whereas in Sentence 2), the three words are replaced respectively by bought, cupboard, three days ago, which are subordinates, conveying a definite and clear idea. So Sentence 2) is better than Sentence 1.In Sentence 3), it is said, magnificent building, destroyed, yesterday are superordinate terms, which are comparatively much more general than the news says, Royal Hotel, burnt down, last night respectively in 4), which can be described as subordinates. Since 4) is clearer than 3) in meaning, it is better.Semantic field3. Group 1 is synonymously semantic field and Group 2 is semantic filed. The difference lies: In 1 the words are synonyms, none of them covers the meaning of another, and they differ only in style and emotive values. In 2 the words are not synonyms, but each refers to a specific type of horse. Horse is a cover term or superordinate, and others are subordinates. These terms have no difference in style or affective meaning.【Chapter 7】4. 1) extension 2) extension3) narrowing 4) degradation5) elevation 6) narrowing7) extension 8) extension9) narrowing 10) narrowing11) elevation 12) degradation13) degradation 14) degradation5. a. associated transferb. abstract to concretec. concrete to abstractd. abstract to concretee. abstract to concretef. abstract to concreteg. associated transferh. associated transferi. synesthesia (transfer of sensation from sight to hearing)j. synesthesia (transfer of sensation)6. a. objective b. subjective, objectivec. objectived. subjectivee. subjectivef. subjectiveg. subjective h. subjective, objective7. a. die b. graveyardc. bedlam疯人院d. old peoplee. strikef. Policemang. stupid pupil h. poor peoplei. toilet j. fat personk. unemployed mother【Chapter 8】2. 1) a. to repairb. measurement and determination of one’s positionc. predicamentd. injection2) a. a single complete dividing part (of a rocket)b. the theatre or acting as a professionc. a particular point or period in a process of developmentd. to plan, arrange and carry out3) a. interchange and discussion of ideas, esp. for mutual understanding orharmonyb. conversationc. a written conversation (of a play, etc.)3. a. synonymyb. explanation/ definitionc. exemplificationd. relevant detailse. relevant detailsf. relevant details4. a. stop people drinkingstop drinking by themselvesb. a stone house which is biga house built of big stonesc. a picture possessed by Bettya photograph of Bettyd. aunts who are visitingpaying a visit to auntse. take Jane as his wifepreside over Jane’s weddingf. a weapon that can fly over long distance and that it explodes when it h its the thing itaims atan object that is thrown at somebody in order to hurt him【Chapter 9】6. a—2) b—9) c—3)d—6) e—1) f—8)g—5) h—4) i—7)j—10)7. a. stand out againstb. approve ofc. get … over withd. looking intoe. come up withf. comply withg. cashed in onh. go withouti. to profit by / fromj. dut down …to8. a cool cat = a really calm personblow one's stack = lose control over oneselffly off the handle = become excessively angrywhat's more = furthermoreget away with = commit an illegitimate act without penaltyof course = naturallyget on = get oldpepper and salt = grey (hair)make up for = compensate forlost time = time wastedtake it easy = relax, not worryget up = rise from bedturn in = go into bedtake care of = manage or look afterlike a breeze = without effort or easilytime off = time for restget it made = be successfulthis is it = be in a position or place, or have possession of an object beyond which more of the same is unnecessarySam is really a calm person. He never loses control of himself and hardly ever becomes too angry. Furthermore, he knows how to manage his business financially by using a few tricks… Needless to say, he, too, is getting older. His hair is beginning to turn grey, but he knows how to compensate for wasted time by relaxing. He rises early, exercises, and goes to bed early. He manages his frankfurter dispensary without visible effort, until it is someone else's turn to work there. Sam is successful, he has reached his life's goal.9. a. “Well, it's the old story of the stitch in time,” he said.A stitch in time saves nine.b. Fleur's head was lost in the tool-box, but her voice was heard saying: “Too many cooks,better let me.”Too many cooks spoil the broth.c. But not many other people held that view discerning his finger still very large in everypie — so much so that there often seemed less pie than finger.have a finger in the pied. I’m thinking of putting up a “Silence is golden” placard in his office. Nobody can hearthemselves think.Speech is silver, silence is golden.e. They four had one likeness: their appearance and their work was as it were a wheel inthe middle of a wheel.wheel within wheelsf. He quotes them extensively nevertheless, together with other equally suspectevidence, because otherwise he would have no straw with which to make his bricks.make bricks without straw10. wind and weather wheeling and dealingwaifs and strays town and gowntop and tail time after timerules and regulations rise and fallrags and tatters puff and blowpick and shovel peace and quietover and above one and onlyoff and on neck and neckshoulder to shoulder moan and groanmilk and water man and beast11. a. 好奇伤身。

Commonization of proper names

• Robert—bobby • Guillotime--guillotine
Some are from charactersic literary works 有的来源于文学著作
•
Байду номын сангаас
• Quixote--quixotic
• Beryl 百丽儿希腊绿宝石，幸运 • Cara 卡拉意大利朋友；亲爱的人。 • Ellen 艾伦希腊、拉丁火把 • • • • Hilary 希拉瑞莉拉丁快乐的。 Judy 朱蒂希伯来赞美。 Molly 茉莉希伯来反抗的苦涩；海之女。 Olive 奥丽芙拉丁和平者；橄榄。
Commonization of proper names
专有名普通化
专有名词普通化就是用专有名词指代普通概念,主要包括人名普通化和地名普通化两方面.用做普通名词的专有名词的词源可以追溯到文学作品、历史事件、风土人情等方面.研究专有名词普通化现象有助于了解专有名词的本义和衍生义,更好地了解西方文化.
Names of books
• Utopia—utopia(an imaginary perfect society) from Sir Thomas More • Babbitt—battitt(a person converned mainly with business and position, caring little for art or culture)
Names of places
• China—china(porcelain) • Champagne—champagne(a kind of wine) • Rugby—rugby(a sort of ball games)

词汇学

Head+word
Telephone+ quiz-----telequiz Automoblie +camp--autocamp
Word+tail
Book+automo blie-----bookmoblie Work+welfare -------workfare
4
4.5Clipping
Clipping is a way of making a new word by shortening a longer word.
Clipping gives rise to alterations in spelling and pronunciation.
6
4.6Acronymy(首字母缩略法首字母缩略法) 首字母缩略法
Acronymy: joining the initial letters of composite names of organizations or phrases to form new words.
11
4.8Sound Reduplication
Sound reduplication : the formation of compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change. e.g: Our time is running out and we must hurry-skurry with this fiddle-faddle, because willy-nilly this feature must end even if it is topsy-turvy.
Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.Why? Why? Suffixation : adding suffixes to bases BackBack-formation : removing the supposed suffixes. suffixes. (not true suffixes but inseparable parts of the words. ) words. E.g. verb bases + -er, -or, -ar = agential nouns.

词汇学4-6单元复习

6.Although Jane thought her father seemed anxious and uneasy ,Susan did not perceive my change in his looks or ways.7.After years of research ,scientists have identified the virus that is responsible for the disease .8.North Africans,make up the largest immigrant group in the country .9.Despite the limitation of survey ,it did suggest some general trends .10.You don’t have to be a genius to see that it is not going to work.Chapter4\Word Formation 构词Conversion 转换Clipping截断法Blending 混合acronymy 首字母拼音4.1Affixation 附加法Is one of the major ways of word formation ,by which new words are formed by attaching affixes to the front or the back of word bases.1.prefixation 前缀法negative prefixes 否定前缀pejorative prefixes 错误意义的前缀prefixes of degree or size 表范围和程度的前缀prefixes of orientation and attitude 前缀的取向和态度Locative Prefixes 方位前缀Prefixes of Time and Order表时间和顺序的前缀number prefixes数字前缀conversion prefixes转化前缀miscellaneous prefixes 其他类型前缀2.Suffixation 加后缀deverbal 从动词派生出来的词denominal 来自名词形容词的词suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases .1）Noun suffixes 名词后缀①denominal nouns 由名词转换或派生的词②Deverbal nouns 从动词派生出来名词③De-adjective nouns 由形容词转化的词④noun and adjective suffixes 名字或形容词后缀2）adjective suffixes 形容词后缀① denominal suffixes ②deverbal suffixes3）adverb suffixes4)verb suffixes4.2Compounding复合Is one of the major ways of word formation by which new words are created by combining two or more bases together.1.character of compounds 复合特征phonological features 音韵特性semantic Features 语义特性grammatical features语法特性orthographical features 正字法特性2.Formation of compounds复合构造noun compounds;adjective compounds;verb compounds 4.3 conversion 转化Is one of the major ways formation new words are formed by converting part of speech of a word into another part of speech without changing the form.Functional shift 功能性转变zero-derivation 零推导Conversion to nons deverbal;De-adjectivalConversion to verbs denominal :de-adjectivalConversion to adjectives voiceless to voiced consonant;initial to end stress4.4 Blending 混合Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word .words formed as such are called blends or portmanteau混成words .4.5 Clipping 截取法Another common way of making a word is to shorten ,or clip a longer word ,know as clipping .it is the formation of new words by cutting a part of the original and using what remains instead Types:front clipping back clipping ;front and back clipping ;phrase clipping .4.6Acronymy首字母拼音法Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms.words formed in this way are called acronyms ,which can be subdivided into initialisms and acronyms depending on the pronunciation of words .Initialisms 首字母缩略词: letters represent full words ;letters represent constituent in a compound or just parts of a word.acronyms首字母缩略词4.7Back-formation 逆词够法Is one of the minor ways informing new words by which new words are created by removing imagined or supposed suffixes way.the words are usually verbs from existing nouns or another form.4.8 sound reduplication 声音重叠as term indicates,sound reduplication is the formation of compound words by repeating the same with little or no change.words made in this way are know as reduplicatives.Type:abstract nouns;agential nouns;compound nouns and others;adjectives4.9Commonization of proper names 普通专有名称apart from the means of word formation discussed so far ,there is an interesting source for the enrichment of Englishvocabulary ,i.e .proper names.Names of peopleNames of placesNames of bookstradenamesChapter5.word meaning and componential analysis 语义和成分分析5.1 word meaningReference引用words are but symbols,many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference.reference is the relationship between language and the world.Concept 概念concept which is beyond language ,is result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense 感觉i s a term used in word meaning referring denoting the relationship inside languages words existing in human brain.5.2motivation 动机motivation refers to connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning .as we know,the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary ,most words can be said to be nob-motivated.Onomatopoeic motivation 象声动机Morphological motivation 形态动机Semantic motivation 语义动因Etymological motivation 词源理据5.3 types of meaning 类型的意义word meaning per se is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different components,which are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning .1)grammatical meaning and Lexical meaning 词义2)Conceptual meaning and associative 概念意义和联想Connotative meaning内涵Stylistic meaning 文体意义Affective meaning 情感意义Collocative meaning 搭配义5.4 componential analysis 成分分析according to leech ,is the process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimalk components.Semantic features语义特征Chapter 6 .sense relations意义关系a lexeme which is related to other lexemes is related to them in sense,hence sense relations.thesubjects that have long held the interest and attention of semanticists in the flied of sense relations are polusemy ,homonymy,synonymy,antonymy and hyponymy6.1polysemy 一词多义is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages.1)two approaches to polysemy 一词多义两种方法diachronic approach 历史方法derived meaning 引申义synchronic aapproach 同步方法central meaning 本义2）two processes of development 发展的两个过程radiation 放射concatenation串联6.2homonymy 同音异义are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling .1)Types of homonyms: homony, homographs ,homophones兼容并包，同形异义字，同音2)originsofhomonymschangeinsoundandspelling ;borrowing ;shortening ;differentiation homonyms from polysemants分化同音异义词;rhetoric features of homonyms修饰功能的同音异义词6.3 synonymy同义is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages.1)Definition of synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning .2)Types of synonyms:absolute synonyms and relative synonyms .3)sources of synonyms :borrowing; dialects and regional English ;figurative and euphemistic use of words coincidence with idiomatic expressions4)discrimination of synonyms 英语近义词分析Difference in range and intensity of meaning差异的范围和强度的意义Difference in stylistic features 文体特征差异Difference in emotive colouring在情绪化的色彩差异Difference in application在应用程序的区别。

2012春词汇测试1

首都师范大学2011--2012第二学期英语教育系英语词汇学选修课程测试（1）Name _________ Student No. __________ Score _________I. Choose the best answer. (6x1=6%)1. Which of the following is NOT true?A. A word is the smallest form of a languageB. A word is a sound unityC. A word has a given meaningD. A word can be used freely in a sentence2. The relationship between sound and meaning is _________ and conventional.A. naturalB. fixedC. flexibleD. arbitrary3.Words may fall into content words and functional words by ________.A. use frequencyB. notionC. originD. formation4._________ words are mostly simple and monosyllabic, and share all thecharacteristics of the basic word stock. They are also neutral in style.A. FunctionalB. ContentC. NativeD. Loan5.The borrowings include Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, and Semanticloans. Blitzkrieg is a typical _________.A. DenizenB. AlienC. Translation-loanD. Semantic loan6. Of the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is_______.A. all national characterB. productivityC. polysemyD. collocabilityII.Read the following passages and choose the right words to complete them.Write the correct answer on your answer sheet. (7x1=7%)The term lexicology contains two Greek morphemes:lexikon and logie.Lexikon means ‘__1__’, logie means ‘learning’ or ‘the __2__ of’. So the literal meaning of the term is ‘the science of words’.Lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the __3__ of a given language. It deals with words, their __4__, development, history, structure, meaning and application.In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.__5__ is the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. A word is a minimal __6__ form of a language that has a given __7__ and meaning and syntactic function.1. A. meaning B. word C. form D. sound2. A. study B. scope C. reference D. history3. A. vocabulary B. method C. grammar D. system4. A. idea B. number C. origin D. belief5. A. Dictionary B. Old English C. Stem D. Etymology6. A. natural B. free C. short D. small7. A. sentence B. unit C. sound D. relationIII. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). (9x1=9%)1.( ) Words that belong to basic word stock are absolutely stable.2.( ) People use slang words are to pursue novelty and freshness. Non-nativespeakers should use slang words with caution.3.( ) There are only 154 functional words in English and they play veryinsignificant role in daily use of language.4.( ) No one knows exactly how many content words are there in English.5.( ) Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open. The differentorthographical forms are largely a personal preference.6.( ) Almost all mono-morphemic verbs can be used as nouns which aresemantically related to the original verbs in various ways.7.( ) Such words as the poorer, the departed, a Republican are all examplesof partial conversion.8.( ) The meaning of a compound is usually the combination of the stems.9. ( ) The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve in a change ofstress.IV. Fill in the following blanks with the appropriate words given in the box.Write the corresponding letter of your choice on your answer sheet.(11x1=11%)A. affixationB. blendingC. derivationD. prefixationE. acronymyF. clippingG. conversionH. analogyI. part of speech J. suffixation L. compounding M. meaningsIn modern times, the expansion of vocabulary is mainly through word formation. The major means of word formation are ____1____, ____2____, and ___3___. Affixation, also called ____4____, is the formation of new words by adding affixes to stems. While ____5____ is to create new words by adding prefixes to stems, ____6____ makes new words by adding suffix to stems.Generally speaking, prefixes do not change ____7_____ of the stems, but their ____8____, whereas suffixes do. Shortening, such as ____9____, ____10____, etc. also plays an important role in the development of vocabulary, resulting in amount up to 8 to 10 percent, together with 1% to 5% of words born out of ____11____ and other words.V. Translate the following words into Chinese and indicate their formation processes. (27x1=27%)Example: diagnose 诊断（back formation）1. infonomics ___________ ( )2. tantalize ___________ ( )3. copter ___________ ( )4. deadline ___________ , brainstorm __________ ( )5. befriend ___________, malnourished __________ ( )6. snowball v. __________, n. __________ ( )7. UNESCO __________, radar __________ ( )8. brain drain __________, brain gain __________ ( )9. UFO __________, ID card __________ ( )10. donate _________, edit _____________( )VI. Most of the English prefixes change the meaning of a word. But there are some prefixes that change the part of speech of the word. Give 3 examples of conversation prefixes and 2 examples of each. (9x1=9%)Prefixes Examples1. ___2. _______ 3__________4. ___5. _______6.__________7. ___ 8. _______ 9. __________VII. Choose the appropriate words given in the box to complete the following sentences. Write the corresponding number of the word in the blank.(15x1=15%)bilateral congenital deduction runaway pseudonymsduplicate nominal accused downfall monopolyunanimous narcissism dilemma outcry ambiguous1.After a lengthy discussion we reached a ____ decision on the proposal.2.France and Germany have signed a ____ agreement to help prevent drugsmuggling.3.Dorothy was faced with the ____ of having either to drop the course or to flunk it.4.Recurrent slave uprisings brought about the ____of the ancient Roman empire.5.The wording of the agreement was somewhat ____ So we need to sit down andrewrite it precisely.6. The number of mirrors in the average home suggests that there is a little _____ ineach of us.7. According to recent studies, fingerprint patterns can often reveal ____ healthproblems.8. Many southerners sheltered _____ slaves during the civil war.9. There was a public _____ about selling arms to rebels.10. After I got sick each time I ate chocolate, I drew the _____ that this food wascausing my illness.11. The government is determined to protect its tobacco ______.12. It is advisable to suspend judgment until the ______ has offered his defense.13. Many novelists write under ______ when they have their books published.14. She is the_____head of our college—the real work is done by her deputy.15. Can you _____this document for me? I need two copies.VIII. Translate the following sentences into Chinese. (8x2=16%)1.We can’t stomach such an insult.2.The Christian heaven can be seen as a sort of spiritual utopia.3.We have decided that it is impossible to cheat when that Argus-eyed professorgives an exam.4.The prices ballooned in their country.5.It is important to distinguish between the false and the true6.The campsite has been nicknamed 'tent city' by visiting reporters.7.I don’t need a backseat driver on this project.8. Dollarwise, business is better than ever—but not so good profitwise.This is the end of the test. Please check your name and student numberbefore you hand in the answer sheet.KeyI.1-6 A D B C B AII.1-7 B A A C D B CIII.1-9 F T F T T T F F TIV.1—3 A /C L G4--11 C D J I M E F BV. 1. 信息经济学（blending）2. 折磨，诱惑（commonization of proper names）3. 直升飞机(clipping)4. 最后期限，截止日期；头脑风暴（compounding/composition）5. 象朋友一样对待；营养不良的（affixation）6. （象滚雪球般）增大；雪球（conversion）7. 联合国教科文组织；雷达（acronymy）8. 人才外流；人才流入（analogy）9．不明飞行物；身份证（initialism）10．捐献；编辑（backformation）VI. en, be, aVII.1. unanimous2. bilateral3. dilemma4. downfall5. ambiguous6. narcissism7. congenital8. runaway9. outcry 10. deduction11. monopoly 12. accused 13. pseudonyms 14. nominal 15. duplicate VIII.1.我们不能容忍这样的侮辱。

英语专业-英语词汇学-笔记汇编

1.What is polysemy?Having multiple meanings that are related.2.What are the two different ways of organising polysemous words? Explain them1)The diachronic approach begins with the primary meaning and then arrangethe other meanings (derived meanings) in the order in which theydeveloped.2)The synchronic approach begins with the most popular meaning (centralmeaning) and then arrange the other meanings (marginal meanings) inorder of popularity.3.What are the two different ways in which polysemy develops? Explain them1)Radiation. Secondary meanings are independent from one another and arederived directly from the primary meaning.2)Concatenation. Secondary meanings are connected and derive from primarymeaning through successive shifts of meaning from one secondary meaningto another.4.What is homonymy?Homonyms are works different in meaning but either identical both in sound or spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.5.Give an example of a perfect homonym, a homophone and a homograph1)perfect homonym 同音同形date日期/date红枣2)homophone 同音异形Knew/new, meet/meat3)homograph 异音同形record(v.)/record(n.)6.Give an example of the rhetorical use of homonymyHi Jack （你好杰克）– hijack（打劫）7.What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy? Give an example toillustrate the difference1)Polysemy is about connection of meanings. Book can mean a book as in “Ｉbook a hotel room”. The second meaning is related to read a book”, and “Ｉthe first one because in the past hotel staff will write the customers’information on a book when reserving a room.2)homonymy is about form. Lie can mean not being honest or being in ahorizontal position. These two meanings have the same form but noconnection.8.Classify the following pairs of antonyms into complementaries (binaries),contraries (gradable) or converses (relational). Explain why1)Good/bad, contraries2)odd/even, complementaries3)above/below, converses4)clean/dirty, contraries5)remember/forget, complementaries?6)old/young, contraries7)before/after, converses9.What is hyponymy? Give an exampleThe meaning of a more specific word is included in that of a more general word.例Flower is the superordinate term, rose is the subordinate term.10.What is synonymy?Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but nearly or exactly alike in essential meaning.11.What is the difference between absolute and near (relative) synonyms?1)Absolute synonyms – interchangeable in every way2)Near synonyms – similar in denotation but have different shades of meaningor different degrees of a given quality.12.What are some of the reasons why synonyms exist?1)Borrowing from other languages2)Dialects and regional English3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions13.What are some of the factors that discriminate between relative synonyms? Useexamples1)Range of meaning. “timid” is more extensive because it can be used todescribe the state of mind at a time and the disposition, but “timorous” onlydescribe the disposition.2)Degree of intensity. A “wealthy” person has much more money than a“rich” person.3)Differences in stylistic features. “ask” is used commonly and tend to becolloquial. “question” is more formal.14.(The development of English) What was the language spoken in the British Islesbefore English? How was English introduced?Celtic. Germanic tribe invaded and settled after Roman. They brought their own culture. It was called Anglo-saxon (the name of two tribes) and also called old English.15.What are the three phases of the English language and what were their timeperiods? What events marked the transition of one phase to another?a)Old English (450 - 1150) ——Norman conquest from France in 1066, butthe real development of middle English started in the 12th century becausethe ruling class spoke Anglo French and the peasants spoke Anglo-Saxon so it took quite a long time for them to intermix.b)Middle English (1150 - 1500) ——during Renaissance there was anexplosion of information and knowledge about Ancient Greece and Roman.People stated to read so ideas spread. Greek and Latin words startedentering English. Besides, printing was invented, more can read and writebooks.c)Modern English (1500 – present)16.Over its history, English has evolved from a highly inflected language to a nearlynon-inflected language. What is the difference? Give an example of inflection in EnglishInflection means to modify a word to indicate grammatical relations. A lot ofwords in a highly inflected language have ending or form changes in order toshow its grammatical function. But a weakly inflected language has fewerchanges. As English developed, it has changed from a highly infected language toa weekly one.17.What are the most important languages that English has borrowed from? Why?1)French – Norman conquest2)Latin – Renaissance, a lot of Latin book were translated into English3)Scandinavia – Vikings (9 century) influenced old English18.What is the difference between a Content Word and a Functional word? Give anexample of each.?Content words are those are about something. 例nation, earth.?Functional words are those used to express relations. 例the, and.19.Explain two properties of Basic words and give examples1)Productivity. Basic words are very productive because thet are mostly rootwords or monosyllabic words. They can be used alone and are often used toform now words with other roots and affixes. 例foot-football-footprint2)Many basic words take part in a number of set expressions. 例heart- by- lose heartheart –from the bottom of one’s heart20.What is a denizen word? Give an exampleDenizens are words that were borrowed a long time ago, they look and soundlike a native word.例‘pork’ from the French ‘porc’21.What is an alien word? Give an exampleAliens are borrowed words which have kept their original pronunciation andspelling.例café , fiancée22.What is a translation loan? Give an exampleTranslation loans a re words and expressions formed from existing material inthe English language but tranlate the meaning or the sound from anotherlanguage.例‘black humour’ from the French ‘humour noir’例‘tea’ from the Chinese23.What is a semantic loan? Give an exampleSemantic loans a re where a word already exists in native English but borrows anew meaning from another language.例‘dumb’ has come to mean ‘stupid’ because of the German word ‘dumm’24.(The structure of Words) What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the minimal meaningful unit of language.25.What is the difference between a morpheme and a morph??Morpheme is about meaning.?Morph is about shape and sound.Morphemes are abstract, and are realized in speech by morphs.26.What is the difference between a bound morpheme and a free morpheme? Givean example of each kind of morpheme1)Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. 例dis-,mis-.2)Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. 例man,dog.27.What is the difference between a derivational morpheme and an inflectionalmorpheme? Give an example of each kind of morpheme1)Derivational morphemes can derive new words. 例football, slowlycreate new words and just indicate syntactic2)Inflectional morphemes don’ｔrelationships. 例-ed, -ing, -er, -est, -s28.What is the difference between a content morpheme and a grammaticalmorpheme? Give an example of each kind of morpheme1)Content morphemes have content and can be used to derive new words. =derivational morphemes.2)Grammatical morphemes are grammatical markers, including Inflectionalmorphemes & free morphemes. 例while, where, they29.What is an affix?An affix is a form that are attached to words to modify meaning or function. 30.What is the difference between a derivational and an inflectional affix? Give anexample of each1)Inflectional affix do not create new words, and indicate syntacticrelationships between words. 例–ed, talked2)Derivational affix derive new words. 例–less, careless. non-, non-smoker.31.What is a root? Give an exampleA root is a word element that contains the main component of meaning in aword. It is that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed.例：internationalists → nation Impracticality → pratice32.What is a stem? Give an exampleA stem is that part of the word form that remains when all inflectional affixeshave been removed.例：internationalists → nationalistsUndesirables → desirable33.What is a base? Give an exampleA base is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.例：possible, understand34.(Word Formation)What is blending?the combination of parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.35.Give an example of blending and explain how the word has been formedSmog=smoke+fog36.What is clipping?a part of the original word is removed.37.Give an example of clipping and explain how the word has been formedExam-examination38.What is acronymy?new words are formed by joining the initial letters of composite namesor phrases39.Give an example of an initialism and explain how the word is formedInitialism ——pronounced letter by letter. 例：BBC,CCTV40.Give an example of a true acronym and explain how the word is formedTrue acronym ——pronounced as a normal word. 例：NATO, AIDS41.What is the commonization of a proper name? Give an exampleWords come from proper names. 例“rugby” from “Rugby School”, where itwas first played.42.What are the three most productive ways of forming new words in the Englishlanguage?Affixation, compounding, conversion.43.What is affixation? Give an exampleThe formation of new words by adding word-forming or derivationalaffixes to bases.44.What is compounding? Give an exampleThe forming of new words by joining two or more bases. 例hot dog, blueprint45.Give an example of the use of a conversion prefix (a prefix that you add tosomething that changes word class) and explain the shift in word classCage (n.) uncage(v.)46.Give an example of the use of a noun suffix ( a suffix that you add to somethingto produce a noun) and explain the shift in word classDance(v.) dancer(n.)47.Give an example of the use of an adjective suffix and explain the shift in wordclassChild(n.) childish(adj.)48.Give an example of the use of a verb suffix and explain the shift in word classShort(adj.) shorten(v.)49.What differences typically exist between a compound and its matching freephrase? Give an example1)Phonological features. In compounds the word stress usually occur on thefirst constituent whereas in free phrases this generally falls on the second.例fat head复合词fat head短语2)Semantic features. A compound expresses a single idea. 例hot dog3)Grammatical features. A compound tends to behave as single grammaticalunits such as a verb, noun, or adjective. 例’bad-mouth’ used as a verb50.(Meanings)What is a ‘referent’？The object or idea to which a word or phrase refers. It is arbitrary andconventional.?51.What is a ‘concept’Concept is the totality of real world knowledge about an item.52.What is the relation between ‘word’, ‘concept’ and ‘referent’？A word symbolizes a concept, a concept refers to a referent, a word stands for areferent. 【Words are connected to their referent via a concept.】53.54.What is ‘sense’？The realization of a concept by a definite language system.55.How would you describe the difference between a word whose meaning ismotivated and a word whose meaning is u nmotivated?See if there is connection between linguistic symbol and its meaning.56.What is onomatopoeic motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationSome words are created by imitating the natural sounds. 例ha ha57.58.What is morphological motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationCompounds and derived words are multi-morphemic and the meanings of many of them are the meanings of the morphemes combined. 例airmail, hopeful59.60.What is semantic motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationThe meaning is based on an association with the conceptual meaning of a word.例the mouth of the river.61.How would you describe the difference between conceptual meaning andassociative meaning???Conceptual meaning is meaning as it is given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. The same word generally has the sameconceptual meaning to all the speakers in the same speech community?Associative meaning is secondary meaning supplemental to conceptual meaning. It can be influenced by a range of factors including culture, education, religion, experience, geographical region and so on62.What is connotative meaning? Give an exampleassociations that a word has that is suggested by its conceptual meaning例mother- love, care, forgiving63.What is stylistic meaning? Give an examplestylistic properties that make them appropriate for different styles.例child is formal, kid is informal. Father is formal, papa is informal.64.What is affective meaning? Give an example of pejorative and appreciativemeaningthe speaker’s attitude towards the person orthing in question例the country is backward. (pejorative) the country is developing.(appreciative) 65.What is collocative meaning? Give an exampleassociations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment’例tremble with fear; quiver with excitement.。