BehavioraUSystemsCognitive Linking Out-of-Body Experience and Self Processing to Mental Own

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CognitiveBehaviorModification

CognitiveBehaviorModification Cognitive Behavior ModificationCognitive behavior modification (CBM) is a blending of two conceptual models of management behavioral and cognitive theory, and as such is a powerful tool for changing trajectories of behavior in children and adults. One of the most widely researched and heavily evidenced types of therapy or intervention, CBM provides an evidence-based model for practice in public and private applications. Behavioral models of management originate with John Watson, Edward Thorn-dike, and B. F. Skinner and are based on learning theories of operant conditioning. Behavior is thought to be ‘learned’ and as such can be ‘unlearned.’ All behavior serv es a function for the individual, such as escape and avoidance or access to a reinforcer or reinforcement of some kind. Those reinforcers could be tangible or intangible things or conditions. Cognitive theory involves thoughts and feelings, two things that a behaviorist could not identify or measure overtly. Cognitive theorists would discuss cognitive structures and internal dialogue as the reason for behavior. This internal dialogue is also called self-speech or self-talk and is believed to be modifiable through self-instruction training, whereas a purely behavioral model would seek to change the antecedents and consequences that maintain the behavior.Definition and DescriptionCognitive behavior modification is the theory and practice that people's thinking about events, rather than the events themselves, are responsible for their actions, and that thinkingcan be modified and lead to behavior change. CBM involves overt behavior but also considers the verbal and internal processes that monitor and guide the more observable behavior. Interventions that are grounded in CBM include self-dialogue and thinking as component antecedents and consequences in changing behavior.Behavioral Model: Observable and Measurable Events Antecedent →Behavior →Consequence Example: Jack is teased by Fisher → Jack hits Fisher → Fisher quits teasing Jack has learned that hitting will result in escaping teasing and may be more likely to hit the next time there is an occurrence of something Jack wants to escape. A behavioral intervention would target teaching Jack to escape appropriately. This would reflect the function of the behavior (escape) while teaching a new skill to get the same need met.Cognitive-Behavioral ModelAntecedent →Thinking/Belief System →Feeling →Behavior Example: Jack is teased by Fisher → Jack thinks about getting teased and has a strong emotional response → The anger or frustration or embarrassment → Leads to hittingThe feelings and behavior in this model are the focus of the intervention rather than the behavior of hitting. A cognitive behavioral intervention would target the thinking and feeling or self-dialogue that occurred rather than attempt to control the consequences and antecedents.Cognitive behavior modification is a form of intervention that emphasizes the important role of thinking in how people feel and what they do. Cognitive behavior modification involves the attribution of beliefs to people's thoughts that theoretically cause their feelings and behaviors. The benefit of this CBM modelis that thinking and beliefs are conceptualized as learned. Thinking, feeling, believing (self-talk, self-narration, self-schema) as a learned behavior means people can change the way they think in order to feel or act, regardless of the situation. CBM can be thought of as a theory, a system of strategies, and a series of techniques. The theory is based on the idea that the processing of information is crucial for the survival of any person or individual.Cognitive-behavioral therapists teach that when people's brains are healthy, it is their thinking that causes them to feel and act the way they do. Therefore, if a person is experiencing unwanted feelings and behaviors, it is important to identify the thinking that is causing the feelings or behaviors and learn how to replace this thinking with thoughts that lead to more desirable reactions.PurposeTheoretically, cognitive-behavioral therapy can be employed in any situation in which there is a pattern of unwanted behavior accompanied by distress and impairment. It is a recommended treatment option for a number of mental disorders, including affective (mood) disorders, personality disorders, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, eating disorders, substance abuse, anxiety or panic disorder, agoraphobia, posttraumatic stress disorder, and attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Patients with sleep disorders may also find cognitive-behavioral therapy a useful treatment for insomnia.Cognitive-behavioral therapy combines the individual goals of cognitive therapy and behavioral therapy. Pioneered by psychologists Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis in the 1960s, cognitive therapy assumes that maladaptive behaviors and disturbedmood or emotions are the result of inappropriate or irrational thinking patterns, called automatic thoughts. Instead of reacting to the reality of a situation, an individual reacts to his or her own distorted viewpoint of the situation. For example, a person may conclude that he or she is ‘worthless’ simply because he or she failed an exam or didn't get a date. Cognitive therapists attempt to make their patients aware of these distorted thinking patterns, or cognitive distortions, and change them (a process termed cognitive restructuring).Behavioral therapy, or behavior modification, trains individuals to replace undesirable behaviors with healthier behavioral patterns. Unlike psychodynamic therapies, it does not focus on uncovering or understanding the unconscious motivations that may be behind the maladaptive behavior. In other words, those who are strictly behavioral therapists don't try to find out why their patients behave the way they do, they just teach them to change the behavior.Cognitive-behavioral therapy is used to mitigate maladaptive behaviors through the use of covert self-statements with the behavioral modification techniques of behavioral therapy. The therapist works with the patient to identify both the thoughts and the behaviors that are causing distress, and to change those thoughts in order to readjust the behavior. In some cases, the patient may have certain fundamental core beliefs, called schemas, that are flawed and require modification. For example, a patient suffering from depression may avoid social contact with others and suffer considerable emotional distress because of this isolation. When questioned, the patient reveals to his therapist that he is afraid of rejection, of what others may do or say to him. Upon further exploration with his therapist, theydiscover that his real fear is not rejection, but the belief that he is uninteresting and unlovable. His therapist then tests the reality of that assertion by having the patient name friends and family who love him and enjoy his company. By showing the patient that others value him, the therapist both exposes the irrationality of the patient's belief and provides him with a new model of thought to change his old behavior pattern. In this case, the person learns to think, ‘I am an interesting and lovable person; therefore, I should not have difficulty making new friends in social situations.’ If enough irrational cognitions are changed, this patient may experience considerable relief from his depression.InterventionsIntervention in CBM works on the identification of one of two types of beliefs: rational and irrational. Several types of interventions work from this basic principle.Cognitive restructuring is the process of replacing maladaptive thought patterns with more constructive thoughts and beliefs. Maladaptive thoughts are those considered unsuitable or counterproductive; for example, maladaptive behavior is behavior that is inappropriate to a given situation.Verbal mediation is the process of identifying the self-talk or inner speech that will lead to goal fulfillment or task achievement.A script of self-talk that corresponds to the targeted or desired behavior is used in mental rehearsal to shape behavior.Problem solving involves deconstructing problem scenarios and developing alternative causal explanations and inferences along with alternative solutions or behaviors. These alternatives are then mapped todetermine best choices or best options for subsequent conditions of the same problem.Self-instruction is the process of teaching steps toward task completion. There are specific steps in self-instruction as follows:1.Demonstration by Model. The teacher/therapist models behavior and says out loud what he or she is doing.2.Modeling With Overt Adult Guidance. The student/ client performs the task while talking to him- or herself out loud. The teacher/therapist corrects the student/client, helps with difficulties, and gives positive feedback.3.Modeling With Overt Self-Guidance. The student/ client performs the task while orally talking himor herself through without guidance from the teacher/therapist.4.Modeling With Faded Self-Guidance. The student/ client whispers the self-guidance while performing the task.5.Self-Guidance. The student/client speaks silently while performing the actions.Tips for Implementation. Frequent practice is needed for fluency and mastery. Participants all need verbal rehearsal and opportunities for application. Start small before tackling large issues. Use visual prompts.BenefitsCBM has been reported to have a host of benefits. Individuals report having more self-control, and some research reports its use for increasing time on task in classrooms, improved performance on intellectual tasks, decreases in impulsivity, and increases in attention. Other positive effects include an increased awareness of feelings and maladaptive belief systems, as well as an increase in self-evaluation of how behaviors related to personal behaviors.CBM has demonstrated effectiveness for many children who benefit from modeling and rehearsing. CBM increases theattention of children after limited treatment exposures. CBM improves the processing abilities of aggressive students and increases problem-solving abilities. For students with ADHD, CBM has demonstrated effects for reducing the impulsiveness of many students by having them implement problem solving, and for students with learning disabilities, anxiety disorders, depression, anger, and impulsivity, improved performance is expected from CBM.Cognitive behavior modification is different from psychodynamic therapy, and they should not be confused one for the other. Psychodynamic therapy is a therapeutic approach that assumes that dysfunctional or unwanted behavior is caused by unconscious, internal conflicts and focuses on gaining insight into these motivations. CBM is a focus on the verbal behavior of an individual. It is covert but not unconscious. This verbal behavior is also conceptualized as automatic thoughts, which automatically come to mind when a particular situation occurs. Cognitive-behavioral therapy seeks to challenge automatic thoughts for their rational or irrational basis. Schemas are the fundamental core beliefs or assumptions that are part of the perceptual filter that people use to view the world. Cognitive-behavioral therapy seeks to change mal-adaptive schemas. Relaxation techniques are sometimes used to relieve stress. Exercise, biofeedback, hypnosis, and meditation are all effective relaxation tools. Relaxation techniques are used in cognitive-behavioral therapy to teach patients new ways of coping with stressful situations but are not a direct component of CBM.Future research on CBM includes a need for data on the long-term effectiveness of using the procedures and the applicability for individuals with specific disabilities, such asattention deficits and emotional and behavioral disabilities across ages.Denise Soares Kimberly J. Vannest Further ReadingsEntry Citation:"Cognitive Behavior Modification." Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology. 2008. SAGE Publications. 22 Sep. 2009. </educationalpsychology/Article_n42.html>.。

2024年同等学力申硕英语考试真题

2024年同等学力申硕英语考试真题2024 National Postgraduate Entrance Examination (English)Part I Listening Comprehension (20 points)Section ADirections: In this section, you will hear 10 short conversations. At the end of each conversation, a question will be asked about what was said. Both the conversation and the question will be spoken only once. After each question, there will be a pause. During the pause, you must read the four choices marked A), B), C) and D), and decide which is the best answer. Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the center.1. A) At a news conference. B) In a classroom. C) At a restaurant. D) In a library.2. A) She is sick. B) She is busy. C) She is on vacation. D) She is changing jobs.3. A) The man should have told her. B) She is surprised at the price. C) The man should discuss it with her. D) She agrees with the man.4. A) He will ask his friend for help. B) He will fix it himself. C) He knows nothing about it. D) He will hire someone to do it.5. A) She wants to be excused from going. B) She plans to go.C) She has an important event that night. D) She doesn't know if she'll be able to make it.6. A) They should have partied more. B) She should eat more fruit. C) They should hurry to get to the beach on time. D) She should get ready faster.7. A) The man is almost out of gas. B) The woman is out of gas. C) The man is almost at a gas station. D) The man needs to buy gas before he leaves.8. A) Purple. B) White. C) Black. D) Green.9. A) Guitar lessons. B) Drawing lessons. C) Piano lessons. D) Dance lessons.10. A) Go to a concert. B) Prepare for a test. C) Play chess. D) Attend a play.Section BDirections: In this section, you will hear 3 short passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear some questions. Both thepassage and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C), and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the center.Passage One11.What induces people to give more strength to their satisfaction when writing an online journal entry than they do in their oral communication?A) The fact that in written communication mistakes can be corrected easily.B) The fact that journal writing is an individual activity.C) The fact that the written record can be later reviewed.D) The fact that journal writing is less time-consuming than oral communication.12. What shows advantages of blog as a form of communication?A) It makes interpersonal relationships easier to maintain.B) It attracts more readers than traditional diary writing.C) It allows readers to make anonymous comments.D) It provides more space for longer messages.Passage TwoQuestions 13 to 15 are based on the passage you have just heard.13.What does the speaker think of online learning?A) It lacks practical experiences. B) It is suitable for everyone.C) It provides more chances for interaction. D) It is more suitable for working professionals.14. Who are more likely to choose online learning?A) Unemployed people. B) Those with limited access to traditional education.C) College students. D) Working professionals.15. What is the advantage of an online classroom?A) It allows students to learn at their own pace.B) It provides more opportunity for face-to-face interaction.C) It offers students the experience of living on campus.D) It helps students develop lifelong friendships.Passage ThreeQuestions 16 to 20 are based on the passage you have just heard.16. Why is it difficult for researchers to study sleep's impact on health?A) Research subjects often fake their sleep patterns.B) Sleep patterns vary greatly from person to person.C) Technologies are not advanced enough to record sleep patterns.D) It is difficult to recruit sufficient volunteers.17. What is proved by the findings of the study?A) Inconsistent sleep patterns lead to health problems.B) Poor sleep quality causes mental disorders.C) High-quality sleep helps reduce obesity.D) A relaxing bedtime routine is essential for good sleep.18. What is the speaker's advice for a restful night's sleep?A) Keep irregular sleep habits. B) Drink coffee before going to bed.C) Establish a calming bedtime routine. D) Avoid relaxing activities before bedtime.19. Why do some people refuse to take the study results to heart?A) They are too busy to follow the advice. B) They are skeptical about the researchers.C) They think too much sleep is a waste of time. D) They doubt the accuracy of the study results.20. Why is it important for people to monitor their sleep habits?A) To ensure a healthy lifestyle. B) To please the researchers.C) To participate in a follow-up study. D) To relax their minds.Part II Reading Comprehension (40 points)Section ADirections: In this section, there are four passages followed by questions or incomplete statements. For each of them, there are four choices marked A), B), C), and D). Choose the one that best completes the statement or answers the question. Thenmark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the center.Passage OneQuestions 21 to 25 are based on the following passage.Noam Chomsky, the grandson of Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe, was born in Philadelphia on December 7, 1928. He publicly opposed the Vietnam War in the 1960s and was arrested in 1967 for trying to disrupt military research at the Pentagon. Chomsky is well known for his profound impact on the philosophical and scientific understanding of human language.His major work Syntactic Structures and later The Chomsky Hierarchy have had a profound impact on linguistics, cognitive psychology, and the philosophy of mind. Chomsky's views on language acquisition revolutionized the field of linguistics. He argued that children are born with an innate ability to learn language and that the process of language acquisition ishard-wired into the human brain.21. What was Noam Chomsky's impact on the field of linguistics?A) He developed a new language. B) He published Syntactic Structures.C) He revolutionized language acquisition. D) He founded the Chomsky Hierarchy.22. Why was Chomsky arrested in 1967?A) For disrupting military research. B) For opposing the Vietnam War.C) For advocating human language. D) For his views on cognitive psychology.23. According to Chomsky, how does language acquisition occur?A) Through hard work. B) Through environmental exposure.C) Through cultural immersion. D) Through innate ability.24. What did Chomsky argue about children and language acquisition?A) They need formal education. B) They are hard-wired to learn language.C) They learn language from their parents. D) They need to be exposed to multiple languages.25. What are the subjects of Chomsky's major works?A) Cognitive psychology. B) Philosophy of mind.C) Military research. D) Language and linguistics.Passage TwoQuestions 26 to 30 are based on the following passage.Creating a positive classroom environment is crucial for student success and engagement. An environment that promotes trust, safety, and respect can enhance student motivation and learning outcomes. Here are some key factors that contribute to a positive classroom atmosphere:Clear expectations and guidelines that are consistently enforced; A supportive and inclusive classroom culture that values diversity; Opportunities for student participation and collaboration; Effective communication between teachers and students; Encouragement of critical thinking skills and creativity.26. Why is a positive classroom environment important?A) It enhances student motivation. B) It enforces clear guidelines.C) It creates a competitive atmosphere. D) It limits student participation.27. What contributes to a positive classroom atmosphere?A) Consistent enforcement of rules. B) A competitive culture.C) A lack of diversity. D) A strict teacher-student relationship.28. What kind of classroom culture values diversity?A) A conservative culture. B) An inclusive culture.C) A hierarchical culture. D) A singular culture.29. How can teachers promote a positive classroom atmosphere?A) Through limited communication. B) By discouraging critical thinking.C) By encouraging creativity. D) Through strict enforcement of guidelines.30. What does a positive classroom environment promote?A) Student engagement. B) Student competition.C) Teacher control. D) Limited participation.Passage ThreeQuestions 31 to 35 are based on the following passage.The concept of emotional intelligence (EI) has gained significant attention in recent years. Research shows that individuals with high EI are more likely to succeed in various aspects of life, including personal relationships, academic achievement, and career success. Developing emotional intelligence is essential for effective communication, conflict resolution, empathy, and self-awareness.EI consists of five key components: self-awareness,self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. By understanding and enhancing these components, individuals can improve their emotional intelligence and overall well-being.31. What is emotional intelligence (EI)?A) An academic achievement. B) A career success factor.C) An aspect of personal relationships. D) A concept of recent attention.32. What does research show about individuals with high EI?A) They are less likely to succeed in life. B) They lackself-awareness.C) They are more likely to succeed in various aspects of life.D) They are not motivated.33. Why is developing EI essential?A) For academic achievement. B) For conflict resolution.C) For career success. D) For self-improvement.34. What are the five key components of EI?A) Self-regulation only. B) Self-awareness, self-regulation, and empathy.C) Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. D) Self-awareness and self-regulation only.35. How can individuals improve their emotional intelligence?A) By avoiding social interactions. B) By understanding and enhancing key components.C) By focusing solely on career success. D) By ignoringself-awareness.Passage FourQuestions 36 to 40 are based on the following passage.Nature plays a significant role in human health andwell-being. Research shows that spending time in nature can reduce stress, improve mood, and enhance overall mental health.Nature therapy, also known as ecotherapy, has gained popularity as a form of treatment for various mental health conditions.There are many ways to incorporate nature therapy into daily life, such as spending time in natural settings like parks, forests, or gardens; engaging in outdoor activities like hiking, gardening, or bird-watching; practicing mindfulness and meditation in nature; and disconnecting from technology and reconnecting with the natural world.36. What role does nature play in human health andwell-being?A) A minor role. B) No role. C) A significant role. D) An insignificant role.37. What does research show about spending time in nature?A) It increases stress. B) It decreases mood.C) It enhances overall mental health. D) It limits mental health.38. What has gained popularity as a form of treatment for mental health conditions?A) Meditation. B) Yoga. C) Nature therapy. D) Ecotherapy.39. How can nature therapy be incorporated into daily life?A) By spending time indoors. B) By avoiding outdoor activities.C) By practicing mindfulness indoors. D) By engaging in outdoor activities.40. How can individuals reconnect with nature?A) By spending more time with technology. B) By avoiding natural settings.C) By disconnecting from technology. D) By practicing mindfulness indoors.Section BDirections: In this section, you will read 2 passages and answer some questions or complete statements. Use the passage to answer the questions or complete the statements. Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the center.Passage OneQuestions 41 to 45 are based on the following passage.The importance of multicultural education in today's diverse world cannot be overstated. Multicultural education aims to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion in the classroom and beyond. It acknowledges and celebrates different cultural backgrounds, languages, traditions, and perspectives, fostering a sense of belonging and respect among students.By incorporating multicultural education into the curriculum, teachers can provide students with a more holistic and inclusive learning experience. This approach helps students develop a deeper understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures, strengthening their empathy, communication skills, and critical thinking abilities.41. What is the aim of multicultural education?A) To limit diversity. B) To promote diversity, equity, and inclusion.C) To restrict cultural backgrounds. D) To isolate students.42. What does multicultural education acknowledge and celebrate?A) Different languages only. B) Different cultural backgrounds, languages, traditions, and perspectives.C) Tradition only. D) Perspectives only.43. How does multicultural education benefit students?A) By limiting their understanding. B) By limiting their perspective.C) By providing a holistic and inclusive learning experience.D) By isolating them from diverse cultures.44. How does multicultural education strengthen students' empathy?A) By limiting their cultural experiences. B) By limiting their communication skills.C) By providing a deeper understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures. D) By isolating them from diversity.45. What are the outcomes of incorporating multicultural education into the curriculum?A) Strengthening students' limitations. B) Strengthening students' empathy.C) Limiting students' critical thinking abilities. D) Limiting students' communication skills.Passage TwoQuestions 46 to 50 are based on the following passage.Climate change is one of the most pressing global challenges of our time. It poses significant threats to the environment, human health, and the economy. To address these challenges, individuals, communities, governments, and businesses must take action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, transition to renewable energy sources, and promote sustainable practices.Climate change impacts various aspects of life, including weather patterns, sea levels, biodiversity, and food security. By taking proactive measures to mitigate the effects of climate change, we can create a more sustainable and resilient future for generations to come.46. What is one of the most pressing global challenges of our time?A) Climate change. B) Water crisis. C) Pollution. D) Overpopulation.47. How does climate change impact the environment?A) Positively. B) Negatively. C) Minimally.48. What must individuals, communities, governments, and businesses do to address climate change?A) Nothing. B) Take action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. C) Continue current practices.49. What aspects of life does climate change impact?A) Weather patterns. B) Financial markets. C) Biodiversity.50. How can proactive measures mitigate the effects of climate change?A) By increasing greenhouse gas emissions. B) By transitioning to non-renewable energy sources. C) By creating a sustainable and resilient future.Part III Vocabulary and Structure (20 points)Directions: There are 30 incomplete sentences in this part. For each sentence, there are four choices marked A), B), C), and D). Choose the one that best completes the sentence. Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the center.51. Relying solely on social media for news updates could lead to _____ misinformation.A) an increase in B) a surge of C) an influx of D) a proliferation of52. The new company policy requires employees to _____ their work before submitting it to their supervisor.A) edit B) revised C) subvert D) concoct53. The conference committee ____ to hold the event outdoors due to favorable weather conditions.A) determined B) highlighted C) faltered D) limited54. The management team decided to ____ the proposal after considering the potential risks.A) scour B) override C) align D) endorse55. The construction of the new subway line has been ____ delayed due to unexpected funding issues.A) harshly B) promptly C) visibly D) significantly56. The students were _____ for their hard work and dedication to the project.A) criticized B) invalidated C) recognized D) overlooked57. The _____ of plastic bags has been banned in many countries to reduce pollution.A) discretion B) proliferation C) confiscation D) utilization58. The team must _____ their strategies to adapt to the changing market conditions.A) appeal B) dedicate C) modify D) fluctuate59. The home renovation project was _____ due to the contractor's failure to secure the necessary permits.A) compromised B) endorsed C) validated D) optimized60. The new software program allows users to _____ their files securely on the cloud.A) endorse B) retrieve C) utilize D) redeemPart IV Reading Comprehension (20 points)Section ADirections: In this section, there is a passage with ten blanks. You are required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage. Read the passage through carefully before making your choices. Each choice in the word bank is identified by a letter. Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the center.PassageThe global economy is facing unprecedented challenges due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The (61) ____ of the virus has disrupted supply chains, halted international trade, and caused widespread economic uncertainty. As countries (62) ____ with the impact of the pandemic, policymakers are (63) ____ to implement measures to mitigate the economic fallout and support struggling industries. The resilience and adaptability of the global economy will be tested as nations work together to (64) ____ from the crisis and build a more sustainable future. It is essential for governments, businesses, and individuals to collaborate and (65) ____ innovative solutions to navigate the challenges ahead.Word Bank:A) outbreakB) recoverC) collaborateD) grappleE) implementSection BDirections: In this section, you are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it. Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs. Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived. You may choose a paragraph more than once. Each paragraph is marked with a letter. Answer the questions by marking the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the center.Passage(66) ____A) Multicultural education aims to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion in the classroom and beyond. It acknowledges and celebrates different cultural backgrounds, languages, traditions, and perspectives, fostering a sense of belonging and respect among students. By incorporating multicultural education into the curriculum, teachers can provide students with a more holistic and inclusive learning experience.B) Climate change is one of the most pressing global challenges of our time. It poses significant threats to the environment, human health, and the economy. To address these challenges, individuals, communities, governments, andbusinesses must take action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, transition to renewable energy sources, and promote。

cognitive behavioural practice -回复

cognitive behavioural practice -回复什么是认知行为实践（Cognitive Behavioral Practice）？认知行为实践（Cognitive Behavioral Practice，CBP）是一种心理学和心理治疗方法，其主要目标是帮助个体改变其思维模式和行为习惯，以改善他们的心理健康和生活质量。

这种实践方法通过结合认知（思维）、情感和行为的相互作用关系来解决问题，并通过积极的行动和反思来促进个体的变化和增长。

CBP是基于认知行为疗法（Cognitive Behavioral Therapy，CBT）的理论基础发展起来的。

CBT是一种具有科学依据的心理治疗方法，被广泛用于治疗各种心理障碍和情绪问题。

CBP则是将CBT的原理和技术应用于实际问题和日常生活的方法。

CBP强调个体对其思维过程和行为选择的意识，并通过改变这些过程和选择来实现积极的变化。

CBP的核心原理是认为个体对事件的解释和反应不仅受到客观情况的影响，还受到其个人信念和思维方式的影响。

通过CBP，个体可以学习识别和纠正其不合理的思维偏见和习惯，并改变对自己、他人和事件的看法。

通过这种方式，他们可以获得更积极的思维模式，以及采取更健康的行为来应对生活中的挑战。

CBP的具体实践涵盖了一系列技术和策略，个体可以通过这些技术和策略来改变和改善自己的思维和行为。

下面将介绍CBP的几个重要方面和常用技术：1. 认知重构（Cognitive Restructuring）：个体通过认识和解决其不合理、消极的思维方式来改变其情绪和行为。

这个过程涉及到辨认和挑战不合理的思维模式，并替换为更合理、积极的思维方式。

2. 问题解决技巧（Problem-solving Skills）：这些技巧帮助个体有效地应对各种生活挑战和问题。

个体学会分解问题、制定目标、生成解决方案、评估结果，并适当地调整自己的行为以取得成功。

3. 暴露练习（Exposure Exercises）：针对特定的恐惧和焦虑，个体通过逐渐暴露于恐惧的情境中，适应并处理相关的负面情绪和体验。

剑桥雅思10TEST2 PASSAGE2阅读解析

智课网IELTS备考资料剑桥雅思10TEST2 PASSAGE2阅读解析摘要：很多烤鸭反映，剑桥雅思阅读资料不太好找，其实烤鸭不必担心，今天小马小编带来了剑桥雅思10TEST2 PASSAGE2阅读解析，希望各位烤鸭可以好好看看。

今天小马小编为雅思考生们倾力奉献剑桥雅思10TEST2 PASSAGE2阅读解析，希望能为雅思考生们带来帮助。

Gifted children and learning天赋小孩与学习一、文章难度概括这篇文章难度一般，文章比较容易读懂，儿童教育类题材大家比较相对较熟悉。

二、文章分析A段：教育环境与智商有关B段：学习策略的举例C段：能力强的学习者常使用自动调节学习策略D段：老师只需在学习过程中做适当的引导E段：个人性格与学习成就有关F段：学习受到情感上的影响三、词汇准备A段Intelligence 智慧Verbal 口头的Manipulate 利用B段：Emerge 出现Qualitative 定性的，性质上的 External 外部的，表面的Internal 内部的，内在的Emotional 情感上的Awareness 意识Metacognition 元认知Curiosity 好奇心C段：Self-regulatory 自动调节Succinctly 简洁的Adjustment 调节D段：Conversely 相反Tendency 趋势Diminish 消除Autonomy 自治，自治权Deprived 缺乏足够教育的E段：Theoretical 从理论上来说的 Vital 重要的Domain 领域F段：Facilitate 促进，帮助Inhibit 抑制，禁止Harness 驾驭四、题型分析这篇文章由三种题型组成，都是阅读考试中常见的题型。

段落信息配对+人名理论配对+句子填空。

五、题目解析Question 14-17题型：Information Matching (段落信息配对)Question 18-22题型： Matching (人名理论配对)Question 23-26题型：Sentence Completion (句子填空)相关推荐：剑桥雅思写作精练剑桥雅思阅读精练剑桥雅思词汇精选相关字搜索：剑桥雅思10TEST2。

走进应用行为分析教学法(婴幼儿应用行为分析教学法课件)

行为技能训练直接教学法精准教学法个别化教学扩大性和增强性沟通系统行为导图和新行为主义教学法
ABA的武功体系-初识应用行为分析教学法
课程小结
应用行为分析的误区应用行为分析应用行为分析教学法依据ABA发展出的有效的教学方法
思考题
你所了解的特教机构都采用了哪些应用行为分析的教学方法？
学业性课程生活自理语言沟通社会互动分享式注意力游戏技巧教室行为管理
学校融合独立生活技能小区适应自我管理职业训练亲职教育
应用行为分析教学法
应用行为分析教学法
就用依据行为的基本原理，采用多种应用行为分析的策略，通过实施明确的教学程序来达到一定的教育目标的教学模式。
技术或技术的集合体
后效增强/间歇性增强是建立指令控制的有效手段。
建立专注行为
专注行为：
是指家长或老师在与孩子互动过程中，孩子能够关注教学者和呈现的教材，眼神注视是其重要的衡量标准。
建立专注行为
如果孩子缺乏眼神，可以通
过手指、物品等来辅助。
建立专注行为
专注行为训练：
安坐下眼神
通过快速进行精熟反应来强化眼神
的发生率
建立型操作（EO）
剥夺食物是一种建立型操作，因为
饥饿不仅提升了食物作为强化物的价值，也会增加个体要求食物的频率。
消除型操作（AO）
消除型操作（AO）
价值改变效果：减低强化物的价值行为改变效果：降低目标行为当下
的发生率
消除型操作（AO）
食物的饱足就是一种消除型操作，
因为当个体吃饱后，食物作为强化物的效力会大打折扣，要求食物的行为也会相应减少。
ABA的武功体系-初识应用行为分析教学法

The attention-guiding effect and cognitive load in the comprehension of animations

The attention-guiding effect and cognitive load in the comprehension of animationsFranck Amadieu *,Claudette Mariné,Carole LaimayCognition,Tongues,Language,Ergonomics –Work and Cognition Laboratory,University of Toulouse,Francea r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Available online 8June 2010Keywords:Animation Attention CueingComprehension Cognitive loadElement interactivitya b s t r a c tTo be effective,instructional animations should avoid causing high extraneous cognitive load imposed by the high attentional requirements of selecting and processing relevant elements.In accordance with the attention-guiding principle (Bétrancourt,2005),a study was carried out concerning the impact of cueing on cognitive load and comprehension of animations which depicted a dynamic process in a neurobiology domain.Cueing consisted of zooming in important information at each step of the process.Thirty-six undergraduate psychology students were exposed to an animation three times.Half of the participants received an animation without cueing while the other half received the same animation with cueing.Measures of cognitive load and comprehension performance (questions on isolated elements and on high-element interactivity material)were administered twice,after one and three exposures to the ani-mation.The analyses revealed two main results.First,extraneous cognitive load was reduced by cueing after three exposures.Second,retention of the isolated elements was improved in both animation groups,whereas comprehension of high-element interactive material (i.e.,the causal relations between ele-ments)increased only in the cueing condition.Furthermore,a problem solving task showed that cueing supported the development of a more elaborate mental model.Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionAnimations take part in multimedia instructions to teach dy-namic systems.In spite of the dynamic information conveyed by animations,these instructional devices still fail to be syste-matically efﬁcient for learning as compared to static graphics (Bétrancourt,2005;Höfﬂer &Leutner,2007;Tversky,Morrison,&Bétrancourt,2002).Designing effective animations for learning re-quires more investigations on the cognitive processing of anima-tions and on the difﬁculties experienced by learners.Although animations may reduce the cognitive cost of mental simulation of a dynamic system (Kühl,Scheiter,Gerjets,&Edelmann,2011),they also require perceptual and cognitive resources to process their spatial and temporal aspects (Bétrancourt,2005),and there-by,might hamper comprehension and learning processes such as selecting,organizing,and integrating relevant information into existing knowledge (De Koning,Tabbers,Rikers,&Paas,2009).The attention-guiding principle (Ayres &Paas,2007;Bétrancourt,2005),like signalling key information consists in directing learners’attention to speciﬁc parts of the learning material in order to support ing Cognitive Load Theory (CLT,Sweller,2003)as theo-retical background,the present study investigates how attentionalguidance (i.e.,cueing)may limit the attentional requirements for processing of animations and supports higher comprehension.1.1.Attentional requirements of learning from animations:Cognitive loadTo reach an effective comprehension of animations,perceptual and cognitive processing may be highly demanding for learners.Pro-cessing dynamic information of animations implies remembering the various steps and their relations (Bétrancourt,Dillenbourg,&Clavien,2008)and the transient nature of information may cause difﬁculties involving split attention over different elements (De Kon-ing et al.,2009).Therefore,during an animated presentation,learn-ers need to coordinate spatial and temporal aspects of their visual exploration of the relevant contents (Boucheix &Lowe,2010).To do so,attentional processes are crucial.The problem is that learners’attention may be distracted from the relevant information (Hill-strom &Chai,2006)by non-topic elements of animation like seduc-tive details or salient elements (Höfﬂer &Leutner,2007;Lowe,2003)or by irrelevant movements in the animation (Lowe,1999).In order to avoid burdening the capacity of working memory unnecessarily,the animation features have to decrease the atten-tional requirements.CLT offers a relevant conceptual framework to describe and study the processing costs imposed by animations.Searching and extracting relevant elements may be viewed as an additional task (De Koning,Tabbers,Rikers,&Paas,2007).Deep learning occurs only if sufﬁcient cognitive resources are allocated to germane cognitive load (Sweller,Van Merriënboer,&Paas,0747-5632/$-see front matter Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.009*Corresponding author at:CLLE-LTC,University of Toulouse le Mirail,5allées Antonio Machado,F-31058Toulouse Cedex 9,France.Tel.:+33561503526;fax:+33561503533.E-mail address:amadieu@univ-tlse2.fr (F.Amadieu).1998).Therefore,to be effective,animations for learning should avoid a high extraneous cognitive load imposed by high attentional requirements due to selecting relevant elements and processing their relations.1.2.Attention-guiding principle:Cueing of relevant information‘‘When applied to animations,cueing can be deﬁned as the addi-tion of non-content information that captures attention to those as-pects that are important in an animation...”(De Koning et al.,2007,p. 733).As well as for static illustrations with(spoken)narrations(e.g., Craig,Gholson,&Driscoll,2002;Jamet,Gavota,&Quaireau,2008; Tabbers,Martens,&Van Merriënboer,2004),evidence of positive ef-fects of cueing was obtained recently for animations.De Koning et al. (2007)conﬁrmed that attention cueing for animations supports comprehension and transfer performance.Boucheix and Lowe (2010)also emphasized that cueing supports the construction of a mental model of causal chains.Examination of eye movements dur-ing learning conﬁrmed that cueing(vs.no cueing)directed learners’attention within animations(Boucheix&Lowe,2010).De Koning, Tabbers,Rikers,and Paas(2010)also observed that cueing facilitates learners to look more often and for longer periods of time at cued rather than at non-cued contents.However,cueing does not improve learning performance in a systematic way(e.g.,De Koning,Tabbers, Rikers&Paas,2011;Moreno,2007).Kriz and Hegarty(2007)as well as De Koning et al.(2010)failed to prove an effect of cueing on learn-ing performance,yet eye movement recordings indicated that cue-ing effectively guided attention to the signalled region.Furthermore,cueing is expected to reduce extraneous cognitive load associated with locating relevant information(De Koning et al.,2009).Unfortunately,only a few studies included cognitive load measures in their experimental apparatus and they did not provide clear evidence of a reduction of cognitive load due to cue-ing methods(De Koning et al.,2007;Moreno,2007).Hence,more investigations of the cognitive load experienced by learners pro-cessing animations should be conducted using measurements of cognitive load throughout learning.1.3.HypothesesThe aim of the present study was to determine whether cueing leads to both better comprehension performance and lower cogni-tive load.According to CLT,it was hypothesized that helping learners focus attention to relevant information at the right time would re-duce extraneous cognitive load caused by attentional requirements, and thereby,enhance their comprehension of a causal dynamic sys-tem(elaboration of a functional mental model).Such an effect was expected to occur only for complex information,i.e.,information with the high-element interactivity because its processing is as-sumed to require more working memory resources than the pro-cessing of simple information that contains isolated elements.So, extraneous cognitive load imposed by an animation without cueing should only interfere with comprehension processes for complex information.In other words,an element interactivity effect was ex-pected(Sweller et al.,1998;Hasler,Kersten,&Sweller,2007).2.Method2.1.ParticipantsThirty-six undergraduate psychology students(6males and30 females)studied an animation displaying a dynamic process in a neurobiology domain(Long Term Potentiation–LTP).All partici-pants were volunteers and were unfamiliar with the topic of the LTP.The mean age of the participants was22.6years(SD=5.42).Two independent groups were compared(18participants in each group).One received an animation without cueing while the other one received the same animation with cueing.The level of prior knowledge in the domain of neurobiology was assessed be-fore the experimental session using a template consisting of four questions testing domain principles(i.e.,elements of a neurone, types of neurones,functions of the myelin sheath,consequences of an action potentialÀmaximum score=20).Both experimental groups had equivalent levels of prior knowledge,t(34)=0.20, p=.85.The mean scores of prior knowledge were12.06 (SD=4.05)for the no cueing animation group and11.78 (SD=4.39)for the cueing animation group.3.Material3.1.AnimationsBoth multimedia presentations were developed using power-point and a visual basic program.The animation illustrated the mechanism of Long Term Potentiation which is a chemical and an electrical phenomenon occurring in synapsis.The animation de-picted a synapsis with the neurotransmitters(glutamate),ions(so-dium,calcium,and magnesium)and neurotransmitter receptors located on the surface of the postsynaptic cell.It showed the three main steps of the process:(a)the release of glutamate from the presynaptic neuron after an electrical stimulation,(b)theﬁxation of glutamate on the AMPA receptors and the entrance of sodium ions in the postsynaptic cell,and(c)the depolarization of the post-synaptic cell triggering the release of the magnesium ionsﬁxated on the ion channels that allows the entrance of calcium ions in the postsynaptic cell.3.2.CueingThe cueing tested in the present experiment had the function of guiding attention to essential information.In order to avoid learn-ers pay(perceptual)attention to salient but irrelevant features,we strengthened the function of attention-guiding of our cueing meth-od:it consisted of a zoom on each step of the dynamic system which hides peripheral information(irrelevant information at each step).This cueing method was expected to help learners both to se-lect the central elements and to ignore the peripheral elements of the animation.A picture of a stage of the animation is given in Fig.1.At the beginning of each step of the Long Term Potentiation mechanism,a purple square appeared on the relevant region to di-rect attention to it.Next,a zoom was made on the region display-ing only the relevant information(elements)of the step(see Fig.2), i.e.,hiding the peripheral or irrelevant elements.Hiding peripheral elements was expected to avoid distraction to elements not in-volved in the step.On the basis of the recommendations of Bétrancourt(2005),a pause after each main step was inserted in order to help partici-pants conceptualize the functioning of the Long Term Potentiation mechanism(see also Spanjers,Wouters,van Gog,&van Merriënboer,2011).Besides,because the disappearance of a previous step could hamper integration of the information across the steps(Boucheix&Schneider,2009),the zoom disappeared at the end of each step displaying the overall frame.Thus,the partic-ipants could process elements previously processed as well as the structural information on the functioning of a synapse.prehension measuresIn order to study what type of information is dependent on the cueing effect,two types of measures were used(i.e.,multiple choiceF.Amadieu et al./Computers in Human Behavior27(2011)36–4037questions with4or6answering options).First,a measure tested the retention of isolated elements of the animation(e.g.,ions and ion channels).Second,a measure tested the comprehension of the high-element interactive material(i.e.,comprehension of causal relations between elements).The questions dealt with the order of events or the cause of a given event.More than one answering option was correct for each question and each correct answer was scored with2points.Moreover,to encourage the participants to avoid random answers,each wrong answer was scored with 1negative point.Two multiple choice questions were designed for isolated elements(there were5correct answering options; maximum score=10)and three others for the highly interactive ele-ments(there were4correct answering options;maximum score=8).Finally,to assess a deeper level of comprehension,a problem solving task was designed.The participants had to predict events and identify errors from the pictures of a stage in the Long Term Potentiation mechanism.This transfer task required the partici-pants to use their mental model in other situations.It consisted of three multiple choice questions(maximum score=6).3.4.Cognitive load measuresAs argued by Bétrancourt et al.(2008),studies on instructional animations would beneﬁt from moreﬁne-grained measurement instruments of cognitive load like ad hoc questionnaires adapted to multimedia learning situations.According to the learning taskFig.1.Screenshot of a step of the animation without cueing. Fig.2.Screenshot of a step of the animation with cueing(zoom).and the instructional material,assessing different forms of cogni-tive load becomes relevant to understanding what kind of process-ing might consume working memory resources(Amadieu,Van Gog,Paas,Tricot,&Mariné,2009;Amadieu,Tricot,&Mariné, 2009;Ayres,2006;DeLeeuw&Mayer,2008;Gerjets,Scheiter, Opfermann,Hesse,&Eysink,2009).The present study tested the effects of cueing on cognitive load and in particular on extraneous cognitive load,which would depend on attentional requirements.Measurement of cognitive load con-sisted of two types of subjective measures:a mental effort9-point scale(Paas,1992)andﬁve perceived difﬁculty9-point scales(all scales ranging from1‘‘very very low”to9‘‘very very high”).These two distinctive measures of cognitive load were considered in order to distinguish the overall cognitive load(i.e.,including intrinsic, extraneous,and germane load)assessed by the mental effort scale and the extraneous cognitive load assessed by the perceived difﬁ-culty scales.The perceived difﬁculty was expected to reﬂect extra-neous cognitive load because difﬁculty would be caused by demanding attentional processing of animations.However,what perceived difﬁculty reﬂects is still fuzzy:intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load(Gerjets et al.,2009),extraneous cognitive load(Ama-dieu,Tricot et al.,2009;Amadieu,Van Gog,et al.,2009;Kühl et al., 2011)or germane cognitive load(DeLeeuw&Mayer,2008).There-fore,the mental effort and the perceived difﬁculty ratings should be considered in relation to the comprehension outcomes.The statement of the mental effort scale was‘‘please indicate how much mental effort you invested to learn the mechanism of the Long Term Potentiation”.For the perceived difﬁculty scales, one scale assessed global difﬁculty(‘‘how difﬁcult was it to learn the mechanism”),another assessed difﬁculty for processing iso-lated elements(‘‘how difﬁcult was it to memorize the names of the elements”),another difﬁculty for processing high-element interactivity material(‘‘how difﬁcult was it to understand the cau-sal relations between elements”)and two others attentional difﬁ-culty(‘‘how difﬁcult was it to understand all elements simultaneously”;‘‘how difﬁcult was it to concentrate your atten-tion on the relevant information”).The set of perceived difﬁculty scales presented high reliability after one exposure to the anima-tion(Cronbach’s Alpha=0.87)and after three exposures to the ani-mation(Cronbach’s Alpha=0.84).4.ProcedureAfter answering the prior knowledge test,participants were in-structed to memorize and learn the mechanism of Long Term Potentiation from the animation.For both animation conditions, participants had no control over the pace of the presentation. The experimental session took place in two stages in order to take into account the development of performance and cognitive load over repeated exposures to the animation.After aﬁrst exposure to the animation,participants rated their mental effort and per-ceived difﬁculty and then answered the isolated elements ques-tions followed by the high-element interactive material questions.Afterwards,participants received two more exposures to the same animation and performed the same tasks,except that they additionally performed the problem solving task at the end. Testing cognitive load and performance twice indicated how the mobilized resources and the comprehension advanced during learning.5.ResultsTwo-way mixed-design ANOVAs(type of animation as a be-tween-subject factor and number of exposures as a within-subject factor)was computed for the scores of each dependent variable. Means and standard deviations of cognitive load ratings and per-formance scores are given in Table1.5.1.Mental effort and perceived difﬁcultyThe analyses conducted on the mental effort ratings did not indicate any effect of the cueing,the number of exposures,or any interaction effect(all F s<1).However,the analyses on the mean ratings of perceived difﬁculty showed signiﬁcant effects. While there was no effect of the cueing,F<1,the number of expo-sures signiﬁcantly reduced the perceived difﬁculty rating,F(1, 34)=8.45,p<.01,x2=.21.After the third exposure of the anima-tion,the perceived difﬁculty was lower(M=6.06,SD=1.03)than after theﬁrst exposure(M=5.67,SD=1.06).Nevertheless,this ef-fect must be interpreted in light of a signiﬁcant interaction,F(1, 34)=8.94,p<.01,x2=.23.Pairwise comparisons revealed that the perceived difﬁculty decreased with the number of exposures only for the cueing group,F(1,34)=17.38,p<.001,Cohen’s d=.76.prehension outcomesThe analyses conducted on the performance also indicated sig-niﬁcant effects.For the retention of the isolated elements,the scores increased according to the number of exposures in both ani-mation groups,F(1,34)=101.54,p<.001,x2=2.87(M=5.78, SD=2.47after one exposure;M=9.42,SD=1.96after three expo-sures).There was neither a main effect of cueing,F<1,nor interac-tion effect,F<1.Concerning the comprehension of high-element interactive material,it was impacted neither by the cueing,F<1,nor by the number of exposures,F(1,34)=1.15,p>.10,but an interaction effect revealed signiﬁcant differences,F(1,34)=4.12,p=.05, x2=.09.Pairwise comparisons indicated that the comprehension scores of the high-element interactive material increased with the number of exposures only in the cueing condition,F(1,34)= 4.82,p<.05,Cohen’s d=.50.Table1Means and standard deviations of cognitive load ratings and performance scores according to the type of animation and the number of exposure to the animation.After one exposure to the animation After three exposures to the animationNo cueing M(SD)Cueing M(SD)No cueing M(SD)Cueing M(SD)Cognitive load Mental effort ratings(range:1–9)5.61(1.15) 5.89(1.13) 5.78(0.94)6.06(1.34)Perceived difﬁculty ratings(range:1–9)5.97(0.79)6.16(1.23) 5.98(0.79) 5.37(1.22)Performance Isolated elements questions(range:0–10)5.39(2.99)6.17(1.82)9.17(2.62)9.67(0.97)High-element interactivity material questions(range:0–8)3.22(3.14) 2.78(2.78) 2.78(2.86)4.22(3.17)Problem solving questions (range:0–6)–– 2.78(2.07) 4.00(1.94)F.Amadieu et al./Computers in Human Behavior27(2011)36–4039Finally,a t-test was computed on the problem solving scores to analyse the differences between both animation groups.The result indicated that the cueing signiﬁcantly improved the problem solv-ing scores,t(34)=À1.83,p<.05,Cohen’s d=0.63.6.Discussion and conclusionThe results stressed that it is important to investigate the ef-fects of exposure to animation on learning.In accordance with Schneider(2007),our results showed that repeated exposures to the animation were required to reveal signiﬁcant effects.The attention-guiding by means of cueing reduced extraneous cogni-tive load,as assessed by perceived difﬁculty ratings,only after sev-eral exposures of the animation.The results on performance seem to indicate that the processing of isolated elements was not ham-pered by extraneous cognitive load imposed by attentional requirements.However,this result should be interpreted cau-tiously,because a ceiling effect for these scores was observed after the third exposure.Nevertheless,there was no effect of cueing after theﬁrst exposure.In return,processing high-element inter-active material(i.e.,comprehension of causal relations)appeared to be negatively affected by attentional requirements.The com-prehension of the causal relations was improved only with the cued animation.Moreover,providing cueing yielded higher prob-lem solving scores,suggesting the construction of a better mental model of the causal system.Hence,overall results on performance are consistent with the element interactivity effect:only high-ele-ment interactive material is affected by instructional design(Has-ler et al.,2007;Sweller et al.,1998).In sum,the set of results indicates that attentional requirements of animations may be re-duced by visual cueing which helps learners to select relevant information and ignore irrelevant information.The resources freed in working memory made the processing of complex information more effective.The present study also highlighted the fact that subjective measures of perceived difﬁculty may provide more sensitive mea-sures of extraneous cognitive load than a global cognitive load measure(i.e.,the mental effort scale),replicating previousﬁndings (Amadieu,Van Gog et al.,2009).Indeed,the patterns of the per-ceived difﬁculty ratings were consistent with the patterns of the comprehension outcomes.This result might explain the lack of an effect on cognitive load in the study of De Koning et al.(2007) who only used a mental effort scale.Some limitations of ourﬁndings should be highlighted as well as perspectives for further studies.The current study administered measures only twice during learning(after one and three expo-sures).Because the cueing effects occurred after several exposures to the animation,the observed effects might be stronger with addi-tional exposures.Conducting studies with more intermediate mea-sures would lead to more detailed data about the development of performance and theﬂuctuation of cognitive load and would also provide additional information about cognitive load management during learning(Tricot,Sweller,Amadieu,Chanquoy,&Mariné, 2008).Finally,on-line data is required to corroborate our interpre-tations on attentional processes during learning tasks.Eye tracking techniques supply a very suitable way of observing attentional processing obviously(Boucheix&Lowe,2010),and they also pro-vide objective measures of cognitive load(Amadieu,Van Gog et al., 2009;Van Gog&Scheiter,2010).ReferencesAmadieu,F.,Tricot,A.,&Mariné,C.(2009).Prior knowledge in learning from a non-linear electronic document:Disorientation and coherence of the reading puters in Human Behavior,25,381–388.Amadieu,F.,Van Gog,T.,Paas,F.,Tricot,A.,&Mariné,C.(2009).Effects of prior knowledge and concept-map structure on disorientation,cognitive load,and 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交互作用分析疗法

交互作用分析疗法交互作用分析简介无论人们是以坚决还是非坚决的方式相互影响，当一个人对另一个人作出回应时，存在一种社会交互作用。

这种对人们之间的社会交互作用的研究叫做交互作用分析（transactional analysis, TA）。

50年代，Eric Berne创造了交互作用分析用于心理疗法。

很快人们就发现它显然也能用于日常交往，TA被一系列大众书籍广泛推广。

TA的目的是帮助更好地理解人们之间是如何交往的，以使人们能够开发改进的沟通方式和健康的人际关系。

自我心态根据Berne的理论，两人在相互交往时，会采取三种被称为自我心态的心理定位中的一种。

这些自我心态包括家长、成人、孩童的心理状态，人们可以运用（沟通或行动）其中的任何一种。

家长式自我心态（Parent ego state）表现出保护、控制、呵护、批评或指导倾向。

他们会照搬政策和标准，发表类似如下的意见：“你知道规则，Angelo。

规则必须遵守。

”成人式自我心态（Adult ego state）表现出理性、精于计算、尊重事实和非感性的行为，试图通过寻找事实，处理数据，估计可能性和展开针对事实的讨论，来更新决策。

儿童式自我心态（Child ego state）反映了由于童年经历所形成的情感。

它可能是本能的、依赖性的、创造性的或逆反性的。

如同真正的孩童一样，具有孩童心态者希望得到他人的批准，更喜欢立即的回报。

从那易动感情的语调中就可以辨别出这种心态，就象当一名员工向他的主管提意见说：“你总是对我吹毛求疵！”时所用的语调。

交互作用的类型交互作用（语言、动作或非语言信号的交换）可以是互补式的或非互补式的。

在公开交互作用中，如果发出者和接受者的心态在回答中仅是方向相反，则交互作用是互补式的。

如果用图表示发出者-接受者的心态交互作用的交互模式，线是平行的。

在这种关系中，主管对员工说话就象家长对孩子一样，员工的回答就象孩子对家长一样。

例如，主管说：“Janet，我希望你停下手中的活，赶快去供给室把为我准备的箱子取回来。

英语教学论课程作业习题集

英语教学论作业习题集Unit 1 Language and Language Learning1.What are the three views on language?1) Structural view on language:The structural view sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentences. Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.This view on language limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabulary.2) Functional view on language:The functional view sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Learners learn a language in order to be able to do things with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. This view on language adds the need to know how to use the rules and vocabulary to do whatever it is one wants to do.3) Interactional view on language:The interactional view considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language but as importantly they need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative contexts. This view on language says that to know how to do what one wants to do involves also knowing whether it is appropriate to do so, and where, when and how it is appropriate to do it. In order to know this, the learner has to study the patterns and rules of language above the sentence level to learn how language is used in different speech contexts.2. What are the views on language learning?1) Behaviourist theory:The behaviorist theory of language learning was initiated by behavioral psychologist Skinner, who applied Watson and Raynor’s theory of conditioning to the way humans acquire language (Harmer, 1983) The key point of the theory of conditioning is that “you can train an animal to do anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement”(Harmer1983: 30) Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behavior. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviorism.2) Cognitive theory:The term cognitivism is often used loosely to describe methods in which students are asked to think rather than si mply repeat. It seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behavioristtheory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics. According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these rules an infinite of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence, which enables him to produce language.3） Constructivist theoryThe constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he or she already knows. It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rote recall what is learned. John Dewey(杜威) believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Therefore, teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learne rs’ interests and curiosity for learning.4） Socio-constructivist theoryVygotsky (前苏联心理学家维果茨基 ,1978) emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD「可能发展区/最近发展区」 ) and scaffolding「鹰架/支架/脚手架」. That is to say, learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable pe ers’ support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his/her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential.3. What are the qualities of a good language teacher?The main elements of a good English teacher are ethic devotion, professional qualities, and personal styles. (Then try to explain these three elements respectively according to your own understanding)Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Task-based Language Teaching1. What is communicative competence?Hedge (2000: 46-55) discusses five main components of communicative competence: linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.Communicative competence entails knowing not only the language code or the form of language, but also what to say to whom and how to say it appropriately in any given situation. Communicative competence includes knowledge of what to say, when, how, where, and to whom.2. What are the three principles of communicative language teaching?a) the communicative principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.b) the task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning (Johnson 1982).c) the meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.3. What are the six criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activities?1) communicative purpose2) communicative desire3) content, not form4) variety of language5) no teacher intervention6) no material control4. What is Task-based Language Teaching?Task-based Language teaching is, in fact, a further development of Communicative Language Teaching. It shares the same beliefs, as language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life. It has stressed the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.Unit 3 The National English Curriculum1. What are the designing principles for the National English Curriculum 2001?1)Aim for educating all students, and emphasise quality-oriented education.2)Promote learner-centredness, and respect individual differences.3)Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability.4)Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation.5)Attach particular importance to formative assessment, and give special attention to the development of competence.6)Optimize learning resources, and maximize opportunities for learning and using the language.2.What are the goals and objectives of English language teaching?The new curriculum is designed to promote students’ overall language ability, which is composed of five interrelated components, namely, language skills, language knowledge, affects, learning strategies and cultural understanding. Each component is further divided into a few sub-categories. Language teaching is no longer aimed only for developing language skills and knowledge, but expanded to developing learner s’ positive attitude, motivation, confidence as well as strategies for life-long learning along with cross-cultural knowledge, awareness and capabilities.3. What are the challenges facing English language teachers?1)English language teachers are expected to change their views about language which is not a system of linguistic knowledge but a means for communication.2)English language teachers are expected to change their traditional role of a knowledge transmitter to a multi-role educator.3)English language teachers are expected to use more task-based activities and put the students at the center of learning.4)English language teachers are expected to use more formative assessment in addition to using tests.5)English language teachers are expected to use modern technology in teaching, creating more effective resources for learning and for using the language.Unit 4 Lesson Planning1. Why is lesson planning necessary?Lesson planning means making decisions in advance about what techniques, activities and materials will be used in the class. It is obvious that lesson planning is necessary.Benefits:1) To make the teacher aware of the aims and language contents of the lesson.2) To help the teacher distinguish the various stages of a lesson and to see the relationship between them sothat the lesson can move smoothly from one stage to another.3) Proper lesson planning gives the teacher opportunity to anticipate potential problems that may arise inclass so that they can be prepared with some possible solutions or other options for the lesson.4) Lesson planning gives teachers, especially novice teachers, confidence in class.5) The teacher also becomes aware of the teaching aids that are needed for the lesson.6) Lesson planning helps teachers to think about the relative value of different activities and how much time should be spent on them. The teacher soon learns to judge lesson stages and phases with greater accuracy.7) The plan, with the teacher’s comments and corrections, provides a useful, time-saving reference when the teacher next plans the same lesson.8) Lesson planning is a good practice and a sign of professionalism.2. What are the principles for good lesson planning?Aims— means the realistic goals for the lesson. That is, the teacher needs to have a clear idea of what he / she would like to achieve for the lesson or what outcomes are expected from the lesson.Variety—means planning a number of different types of activities and where possible, introducing students to a wide selection of materials so that learning is always interesting ,motivation and never monotonous for the students.Flexibility— means planning to use a number of different methods and techniques rather than being a slave to one methodology. This will make teaching and learning more effective and more efficient.Learnability—means the contents and tasks planned for the lesson should be within the learning capability of the students. Of course, things should not be too easy either. Doing things that are beyond or below thes tudents’ coping ability will diminish their motivation.Linkage--means the stages and the steps within each stage are planned in such a way that they are somehow linked with one another. Language3 learning needs recycling and reinforcement.3. What are macro planning and micro planning?Macro planning is planning over a longer period of time, for instance, planning for a whole program or a whole-year course.In a sense, macro planning is not writing lesson plans for specific lessons but rather helping teachers get an overall felling or idea about the course and also get familiarized with the context in which language teaching takes place. Macro planning involves the following:1) Knowing about the course:The teacher should get to know which language areas and language skills should be taught or practised in the course, what materials and teaching aids are available, and what methods and techniques can be used.2) Knowing about the institution:The teacher should get to know the institution’s arrangements regarding time, length, frequency of lessons, physical conditions of classrooms, and exam requirements.3) Knowing about the learners:The teacher should acquire information about the students’ age range, sex ratio, social background, motivation, attitudes, interests, learning needs and other individual factors.4) Knowing about the syllabus:The teacher should be clear about the purposes, requirements and targets specified in the syllabus.Much of macro planning is done prior to the commencement of a course. However, macro planning is a job that never really ends until the end of the course.Micro planning is planning for a specific unit or a lesson, which usually lasts from one to two weeks or forty to fifty minutes respectively.Micro planning should be based on macro planning, and macro planning is apt to be modified as lessons go on.4. What are the components of a lesson plan?A language lesson plan usually has the following components: background information, teaching aims (what language components to present, what communicative skills to practice, what activities to conduct and what materials and teaching aids to be used), language contents (grammar, vocabulary, functions, topics and so on) and skills (listening; speaking; reading and writing), stages (the major steps that language teachers go through in the classroom) and procedures (detailed steps in each teaching stage), teaching aids, assignments, and teacher’s after-class reflection.5. What are the 3P’s model and 3-stage model?The 3P’s model refers to presentation, practice and production.At the presentation stage, the teacher introduces new vocabulary and grammatical structures in whatever ways appropriate.At the practice stage, the lesson moves from controlled practice to guided practice and further to the exploitation of the text when necessary.At the production stage, the students are encouraged to use what they have learned and practised to perform communicative tasks. The focus is on meaning rather than accurate use of language forms.3-stage model is frequently adopted in reading lessons and listening lessons. It refers to pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading stages. The pre-stage i nvolves preparation work, such as setting the scene, warming up, or providing key information (such as key words). The while-stage involves activities or tasks that the students must perform while they are reading or listening. The post-stage provides a chance for students to obtain feedback on their performance at the while-stage. This last stage may also involve some follow-up activities, in which students relate what they have read or heard to their own life and use the language spontaneously.Unit 5 Classroom Management1.What are the main roles teachers can play before, during and after the class?Before the class, the teacher is a planner, who plans what to teach, how to teach, and what result to achieve. After then class, the teacher is an evaluator, who evaluates not only how successfully he/she has conducted the class but also how efficient the learning activities have been. Based on the functions that the teacher performs in different activities during the class, Harmer defines the teacher’s roles as controller, assessor, organizer, prompter, participant and resource-provider (Harmer, 1983).2.How to give effective classroom instructions?Proper instruction is the precondition of accomplishment of activities. To give appropriate instruction, it is necessary to follow the following principles.(1) Economy with words: the teacher should use as few words as possible.(2) Simple and clear language at all points: language should be easy to understand.(3) Demonstration of what is needed.(4) Check of students understanding: the teacher can check individual students to make sure that students understand the instruction and know what to do.(5) Use the native language when necessary.(6) Vary the instruction now and then.3.What are the different ways for student grouping?The most common student groupings are lockstep, pair work, group work, and individual study.Lockstep (Whole class work) is where all the student are under the control of the teacher. They are all doing the same activity at the same rhythm and pace. Lockstep is often adopted when the teacher is making a presentation, checking exercise answers, or doing accuracy reproduction. When the teacher asks questions, the students speak either together or one by one, in turns or indicated by the teacher.Pair work is where the students work in pairs. It could be a competition over a game or co-operation in a task or project between the two students. They could also do certain exercises together or oral practice. When the students are doing pair work, the teacher usually circulates around the classroom, answering question or providing help when necessary.Group work is where the students work in small groups. Each group has 3,4,or 5 students, depending on the activity. What students do in group work is similar to pair work, only there are more members in the group.Group work is most beneficial when the activity requires contributions from more than two students. The teacher can join each group for a while, but only as a participant not as a leader or inspector.Individual study is the stage during the class where the students are left to work on their own and at their own speed. Usually they are doing the same task, but the teacher may give them a choice of tasks. Some activities cannot be done in pairs or groups, for instance, reading and writing. People read at different speed, so they cannot read together, though two people might share one book. It seems writing can be done in pairs or groups, but what they are actually doing when they are working together is brainstorming ideas, discussing, or revising. When it comes to the real writing stage students should work individually.4.How to ask effective questions?1)Questions should be closely linked with the teaching objectives in the lesson;2)Questions should be staged so that the level of challenge increases as the lesson proceeds;3)There should be a balance between closed and open, lower-order and higher-order questions;4)Wait time is important to allow students to think through their answers;5)Students should be provided opportunities to ask their own questions and seek their own answers;6)A secure and relaxed atmosphere of trust is needed and students’ opinions and ideas are valued.5.How to treat students’ errors in the classroom?There are different ways and techniques for correcting errors, such as direct teacher correction, indirect teacher correction, self-correction, peer correction, whole classroom correction, etc. As a general rule, indirect teacher correction is encouraged rather than direct teacher correction to avoid damaging students’ self este em and confidence. Also, self-correction is encouraged before teacher correction or peer correction.Unit 6 Teach Pronunciation1. What is the goal of teaching pronunciation?The goal of teaching pronunciation is not to teach learners to achieve a perfect imitation of a native accent, but simply to get the learners to pronounce accurately enough to be easily and comfortably comprehensible to other speakers.The realistic goals of teaching pronunciation:Consistency: The pronunciation should be smooth and natural.Intelligibility: The pronunciation should be understandable to the listeners.Communicative efficiency: The Pronunciation should help to convey the meaning that is intended by the speaker.2. What aspects of pronunciation do we need to teach?1)sounds………the vowels and consonants of English2)combination of sounds…….pronunciation of words3)word stress….the stress in a word and shift of stress4)strong & weak forms…the importance of the different syllables in maintaining the rhythm of the speech, especially the model verbs and auxiliary verbs5)linkage of sounds……..the liaison of sound in natural speech6)rhyme & rhythm7)pitch & intonation…the function of pitch and intonation in conveying meaning8)filler words……the sounds which do not convey meaning but can help to maintain communication, e.g. uh huh, um, er, oh, ah, well.Unit 7 Teaching Grammar1.What are the major types of grammar presentation methods?Deductive method: the teacher presents the rule of the structure on the blackboard and explains it to the students. This would be followed by the teacher giving several examples and then asking the students to apply the rules themselves in some exercises.Inductive method: The teacher does not explain the rule at the beginning, but presents various language forms and the students are left to discover or induce the rules or generalizations on their own.The guided discovery method: is similar to the inductive method in that the students are induced to discover rules by themselves but different in that the process of the discovery is carefully guided and assisted by the teacher and the rules are then elicited and taught explicitly.2.What are the major types of grammar practice activities?Mechanical practice involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy. By doing mechanical practice, the students pay repeated attention to a key element in a structure. Substitution and transformation drills are most frequently used in mechanical practice.Meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension or exchange of meaning though the students “keep an eye on” the way newly learned structures are used in process. Meaningful practice usually comes after mechanical practice.Unit 8 Teaching Vocabulary1.What does knowing a word involve?A simple answer would be (1)knowing its pronunciation & stress; (2) knowing its spelling & grammar; (3) knowing its meaning; (4) knowing how & when to use it to express the intended meaning.According to Hedge (2000), vocabulary learning involves at least two aspects of meaning. The first aspect involves the understanding of its denotative and connotative meaning. The second aspect involves understanding the sense relations among words.2.How can we present new vocabulary items effectively?1) Draw pictures, diagrams and maps to show meanings or connections of meaning2) Use real objects to show meanings;3) Mime or act to show meaning; ask some ss come to the front and teach some words of this kind, such as: catch, shave4) Use lexical sets. Or word series. E.g. cook: fry, boil, bake, and frill;5) Use synonymous and antonymous to explain meanings;6) Translate and exemplify, especially with technical words or words with abstract meaning;7) Use word formation rules and common affixes.8) Teach vocabulary in chunks;9) Provide different contexts in real life for introducing new words.3.What are some effective ways to consolidate vocabulary?1) Labeling;2) Spotting the differences;3) Describing and drawing;4) Playing a game;5) Using word series;6) Word bingo;7) Word association;8) Finding synonyms and antonyms;9) Using word categories;10) Using word net-work;11) Using the internet resources for more ideas.Unit 9 Teaching Listening1.What are the characteristics of the listening process?Generally speaking, listening in real life has the following characteristics:a) spontaneity: we listen to people speaking spontaneously and informally without rehearsing what they aregoing to say ahead of time.b) context: the context of listening is usually known to both the listener and the speaker in real life.c) visual clues: most of the time we can see the participants’ facial expressions, gestures and other bodylanguage as well as the surrounding environment.e) listener’s res ponse: most of the listening in daily life allows the listener to respond to the speaker.f) speaker’s adjustment: the speaker can adjust the way of speaking according to the listener’s reactions.2.What are the models of teaching listening?1)Bottom-up model: listening comprehension is believed to start with sound and meaning recognitions.2)Top-down model: listening for the gist and making use of the contextual clues and background knowledge to construct meaning are emphasized.3)Interactive model: listening involves both bottom-up processing (recognizing sounds of words, phrases or structures) and top-down processing (inferring meaning from broad contextual clues and background knowledge).3.What are the common activities in teaching listening?1) Pre-Listening activities: predicting and setting the scene2) While-listening activities: listening for the gist; listening for specific information; no specificresponses; listening and ticking; listening and sequencing; listening and acting; listening and drawing; listening and filling; listening and guessing; listening and taking notes.3) Post-listening stage: multiple-choice questions; answering questions; note-taking and gap-filling;dictoglossUnit 10 Teaching Speaking1.What are the main characteristics of spoken language?a. in fairly simple sentence structuresb. in incomplete sentencesc. in informal, simple or common vocabularyd. with broken grammar, false starts, hesitation, fillers, etc.e. with a high proportion of repetition or redundancyf. largely unplanned organizationg. a low density of informationh. context independent (Background knowledge is necessary to understand exactly what is being expressed.)2. What are the characteristics of successful speaking activities?1) Maximum foreign talk: Problems: students spend too much time to speak Chinese; the teacher talks too much.2) Even participation: encourage speaking from as many different students as possible. The outspoken students do not dominate discussion.3) High motivation: vario us interesting tasks in line with the students’ ability.4) Right language level: the task should be designed so that students con complete it successfully with the language that they have.3. What are the main types of speaking activities?1)controlled activities;2)semi-controlled activities;3)information-gap activities;4)dialogues and role-plays;5)activities using pictures;6)problem-solving activities…Unit 11 Teaching Reading1. What are the main reading skills?Skimming: the reader moves his eyes over the text very quickly just in order to get the main idea of the text, or sometimes decide whether it is worth reading more deeply or not.Scanning: the reader locates a particular piece of information without necessarily understanding the rest of a text or passage. For example, the reader may read through a chapter of a book as rapidly as possible in order to find out information about a particular date, such as when someone was born.Inferring: reading between the lines. Make use of syntactic, logical and cultural clues to discover the meaning of unknown elements. Such as the writer’s opinions and attitudes which are not directly stated in the text.【Strategic skills needed in reading：Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details; Skimming: reading for the gist or main idea; Scanning: reading to look for specific information; Predicting: guessing what is coming next】2. What are the main reading models for teaching reading?Bottom-up approach: The reader builds up the meaning of a text on the basis of decoding smaller units: first words, and phrases, then sentences and paragraphs, and finally working out the meaning of the whole text.Top-down approach: The reader uses his or her knowledge of the topic or of the type of the text and makes predictions about what the text will contain, then he uses these predictions to check his understanding of the text. In this way, the reader gets a global view of the text before he dives into the details of it.Interactive approach: The reader uses the above two approaches together, and the two ways interact with each other in the understanding of the text. That means the reader might predict the context of the text by using his knowledge of the topic (top-down), then look for key words (bottom-up) to check the prediction, or get the main gist of the text by skimming it quickly (top-down) and examine the writer’s choice of vocabulary for understanding the implied meaning.3. What types of activities can we use in teaching reading?Pre-reading Stage: The aims of the pre-reading stage is to arousing the students’ interest in the topic or type of text; motivating students to read the text by providing a purpose for reading; preparing the students for the content of the text.The activities for the pre-reading stage:1)predicting2)setting the sceneWhile-reading Stage: this stage mainly focuses on the exploitation of the text. It aims to help the reader understand the content and structure of the text, as well as the author’s purpose in writing it.The activities:。

组织行为学罗宾斯英文版PPT整理

Chapter1 Introduction to organizational behavior✓Organizational Behavior:The systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within organizations✓Systematic Study of Determinants of Employee Performance:➢Actions or Behaviors：Productivity, Absenteeism, Turnover , Organizational citizenship➢Attitudes– Job Satisfaction: a. Possible link between satisfaction and productivityb.Satisfaction appears to be negatively related to absenteeism andproductivityc.Humanistic responsibility to provide employees with challenging,intrinsically rewarding, and satisfying job✓Organization: a. Consciously coordinated social unitb. Composed of two or more peoplec. Functions to achieve a common goal or set of goalsd. Formal roles define and shape the behavior of its members✓OB Encompasses Behavior in Diverse Organizations: Manufacturing:Service firms Schools Hospitals Churches Military units Charitable organizations Local, state, and federal government agencies✓Contributing Disciplines(Level of Analysis):➢Micro (individual): Psychology➢Macro (group processes and organization) : Sociology, Social Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science✓Toward an OB discipline P4 1.1✓Goals of Organizational Behavior: explanation, prediction, control✓Challenges and Opportunities: a.Increasing age of typical workerb.More women and minorities in the workplacec.Requirements to meet global competitiond.Severed loyalty bonds between employees and employers ✓What is Quality Management?➢Intense focus on customer→Outsiders -- purchasers of products and services→Insiders -- interact with and serve others in the organization➢Concern for continual improvement→Commitment to never be satisfied→“Very good” is not good enough→Quality can always be improved➢Improvement in quality of everything the organization does“Quality” applies not only to the final product, but to→How organization handles deliveries→How rapidly it responds to complaints→How politely the phones are answered➢Accurate measurement→Uses statistical techniques to measure every critical performance variable in operations➢Empowerment of employees→Involves people on the line in the improvement process→Teams are widely used as empowerment vehicles for finding and solving problems ✓ A Managerial Perspective：a. Improving People Skills b. Managing Work Force Diversityc. Responding to Globalizationd. Empowering Peoplee.Stimulating Innovation andChange f. Coping with “Temporariness” g. Helping Employee Balance Work-Life Conflicts h. Declining Employee Loyalty i. Improving Ethical Behavior✓Levels of OB Analysis: Individual Level Group Level Organization System Level Chapter2 Job Attitudes✓What the fundamental values of the organizational development can be found in the general manager’s approach to management? Respect, Support, Trust, Innovation ✓What contribution to the organization can be found in those values?A good work environment will be benefit to employees’ self-realization and theestablishment of team and learning organization.✓Attitude:Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something. When I say I like my job, I am expressing my attitude about work.✓Three components of Attitudes : Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral✓What are the Major Job Attitudes?➢Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics➢Job Involvement: Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. High level of both job involvement andpsychological employment are positively related to organizational citizenship and jobperformance. High job involvement is also related to reduced absences and lowerresignation rates.➢Psychological Empowerment (PE): a. Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. b. Good leaders empower theiremployees by involving them in decisions, making them feel their work is important,and giving them discretion to do their own thing. c. Higher level of Job Involvement andPE are positively related to Organizational citizenship and job performance.✓other Major Job Attitudes:➢Organizational Commitment: Identifying with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to remain a member.✧The three forms of OC:Affective – emotional attachment to organization (e.g. pro-environmental firms)Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying with an org (e.g. high salary)Normative -moral or ethical obligations with employers (e.g. personal promise) There appears to be a positive relationship between organizational commitment andjob productivity.---has strong relation to performance, especially for new employees.---In general, affective commitment is most likely to relate to organizational outcomes such as performance and turnover.➢Perceived Organizational Support (POS)a.Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contributionand cares about their well-being.b.People perceive OS is higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved indecision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.c.High POS is related to higher OB outcomes (performance).➢Employee Engagementa. The degree of an individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job.b. Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.c. According to researches, they contribute high customer satisfaction, highprofits, and lower level turnover and accidents.✓Is there cognitive dissonance?--Your friends or relatives won’t disagree with you because of the close relation.--People do seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. (E.g. I don’t marry her because love her.)✓The relationship between attitudes and behavior:a.Important attitudes reflect our fundamental values, self-interest, or identification withindividuals or groups we value. These attitudes tend to show a strong relationship to our behavior.b.The more you talk about your attitude on a subject, the more likely you are toremember it, and the more likely it to shape your behavior. (e.g. changing a job)c.Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior tend to occur when social pressures tobehave in certain ways hold exceptional power.d.The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers tosomething with which we have direct personal experience.✓the closer the match between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship Chapter3 Moods, Emotions and Organizational Behavior✓Why Were Emotions Excluded from OB Study?➢Myth of rationality – emotions were the antithesis of rationality and should not be seen in the workplace➢Belief that emotions of any kind are disruptive in the workplace✓Emotional Terminology:➢affect: A generic term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people experience➢emotion: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or somethingShort termed and action-oriented.➢Mood: Feelings that tend to be less intense and longer-lasting than emotions and often lack a contextual stimulusP27 3.1✓The Basic Emotions:➢positive emotions→positive affect: The mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as excitement, self-assurance, and cheerfulness at the high end with boredom,sluggishness, and tiredness at the low end.→negative affect: At zero input, when no stimulus is provided, most people experience a mildly positive mood. In fact, positive moods tend to be morecommon than negative ones.➢negative emotions➢negative affect: The mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end with relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end.✓The Functions of Emotions:➢Emotions and Rationality: Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help in understanding the world around us.➢Evolutionary Psychology : Theory that emotions serve an evolutionary purpose: helps in survival of the gene pool. The theory is not universally accepted✓Sources of Emotions and Moods:➢Personality➢Day of the week and time of the day: More positive interactions will likely occur mid-day and later in the week➢Weather: no impact according to the research➢Stress: Increased stress worsens moods➢Social Activities: Physical, informal, and epicurean activities increase positive mood ➢Sleep: Lack of sleep increases negative emotions and impairs decision making➢Exercise: Mildly enhances positive mood➢Age: Older people experience negative emotions less frequently➢Gender: Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more intensely and display more frequent expressions of emotions. Could be due tosocialization✓Emotional Labor: An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at workEmotional dissonance is when an employee has to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling anotherFelt vs. Displayed Emotions:➢Felt Emotions: the individual’s actual emotions➢Displayed Emotions: the learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job→Surface Acting is hiding one’s true emotions→Deep Acting is trying to change one’s feelings based on display rules ✓Emotional Intelligence:A person’s ability to:1)Be self-aware (to recognize his or her own emotions as experienced), 2)Detectemotions in others, and 3)Manage emotional cues and information.Moderately associated with high job performanceEmotional Intelligence on Trial➢The case for: a. Intuitive appeal – it makes sense b. EI predicts criteria that matter –positively correlated to high job performance c. Study suggests that EI isneurologically based➢The case against: a. EI is too vague a concept b. EI can’t be measured c. EI is so closely related to intelligence and personality that it is not unique when thosefactors are controlled✓OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction➢Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills and help us understand and analyze new information➢Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase creativity✓More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more motivated workforce➢Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively➢Negotiation – Emotions may impair negotiator performance➢Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions from employees, called emotional contagion✓Even More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely carry over to the next day ➢Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative emotions are more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work✓How Can Managers Influence Moods?➢Use humor to lighten the moment➢Give small tokens of appreciation➢Stay in a good mood themselves – lead by example➢Hire positive people✓Does the degree to which people experience emotions vary across cultures?Do people’s interpretations of emotions vary across cultures?Do the norms for the expressions of emotions differ across cultures?“YES” to all of the above!Chapter 5 Perception and Decision-making✓Perception：The process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment✓Factors influencing perception：➢The perceiver：Attitudes，Motives，Interests，Experience，expectations➢The target：Novelty，Motion，Sound，Size，Background，proximity➢The Situation：Time，Work setting，Social setting✓Attribution Theory：trying to explain the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.✓The three determining factors of attribution theory：➢Distinctiveness➢Consensus➢Consistency→Fundamental attribution error:1. When making judgments about the behavior of other people, we tend tounderestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence ofinternal or personal factors2.Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive workers.3. Individuals whose intellectural and interpersonal abilieties are weakest are mostlikely to overestimate their performance and abilty.✓The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision making：Who makes decisions? What decisions to make?All the decisions are closed related to perceptions. (data collection and analysis)✓The Six Steps of Rational Decision-making model：➢Define the problem➢Identify the decision criterria➢Allocate weithgts to teh criteria➢Develop the alternatives➢Evaluate teh alternatives➢Select the best alternative➢Example:bicycle parking problem➢Bounded Rationality➢Intuitive decision making✓Common Biases and Erorrs in Decision Making：anchoring bias, confirmation bias, availabe bias, escalation of commitment, risk aversion, hindsight bias✓Organizatioal Constraints on Decision making: performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system-imposed time constraints, historical precdidents✓Three Ethical Decision Criteria:➢Utilitarianism（providing the greatest benefits for the greatest number功利主义，实用主义）➢Rights(respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals,eg.right to privacy, free speech ,and due process)➢Justice(imposing and enforceing rules afaily and impartially to ensure justice or an equitalbe distribution of benefits and costs.) Comment on the three choices.✓Three-component Model of Creativity:➢Expertise(abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise )➢Creative thinking skills(personality ——creativity, the ability to use analogies, and the talent ot see the familiar in a different light)➢Intrinsic task motivation (interesting , involving , exciting, satisfying,persionally challengfing jobs, etc.)Chapter8 Groups✓Group: Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal, and further subclassified into command, task, interest, or friendship categories.✓Four Types of Groups:Command group, Task group, Interest group, Friendship group✓Why People Join Groups: (benefits)➢Security Reduce the insecurity of “standing alone”; feel stronger, fewer self-doubts, and more resistant to threats➢Status Inclusion in a group viewed by outsiders as important; provides recognition and status➢Self-esteem Provides feelings of self-worth to group members, in addition to conveying status to outsiders➢Affiliation Fulfills social needs. Enjoys regular interaction; can be primary source for fulfilling need for affiliation➢Power What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible; power in numbers➢Goal achievement Some tasks require more than one person; need to pool talents, knowledge, or power to complete the job. In such instances, management may rely onthe use of a formal group✓Basic Group Concepts:➢Roles→Role research conclusions: a.People play multiple roles b.People learn roles from stimuli around them c.People can shift roles rapidly when the situation demandsd.People experience major role conflict between roles➢Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are adopted and shared by the group’s members→The Hawthorne Studies→Conformity and the Asch Studies➢Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group→Relationship of Cohesiveness to Productivity→Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Make the group smaller b.Encourage agreement on group goals c.Increase the time spent together d.Increase thestatus and perceived difficulty of group membership→More Ways Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Stimulate competition with other groups b.Give rewards to the group rather than members c.Physicallyisolate the group➢Size→How Size Effects a Group: a.Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks rge groups are consistently better at problem solving c.Social loafing - tendency toexpend less effort in a group than as an individual d.Increases in group size areinversely related to individual performance➢Composition: Diversity increases effectiveness due to the variety of viewpoints.Diversity promotes conflict, which stimulates creativity, which leads to improveddecision making. May take more time to work smoothly. May lead to turnover ➢Status: A prestige grading, position, or rank within the group. It may be formally imposed by the group, or informally acquired through characteristics such aseducation, age, gender, skill, or experience→Effects of High Status: a.Resist conformity or receive more freedom b.Do not need or care about social rewards c.Members must believe status hierarchy isequitable d.Inequities produce corrective behaviors and conflict✓Individual versus Group Decision Making:➢Individual: More efficient, Speed, No meetings, No discussion, Clear accountability, Consistent values➢Group: More effective, More information and knowledge, Diversity of views, Higher-quality decisions, Increased acceptance✓Symptoms of Group Think: a.Group members rationalize any resistance to their assumptionsb.Members pressure any doubters to support the alternative favored by the majorityc.Doubters keep silent about misgivings(doubts) and minimize their importanced.Groupinterprets members’ silence as a “yes” vote for the majorityVariables Influencing Group Think: Group’s cohesiveness, Leader’s behavior, Insulation from outsiders, Time pressures, Failure to follow methodical decision-making procedures✓GroupShift: A special case of groupthink. The decision of the group reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during the group discussion, whether shift is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant prediscussion norm.✓Selecting the Best Decision-Making Technique:➢Brainstorming➢Nominal group technique➢Electronic meetingsChapter9 Teams✓Reasons for Team Popularity: a.Outperform on tasks requiring multiple skills, judgment, and experience b.Better utilization of employee talents c.More flexible and responsive to changing events d.Facilitate employee participation in operating decisions e.Effective in democratizing the organization and increasing employee motivation✓Work Group: A group who interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help one another perform within each member’s area of responsibility. Individuals work alone, not collectively, on a task. Performance is the summation of all of the group member’s individual contributions.✓Work Team:Generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Their individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs.✓Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams P123 9.1✓Four Types of Teams P124 9.2➢Problem-Solving Teams: a.Share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved. b.Rarely given authority to unilaterally implement any oftheir suggested actions c.Typically composed of 5-12 hourly employees from thesame departmentExample: Quality Circles➢Self-Managed Work Teams: a.Collectively control pace of work b.Determine work assignments anize breaks d.Collectively choose inspection procedurese.Select their own members and evaluate each other’s performancef.Generallycomposed of 10-15 people➢Cross-Functional Teams: a.Members from diverse areas within and between organizations b.Exchange information c.Develop new ideas and solve problemsd.Coordinate complex projects f.Development is time-consuming due to complexity anddiversityExamples: Task Force and Committees➢Virtual Teams: Computer technology ties physically dispersed members together to achieve a common goal→Differentiating factors from other teams: Absence of para-verbal and non-verbal cues, Limited social context, Ability to overcome time and space constraints✓Creating Effective Teams:Effectiveness of teams is defined by:➢Objective measures of the team’s productivity➢Manager’s ratings of team performance➢Aggregate measures of member satisfactionA Team Effectiveness Model P126 9.3✓Turning Individuals into Team Players: To perform well as team members, individuals must be able to 1)Communicate openly and honestly 2)Confront differences and resolve conflicts 3)Sublimate personal goals for the good of the team✓The Challenge in Shaping Team Players:➢Greatest where... a.The national culture is highly individualistic b.Introduced into organizations that historically value c.individual achievement➢Less demanding... a.Where employees have strong collectivist values, such as Japan or Mexico b.In new organizations that use teams as their initial form for structuringwork✓Shaping Team Players:➢Selection: Ensure that candidates can fulfill their team roles in addition to having the technical skills required for the job➢Training: Provide workshops in problem-solving, communication, negotiation, conflict-management, coaching, and group-development skills➢Rewards: Rework reward systems to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive onesChapter 10 Communication✓Functions of Communication➢Control - both formal and informal➢Motivation - clarification and feedback➢Emotional expression - fulfillment of social needs➢Information - facilitating decision making✓The Communication ProcessSource, Encoding, Channel, decoding, Receiver✓Downward Communication：Assign goals，Provide job instructions，Inform employees of policies and procedures，Point out problems that need attention，Offer feedback about performance，Letters and email from leaders to members of the team✓Upward Communication：Provide feedback to higher-ups，Inform them of progress toward goals，Relay current problems，Keep managers aware of how employees feel，Ideas on how things can be improved✓Lateral Communication：Save time and facilitate coordination，Formally sanctioned or informally created，Enhance efficient and accurate transfer of information，Can create dysfunctional conflicts when formal vertical channels are breached✓Oral Communication：➢Advantage: Speed , Feedback➢Disadvantage: Potential for distorted message, Content at destination is different from the original✓Written Communication:➢Advantage: Provide a tangible and verifiable record, Can be stored for an indefinite period of time, Physically available for later reference, Well thought-out, logical, andclear➢Disadvantage: Time consuming, Lack of feedback, No guarantee how reader will interpret it✓Non-verbal Communication:➢Kinesics - Gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body➢Body movement -Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication➢Intonations - Change the meaning of the message➢Facial expression -Characteristics that would never be communicated if you read a transcript of what is said➢Physical distance - Proper spacing is largely dependent cultural norms✓Formal Small-Group Networks P140 10.3✓Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria p140 10.4✓The Grapevine:Not controlled by management, Perceived as being more believable and reliable, Largely used to serve self-interest, Appear in response to situations: Important to us, Where there is ambiguity, Under conditions that arouse anxiety✓Computer-Aided Communication: Electronic mail (e-mail), Intranet and Extranet links, Videoconferencing✓Barriers to Effective Communication: Filtering, Selective Perception, Information Overload, Gender Styles, Emotions, Language✓ A Cultural Guide: Assume differences until similarity is proved, Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation, Practice empathy, Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis✓Improving Feedback Skills: 1. Focus on specific behaviors 2. Keep feedback impersonal 3.Keep feedback goal oriented 4. Make feedback well timed 5. Ensure understanding 6. Direct negative feedback toward behavior that is controllable by the recipient✓Improving Active Listening Skills: 1. Make eye contact 2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions 3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures 4. Ask questions 5.Paraphrase 6. Avoid interrupting the speaker 7. Do not over talkChspter11 Leadership✓Leadership: Ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. The source of influence may be formal, provided by managerial rank in an organization. Non-sanctioned leadership(不具制裁力的领导) is the ability to influence that arises from outside of the formal structure of the organization.✓Trait Theories: Assumes that leaders are born, Characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders, Personality traits in leaders that non-leaders do not possess, Characteristics of individuals who meet the definition of leader, Provides the basis of selecting the right person for leadership✓Traits Consistently Associated with Leadership:Drive and ambition, Desire to lead and influence others, Honesty and integrity, Self-confidence, Intelligence, In-depth technical knowledge✓Traits Alone Do Not Explain Leadership: Ignore situational factors. Leaders must take “the right actions”“The right actions” differ by situation✓Behavioral Theories: Assumes people can be trained to lead Researched the behaviors of specific leaders. Critical behavioral determinants of leadership. Specific behaviors identify leaders. Provides the basis of design for training programs✓Ohio State Studies:Sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.Developed two categories of leadership behavior.:→Initiating structure - attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals.→Consideration - concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction ✓University of Michigan Studies: Locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appear related to measures of performance effectivenessTwo dimensions:→Employee-oriented - emphasize interpersonal relations→Production-oriented - emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job✓Limitations of Behavioral Theories:Did not identify consistent relationships between leadership behavior and group performance. Missing consideration of the situational factors that influence success and failure. Could not clarify situational factors✓Contingency Theories:➢Fiedler Leadership Model -Proper match of leader’s style of interacting with subordinates➢Path-Goal Model -Leader assists followers in attaining goals and ensures goals are compatible with overall objectives➢Leader-Participation Model - Leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure ✓Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire: Individual’s basic leadership style is a key factor in leadership success. Assumed that individual leadership style is fixed,。

认知领域英语短语

认知领域英语短语1. Cognitive psychology:Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as "attention, language use, perception, problem solving, memory, and thinking." It is also concerned with the way information is processed by the brain and how it impacts our behavior.认知心理学是研究“注意力、语言运用、知觉、问题解决、记忆和思维”等心理过程的学科。

它还关注大脑对信息的处理方式以及它对我们行为的影响。

2. Cognitive development:Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. It involves language, imagination, perception, and planning.认知发展是从童年到青少年再到成年期的思维过程的构建，包括记忆、问题解决和决策。

它涉及语言、想象力、知觉和规划。

3. Cognitive neuroscience:Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes.认知神经科学是关注生物过程和认知基础的科学领域，特别关注大脑中参与心理过程的神经连接。

cognitive behavioural practice

cognitive behavioural practice Cognitive Behavioral Practice: A Step-by-Step GuideIntroduction:Cognitive Behavioral Practice (CBP) is a therapeutic approach that focuses on uncovering and modifying cognitive patterns and behaviors that contribute to negative emotions and behaviors. It combines cognitive restructuring with behavioral interventions to help individuals develop healthier thoughts, beliefs, and coping mechanisms. In this article, we will explore the key steps involved in cognitive behavioral practice.Step 1: Understanding the Cognitive Behavioral Model:To effectively engage in CBP, it is essential to grasp the cognitive behavioral model. The model suggests that our thoughts influence our emotions and behaviors. By identifying and challenging negative thoughts, individuals can change their emotional responses and improve their behaviors.Step 2: Identifying Maladaptive Thoughts and Behaviors:The next step is to identify maladaptive thoughts and behaviors that contribute to distress or dysfunction. Techniques such asthought monitoring and keeping a thought diary can help individuals become aware of negative patterns and automatic thoughts that they may otherwise overlook.Step 3: Challenging Cognitive Distortions:Once maladaptive thoughts are identified, the next step is to challenge cognitive distortions. Cognitive distortions are irrational thinking patterns that distort reality and contribute to negative emotions. Common distortions include black-and-white thinking, overgeneralization, jumping to conclusions, and personalization. By challenging these distortions, individuals can develop more balanced and realistic thinking patterns.Step 4: Cognitive Restructuring:Cognitive restructuring involves replacing negative and distorted thoughts with more rational and positive alternatives. This step requires individuals to examine the evidence supporting their negative thoughts and consider alternative explanations. They can then reframe their thinking by creating more balanced and adaptive thoughts.Step 5: Behavioral Interventions:While cognitive restructuring is vital, it is important to remember that thoughts alone do not always lead to behavior change. Therefore, behavioral interventions are an essential part of CBP. These interventions focus on modifying behaviors that reinforce negative thoughts and emotions. Techniques such as exposure therapy, behavioral activation, and graded task assignments are commonly used.Step 6: Skill Building:Another critical step in CBP is developing new skills to deal with challenging situations effectively. This may involve teaching individuals problem-solving skills, communication skills, relaxation techniques, or assertiveness training. By equipping individuals with new skills, CBP helps them become more confident in coping with difficulties.Step 7: Homework Assignments:To reinforce what is learned in sessions and promote continued progress, homework assignments are typically given. These assignments may include practicing new coping skills, completing thought records, or engaging in behavioral experiments. Homework assignments help individuals apply what they havelearned in real-life situations.Step 8: Regularly Evaluating Progress:Throughout the CBP process, it is important to regularly evaluate progress. This can be done through self-monitoring, rating scales, or by collaborating with the therapist. Regular progress evaluations help individuals and therapists track improvements, identify areas that need further work, and make necessary adjustments to the treatment plan.Conclusion:Cognitive Behavioral Practice is a structured and evidence-based approach that helps individuals modify negative thoughts and behaviors. By following the step-by-step guide outlined above, individuals can uncover and challenge maladaptive thoughts, restructure their thinking, modify behaviors, and develop new coping skills. With regular evaluation and practice, CBP can lead to significant improvements in emotional well-being and overall functioning.。

英文介绍心理咨询流派

英文介绍心理咨询流派There are several different approaches or schools of thought within the field of psychology and counseling that are used to provide mental health support and guidance. Here are brief introductions to some prominent counseling approaches:1. Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic Therapy: This approach, developed by Sigmund Freud, focuses on exploring unconscious thoughts and unresolved childhood experiences to better understand and address current issues. The therapist and client work together to bring awareness to unconscious patterns and conflicts that may be affecting the client's relationships and behaviors.2. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): CBT is a widely used and evidence-based approach that targets both thoughts (cognition) and actions (behavior) to bring about change. Therapists help clients identify and challenge negative or distorted thinking patterns, develop healthier coping strategies, and practice new behaviors. CBT is effective for a range of mental health conditions, including anxiety, depression, and substance abuse.3. Humanistic/Person-Centered Therapy: This approach, originated byCarl Rogers, emphasizes the inherent worth and potential of each individual. The therapist provides a supportive and non-judgmental environment, allowing the client to explore and express their thoughts and feelings freely. The focus is on self-acceptance, personal growth, and self-actualization.4. Gestalt Therapy: Developed by Fritz Perls, this approach emphasizes the importance of the present moment and the integration of all aspects of oneself. The therapist helps clients become aware of their feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, and encourages them to take responsibility for their actions. Gestalt therapy often utilizes techniques such asrole-playing, guided imagery, and empty chair work.5. Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT): SFBT is a goal-oriented approach that focuses on finding solutions rather than dwelling on problems. Therapists help clients identify their strengths and resources, define their goals, and develop a plan to achieve them. This approach is often used in brief or time-limited counseling and can be effective for a range of issues.6. Family Systems Therapy: This approach recognizes that individuals are greatly influenced by their family dynamics and relationships. Therapistswork with the entire family or specific members to explore and address patterns of communication, roles, and interactions that may contribute to difficulties. The goal is to improve family functioning and create healthier relationships.It's important to note that these are just a few examples of the diverse range of approaches within the field of counseling and psychology. Each approach has its own unique principles and techniques, and therapists often integrate multiple approaches based on the client's needs and preferences.。

cognitive behavioural practice -回复

cognitive behavioural practice -回复什么是认知行为实践（CBT）?认知行为实践（CBT）是一种心理治疗方法，旨在帮助个人识别和改变不健康的思维模式和行为。

通过CBT，个体能够更好地理解他们的思维如何影响他们的情绪和行为，并学习采用更健康、积极的思维模式和行为模式。

CBT依赖于我们的思维和情绪在许多情况下是相互关联的这一基本原理。

当我们在不利的事情上思考时，我们往往产生不健康的情绪和行为反应。

CBT的目标是在这一关系中发现并改变不健康的思维模式，以便产生更积极和健康的情绪和行为。

CBT的步骤是什么？CBT的实践基于一系列步骤，以下将介绍这些步骤：1. 问题识别和目标设定：在CBT的起始阶段，个体与心理治疗师一起识别他们想要解决的问题和达到的目标。

这可以是焦虑、抑郁、恐慌等不健康情绪的处理，以及改变不良习惯或想法等。

2. 评估和鉴定：治疗师会与个体讨论过去和现在的生活情况，以了解导致不健康思维和行为的根源。

通过对问题的深入了解，治疗师可以帮助个体识别出他们的症状和触发因素。

3. 指导关注：CBT强调对思维和行为的关注，因为这些是与个体情绪和情绪相关的关键因素。

个体学会观察他们自己的思维过程、情绪和行为，并了解它们之间的相互作用。

4. 认知重构：在这一阶段，个体通过识别他们的不健康思维模式并进行挑战来改变他们的思维。

治疗师会提供一些有效的技巧和工具，帮助个体解构和重塑他们的思维方式。

5. 行为改变：CBT还强调个体行为的重要性。

个体需要找到并改变导致不健康行为的根本原因。

治疗师可能会建议个体制定实际可行的行动计划，以便他们能够在实践中应对症状。

6. 灵活适应：在CBT的最后阶段，个体学会适应新的思维和行为模式。

他们将不健康的想法和行为替换为更健康的选择，并持续应对挑战。

CBT的有效性如何？通过大量的研究和实践，CBT被证明是一种有效的治疗方法，适用于各种心理健康问题，包括抑郁症、焦虑症、创伤后应激障碍、强迫症等等。

豪恩斯坦行为整合途径

豪恩斯坦行为整合途径
豪恩斯坦行为整合途径（Hawthorne Effect）是指在研究中，受试者在知道自己正接受实验观察的情况下，表现出非常积极的态度和行为改变的现象。

这个效应最早是由美国心理学家埃尔顿·梅奥（Elton Mayo）在20世纪20年代进行的一系列实验中发现的。

豪恩斯坦行为整合途径主要强调人的社会需求和对外部环境的反应，认为个体会因为被关注和观察而感到重要，从而提高工作动力和工作表现。

梅奥的实验主要集中在一个位于芝加哥的西部电力公司的工厂，他们通过改变工作条件、调整工作时间、提供更好的福利待遇等手段来观察员工的工作表现。

梅奥的研究结果显示，无论是增加还是减少工作条件，员工的工作表现都会有所提升。

他得出的结论是，员工的积极态度和工作表现不仅仅取决于物质因素，更重要的是员工感到被重视和关心的程度。

这种关注和关心会激发员工的工作动力，提高工作效率。

豪恩斯坦行为整合途径在组织管理和人力资源管理中有着重要的意义。

通过关注员工的社会需求、提供良好的工作环境和福利待遇，可以激发员工的工作激情和创造力，提高组织的绩效和竞争力。

同时，这也提醒我们，在进行实验或研究时，应注意研究对象的期待和心理状态对结果的影响，以确保研究结果的准确性和可靠性。

组织行为学主要概念中英文对照

组织行为学主要概念中英文对照ability 能力absenteeism 缺勤率achievement motivation 成就动机achievement need成就需要achievement/power theory 成就/权力理论affective component of an attitude 态度的情感成分affiliation need 亲和需要arbitrator 仲裁者attitude 态度attribution 归因attributional bias 归因偏见attributional model 归因模型authority 权威、权力behavioral component of an attitude 态度的行为成分behavior theories of leadership 领导的行为理论boundaryless organization 无边界组织brainstorming 头脑风暴法bureaucracy 官僚结构centralization 集权chain of command 指挥链change 变革change agent 变革代理人channel 渠道，通道channel richness 通道丰富性charisma 领导魅力;领导者的超凡魅力charismatic leadership 具有超凡魅力的领导者chief executive officer(CEO) 首席执行官classical conditioning 经典条件反射coercive power 强制权cognitive component of an attitude 态度的认知成分cognitive conflict 认知冲突cognitive dissonance 认知不协调；认知失调cognitive evaluation theory 认知评价理论cohesiveness 内聚力;凝聚力collaborating 合作collectivism 集体主义collegial model 学院模型command group 命令群体communication 沟通communication media 沟通媒介communication process 沟通过程communication networks 沟通网络compromising 妥协conceptual skills 概念分析技能conciliator 调停者conflict 冲突conflict management 冲突管理conflict process 冲突过程conformity 从众content theories of motivation 内容型激励理论contingency model of leadership 领导的权变模型contrast effects 对比效应core dimensions of jobs 工作的核心纬度core values 核心价值观counseling 咨询cross—cultural communication 跨文化沟通cross—function teams 跨职能团队culture 文化decentralization 分权decisions 决策decoding 译码;解码delegation 授权Delphi technique 德尔菲法departmentalism 部门化dependent variables 因变量distributive bargaining 分配谈判distributive justice 分配公平downward communication 下行沟通dysfunctional conflict 功能失常性冲突employee stock ownership plans(ESOPs) 员工持股计划encoding 编码environment 环境equity theory 公平理论ERG theory ERG理论esteem needs 尊重需要existence needs 生存需要expectancy 期望expectancy theory 期望理论expert power 专家权力face—to-face communication 面对面的沟通Fiedler contingency model 费德勒权变模型formal group 正式群体formalization 正规化formalization stage 正规化阶段forming 形成functional conflict 功能正常性冲突fundamental attribution error 基本归因错误Gain sharing plan 收益分享计划goal setting 目标设置goal—setting theory 目标设置理论group 群体groupthink 群体思维growth need 成长需要halo effect 晕轮效应Hawthorne experiment 霍桑效应hierarchy of needs theory 需要层次理论higher-order needs 高层次需要horizontal conflict 横向冲突human relations 人际关系human skills 人际技能hygiene factors 保健因素illegitimate political behavior 非法的政治行为incentives 刺激；诱因independent variables 自变量individual differences 个体差异individualism 个人主义informal group 非正式群体informal leaders 非正式领导informal network 非正式网络informal organization 非正式组织information—based power 信息权information technology 信息技术instrumental values 工具性价值观integrative bargaining 整合谈判intergroup conflict 群体间冲突internal locus of control 内部控制点internals 内控者interorganizational conflict 组织间冲突interpersonal conflict 人际冲突intragroup conflict 群体内冲突intraorganizational conflict 组织内冲突intrapersonal conflict 个人内部冲突intuitive decision making 直觉决策lateral communication 横向沟通Leader-Member exchange(LMX) theory 领导－员工交换理论leader-participation model 领导参与模型leadership 领导leadership style 领导方式leading 领导learning 学习learning organization 学习型组织learning theory 学习理论Least-Preferred Co-worker(LPC）questionnaire 最难共事者问卷legitimate political behavior 合法的政治行为legitimate power 合法权利locus of control 控制点lower—order needs 低层次需要Maslow`s theory of needs 马斯洛需求理论Machiavellianism 马基雅维里主义maintenance factor 保健因素Management By Objectives(MBO）目标管理Management By Walking Around(MBWA) 走动式管理managerial grid 管理方格图managers 管理者；经理matrix organization 矩阵组织matrix structure 矩阵结构Meclelland`s theory of needs 麦克利兰的需求理论mechanistic organizations 机械组织meditation 调停mediator 调停者models of organizational behavior 组织行为模型Motivating Potential Score（MPS）激励的潜在分数Motivation 激励;动机motivation—hygiene theory 激励－保健理论motivational factors 激励因素motivational patterns 激励类型Need 需要needs theories 需要理论negative reinforcement 负强化neglect 忽略；疏忽negotiation 谈判；协商network 网络nominal group 名义群体Nominal Group Technique(NGT）名义群体法nonverbal communication 非言语沟通norm 常规;规范；定额；平均数norming 规范化operant conditioning 操作性条件反射organic organizations 有机组织organization 组织Organizational Behavior(OB) 组织行为organizational culture 组织文化organizational citizens 组织公民organizational design 组织设计organizational development 组织发展organizational politics 组织政治organizational socialization 组织社会化organizational structure 组织结构organizational life cycle 组织生命周期organizing 组织Participation 参与participative counseling 参与式咨询participative leader 参与式领导者participative management 参与式管理path-goal theory 途径－目标理论perception 知觉perceptual biases 知觉偏见perceptual error 知觉错误performance—outcome expectancies 绩效－产出期望performance—satisfaction-effort loop 绩效－满意－努力环personal—based influence 个人影响力personal power 个人权力personality 个性；人格personality—job fit theory 个性－工作匹配理论personality traits 人格特质piece rate 计件工资piece—rate pay plans 计件工资计划piecework system 计件工作系统planned change 有计划的变革polarization 极化political behavior 政治行为political power 政治权利politics 政治positive reinforcement 正强化position power 职位权力power 权力power distance 权力距离power need 权力需要power tactics 权力战术，权术prejudice 偏见;成见problem-solving teams 问题解决小组procedural justice 程序公正性procedure 程序process consultation 过程咨询production-oriented leader 以生产导向的领导productivity 生产力profit-sharing plan 利润分享计划projection 投射psychological success 心理成功psychological costs 心理成本psychological contract 心理契约psychological distance 心理距离punishment power 惩罚性权力quality circles 质量圈qualify of life 生活质量Qualify of Work Life(QWL) 工作生活质量quantity of life 生活数量rationality 理性realistic job previews 实际工作预览reference group 参照群体reciprocal interdependence 互惠的相互依赖reengineering 工程再造refreezing 重新冻结referent power 参照性权力reinforcement 强化reinforcement theory 强化理论reinforcement schedule 强化程序relatedness need 相互关系需要reliability 信度resistance to change 变革阻力reward power 奖励权role 角色selective perception 选择性知觉self-actualization 自我实现self—efficacy 自我效能self—esteem 自尊self-managing teams 自我管理小组self—serving bias 自我服务偏见sensitivity training 敏感性训练shared value 共同价值观situational leadership theory 领导的情境理论skill—based pay 技能工资skill variety 技能多样化social comparison theory 社会比较论social—learning theory 社会学习理论Social Readjustment Rating Scale 社会再适应评估量表Socialization 社会化span of control 控制幅度specification 专业化stereotyping 刻板印象storming 风暴阶段stress 压力stressors 施压源substitutes for leadership 领导的替代物survey feedback 调查反馈synergy 协同作用task significance 任务重要性task structure 任务结构task team 任务小组；任务团队task uncertainty 任务不确定性team building 团队建设technical skills 技术技能technology 技术total quality management（TQM）全面质量管理traits theories of leadership 领导特质理论transactional leaders 交易型领导turnover 离职率two—factor model of motivation 双因素激励理论type A personality A型人格type B personality B型人格uncertain avoidance 不确定性规避unity of command 统一指挥upward feedback 上行反馈upward communication 上行沟通valence 效价validity 效度value system 价值观体系values 价值观variable—pay programs 可变报酬计划vertical conflict 纵向冲突work force diversity 劳动力多元化work group 工作群体work specialization 工作专业化written communication 书面沟通。

组织行为学

Hawthorne Studies: studies conducted during the 1920s and 1930s that discovered the existence of the informal organization
Formal & Informal Elements of Organizations
Organizations Task environment: as Systems Competitors
Unions Regulatory agencies Clients
Inputs: Material Capital Human
Structure
Task People (Actors) Organizational Boundary
Success will require: • positive response to the competition in the international marketplace • responsiveness to ethnic, religious, and gender diversity in the workforce
Chapter 1 Introduction:Organizational Behavior in Changing Times Nelson & Quick
Organizational Behavior
The study of individual behavior and group dynamics in organizational settings Organizational Variables
Total Quality is NOT - a panacea for all organizations - a guarantee of unqualified success

(4)Individual differences

Copyright 2009 Miss.Lei Qian
Cognitive style
Style refers to consistent and rather enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual.
Visual, auditory or hands-on Analytic or global Random or sequential Conclf-adjusting （自我调节）
Delayed Production （推迟反馈） Self-Evaluation （自我评价）
Copyright 2009 Miss.Lei Qian
Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies are strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis and internalizing what has been learned.
Cooperation
Question for Clarification
(Asking a teacher or other native speakers for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, and or examples.)
Copyright 2009 Miss.Lei Qian
Cognitive strategies
Repetition （重复）
resource translation（查字典） Grouping（归类） Note taking（记笔记） Recombination（重组） Imagery （想象） Contextualization（运用上下文） Elaboration（联系) Transfer (正迁移) Inferencing (推理）

行为系统模式

四.行为系统模式与护理程序 • The nursing process of the Behavior System Model of Nursing begins with an assessment and diagnosis of the patient. Once a diagnosis is made, the nurse and other healthcare professionals develop a nursing care plan of interventions and setting them in motion. The process ends with an evaluation, which is based on the balance of the subsystems.
二行为系统模式
（一）Assumption The assumptions made by Johnson's theory are in three categories: assumptions about system, assumptions about structure, and assumptions about functions.
Seven subsystems
1.Affiliative subsystem, which is "social inclusion intimacy and the formation and attachment of a strong social bond." 2.Dependency subsystem, which is the "approval, attention or recognition and physical assistance."

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nerod, 2001;Ruby and Decety,2001;Decetyand Sommerville, 2003;Vogeleyand Fink, 2003;Blankeet al.,2004).This hasled to the descriptionof many brain areasthat mediatedifferent isolatedaspects ofthe self,including prefrontal cortex,anterior cingulate, postcentral gynrs,precuneus, occipito-tempordjunction, insula, superior parietal lobule, and temporoparietaljunction (TPJ) (Richter et al., 1993;Jeannerod, 2001; Ruby and Decety, 2001; Decetyand Sommerville,2003;Vogeleyand Fink, 2003; Blankeet al.,2004).However,it is not known whetherthere is a phenomenological key neurallocusthat mediates several aspects of the self. Here we report converging evidencefrom two studies in normal subjectsand a study in an epileptic patient that togetherprovidenovel insightsabout the common neuralorigin of phenomenological threeessential aspects the self(spatialunity, of perspective). visuospatial This wasdone selflocation,egocentric Rueived.luly revised 12,2004; 1,2üX; l,lov. accepted 12,2m4. l{0v. by investigating the neurocognitive mechanismsof the so-called (Granß This was wo* by suppoted theleenaards toundation th€Swiss and llational ki€|r€ foüdation (OBE). out-of-body experience l100-067874.02,823A{61230, and 32m8&105867). We thanklhomas Meuingufor helpfril his cunmenson a in to OBEsaredefinedasexperiences which a personseems be prwiousveßionofthismanusdipt;GrolePeFinand Kaßltyükiihdiiforhelpinütaanalyris;and lhnisSrunetfor his ex(ellenboftwar€, and tedrnicl Grtml, hi5 arsistance analysis. indata awakeand to seehis body and the world from a location outside (onspondence beaddressed 0lefElanke, slnuld to &. Labontüy (ognitiye of lleuros&fte, Bnin-Mind his physicalbody. During an OBE the sense spatialunity beof lnstitute, Polytechnique delaüsanne, Lausanne, kole fÖddnle 1015 SwiEerland. olaf.t/hnke@epf.dr E-mai[ or tween self and body is thus abnormal, because the self is not olaf.blanke@hcuge.dr. as experienced residingwithin the limits of one's body (Black001t0.1523/Jl{tuR0s0.2612{4.2005 @ topyright 2m5 Sodety l{eüroidenc027G6174/052$550{8$1 for 5.0/0 more, 1982;Irwin, 1985;Blankeet al., 2004).Moreover,the self postulates unity between Folk psychology a selfandbody, a "real me" that resides one's body and is the subjectof experience. in Cognitive psychologists and philosophershave challenged this assumptionand defined severalconceptual(e.g.,explicit autobiographicalmemory and beliefsabout oneself)and phenomenologicalaspects ofthe self [e.g.,the feelingofbeing positionedat a specificlocation in space(selflocation);the experience ofperperspective; ceivingthe world from one'segocentric visuospatial the feelingof being the agentof one'sactions(agenry)l (Neisser, 1988; Gallagher,2000; Metzinger, 2003). Researchers recently havebegunto examine neuralunderpinnings the ofsomeofthese phenomenological aspects the self,usingneuroimaging(feanof
2 PeterBruggerrT Margitta Seeck Alvaro Pascual-Leone,6 Olaf Blankerr'2'4's Christin€Mohrrt,r'rChristophM. Michel,r'a TheodorLandis,r'a GregorThutt'r'e and rFunctional Mapping University Laboratory 2Presurgical Unit, Epilepsy Department and ofNeuroRehabilitation, Brain and ofNeurology, 3Department slaboratory aDepartment ofCognitive 12 I Geneva, Fundamental Geneva, Switzerland, Hospital, I Switzerland, of Neuroscience, University Medicalriphenomena, The spatialunity ofselfand body is challenged variousphilosophical by considerations several and (OBE)during which one'svisualperspective one'sselfare experienced havedepartedfrom to ouslythö "out-of-bodyexperience" and their habitual position within one's body. Although researchers started examining isolated aspectsofthe self, the neurocognitive processes OBEshave not been investigatedexperimentally to further our understanding of the self. With the use of evokedpotential of junction (TPJ)at 330-400 ms after stimulus onset when healthy mapping,we show the selective activationof the temporoparietal volunteersimaginedthemselves the positionand visualperspedivethat generally reportedby peopleexperiencing in spontaneous are OBEs. Interference with the TPf by transcranialmagretic stimulation(TMS)at this time impairedmentaltransformationof one'sown body in healthyvolunteers relativeto TMSovera control site.No suchTMSeffectwasobserved imaginedspatialtransformations for of externalobjects, suggesting selective the implicationof the TPJin mentalimageryof one'sown body.Finally,in an epilepticpatientwith 0BEsoriginating from the TP|, we showpartial activationof the seizurefocusduring mental transformationsof her body and visual perspective mimicking her OBEperceptions. Theseresultssrrggest experience of that the TPf is a crucial structurefor the conscious the normal self, mediating spatial unity of self and body, and dso suggestthat impaired processingat the TPf may lead to pathological selves suchas OBEs. Key words: selfprocessing;temporoparietaljunction; neurology;transcranial magneticstimulation; event-relatedpotentials; human

BehavioraUSystemsCognitive Linking Out-of-Body Experience and Self Processing to Mental Own

CognitiveBehaviorModification

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