Aspects of language LT (2)2009

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2009年高考试题——英语(全国2卷)含答案和详解

2009年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试英语【总卷评析】从测试反馈和卷面总体分析的情况来看，体现了语言能力的考查和高考试题体现的选拔性，突出了考试大纲对语言基本功的测试。

第一卷（选择题）第一部分英语知识运用（共三节，满分50分）第一节语音知识（共5小题；每小题1分，满分5分）【总体评析】观察试题单词，可看出均侧重基础和高频词汇的考查。

所以，总体而言，语音知识这道大题，难易度的设置较为适中，有选拔的梯度设计。

这套试卷选取了字母两个辅音字母“c, x”、一个元音字母及一个元音字母组合“i, ei”和一个半元音字母“y”来进行基本语音考查。

基本上能涵盖完整的元辅音及组合元音字母发音的考查。

从辨音难易度来看，第1、2和4小题读音区别度比较明显，考生不易失分。

第3小题的迷惑度较大，再次就是第5小题具有一定得迷惑度，但相对第3小题来看，要容易得分。

从A、B、C、D四个选项中，找出其划线部分与所给单词的划线部分读音相同的选项，并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。

例：haveA. gaveB. saveC. hatD. made答案是C1. JulyA. diaryB. energyC. replyD. daily【答案】C【解析】该选项y读音/ai/,而，其余发/i/。

区别度较大，考生一般不易失分。

2. medicineA. twiceB. medicalC. perfectD. clinic【答案】A。

【解析】字母“c”发/s/,而其余排除项发音/k/,比较明显，不含糊，考生基本能判别。

3. seizeA. neighbourB. weighC. eightD. receive【答案】D。

【解析】seize中的“ei”读音/i:/。

而其余项读音/ei/。

4. determineA. remindB. ministerC. smileD. tidy【答案】B。

【解析】该字母读音/i/,其余排除项读音/ai/。

尽管读音的区别度大，容易判断，但是对于minister“大臣, 牧师”一词，依然会有相当的学生不熟悉。

2009年高考试题——英语(全国2卷)含答案和详解

所以，总体而言，语音知识这道大题，难易度的设置较为适中，有选拔的梯度设计。

这套试卷选取了字母两个辅音字母“c, x”、一个元音字母及一个元音字母组合“i, ei”和一个半元音字母“y”来进行基本语音考查。

基本上能涵盖完整的元辅音及组合元音字母发音的考查。

从辨音难易度来看，第1、2和4小题读音区别度比较明显，考生不易失分。

第3小题的迷惑度较大，再次就是第5小题具有一定得迷惑度，但相对第3小题来看，要容易得分。

从A、B、C、D四个选项中，找出其划线部分与所给单词的划线部分读音相同的选项，并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。

例：haveA. gaveB. saveC. hatD. made答案是C1. JulyA. diaryB. energyC. replyD. daily【答案】C【解析】该选项y读音/ai/,而，其余发/i/。

区别度较大，考生一般不易失分。

2. medicineA. twiceB. medicalC. perfectD. clinic【答案】A。

【解析】字母“c”发/s/,而其余排除项发音/k/,比较明显，不含糊，考生基本能判别。

3. seizeA. neighbourB. weighC. eightD. receive【答案】D。

【解析】seize中的“ei”读音/i:/。

而其余项读音/ei/。

4. determineA. remindB. ministerC. smileD. tidy【答案】B。

【解析】该字母读音/i/,其余排除项读音/ai/。

尽管读音的区别度大，容易判断，但是对于minister“大臣, 牧师”一词，依然会有相当的学生不熟悉。

考研英语2009text2

考研英语2009text2IntroductionThe integration of technology in education has been a topic of heated debate for decades. In 2009, the discussion reached a pivotal moment as educators, policymakers, and technologists weighed in on the potential benefits and drawbacks of this digital shift. This paper aims to explore the multifaceted nature of technology's role in education, as it was perceived in 2009, by examining the arguments presented by various stakeholders and the empirical evidence available at the time.The Promise of Technology in EducationProponents of technology in education often highlighted its potential to revolutionize the learning process. In 2009, it was argued that technology could:1. Personalize Learning: With adaptive learning software, education could be tailored to individual student's needs, pacing, and learning styles, potentially leading to more effective learning outcomes.2. Enhance Access to Information: The internet provided a wealth of information at students' fingertips, allowing for a more comprehensive and up-to-date learning experience.3. Facilitate Collaboration: Online platforms and tools enabled students to work together on projects, regardless of their physical location, fostering a sense of global community and cooperation.4. Prepare Students for the Digital World: As society became increasingly digital, it was crucial for students to become proficient in using technology to navigate the modern workforce.The Concerns and CritiquesDespite the optimistic outlook, there were significant concerns raised about the integration of technology into education:1. Digital Divide: The disparity in access to technology between different socioeconomic groups could exacerbate existing educational inequalities.2. Loss of Human Interaction: Critics worried that anover-reliance on technology could detract from the value of face-to-face interaction and the development of social skills.3. Teacher Training and Support: There was a concern that teachers might not be adequately prepared to integrate technology into their teaching methods effectively.4. Distraction and Misuse: The potential for students tobe distracted by non-educational content or to misuse technology for cheating was a significant concern.Empirical Evidence from 2009In 2009, various studies were beginning to emerge that shed light on the impact of technology in education:1. Student Engagement: Research suggested that when used creatively, technology could increase student engagement and motivation.2. Learning Outcomes: Some studies indicated that technology could enhance learning outcomes, particularly in subjects like science and mathematics.3. Challenges in Implementation: Other research highlighted the challenges in implementing technology effectively, including the need for professional development for teachers and the importance of a supportive infrastructure.The Role of Policy and RegulationPolicymakers in 2009 were grappling with how to best support the integration of technology in education:1. Funding for Technology: There was a push for increased funding to ensure that all schools, regardless of location or socioeconomic status, could access the necessary technology.2. Regulation and Standards: The development of standards and regulations to ensure the quality and safety ofeducational technology was a key issue.3. Curriculum Integration: Policies were being considered to guide how technology could be best integrated into the curriculum to support learning objectives.The Future Outlook in 2009As the debate continued, there was a general consensusthat technology was not going away and that it would continue to play an increasingly significant role in education. The focus in 2009 was on how to harness this technology effectively:1. Long-term Strategies: Developing long-term strategies for technology integration that considered both the potential benefits and the risks.2. Research and Development: Investing in research to better understand how technology impacts learning and what types of interventions are most effective.3. Community Involvement: Engaging with parents, teachers, and students to ensure that technology integration was responsive to the needs of the community.ConclusionThe 2009 debate on the role of technology in educationwas characterized by a mix of enthusiasm and caution. Whilethe potential benefits were clear, so too were the challenges.As we look back from a vantage point over a decade later, it is evident that technology has indeed become an integral part of the educational landscape. However, the concerns raised in 2009 remain relevant, and the dialogue on how to best leverage technology for educational purposes continues to evolve.The integration of technology in education is not a one-size-fits-all solution but a complex issue that requires nuanced approaches. It is clear that technology can be a powerful tool in the right hands and under the right circumstances. The key lies in understanding how to create those circumstances and how to equip educators and students to use technology effectively to enhance learning.Bibliography[Please note: The bibliography would include a list of academic papers, reports, and other sources that were referenced in the creation of this paper. For the purpose of this exercise, the bibliography is omitted to maintain the focus on the main content.。

CHAPTER 2 ASPECTS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

In the context of language teaching, the first two questions have to do with syllabus design, the third with language teaching methodology, and the fourth with assessment and evaluation. Syllabus design, then, is the selection, sequencing, and justification of the content of the curriculum（教学大纲的设计,是选择、排序,和课程的内容的理由）.
Structural View （结构主义语言理论） :
It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem : from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence . Each language has a finite number of such structural items.
Interactional View :（交互语言理论）
It consider language as a communicative tool , whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people.

These three views present an ever wider view of language. The structural view limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabulary. The communicative or notionalfunctional view adds the need to know how to use the rules and vocabulary to do whatever it is one wants to do. The interactional view says that to know how to do what you want to do involves also knowing whether it is appropriate to do, and where, when and how it is appropriate to do it.

2009translation

2.1 Introduction他忙把那把门的一把拽住。

He snatched the doorkeeper/ the man who held backthe door.关于犯罪的叙述并不是犯罪语言，同理，关于感情的述也并不就是宣泄情感的语言。

Statements about crime are not criminal language; nor are statements about emotions necessarily emotional about emotional language.2) Case （格）你问他、骂他、打他他都一声不吭。

Whatever you did to him, he never uttered aword.树死了，它的根不会死，把它拔出来，它才死。

When a tree dies, the root is still living. It remains before it is pulled out of the earth.他拿住我的手，盯住我的眼睛看着，说道：“你真逗”。

“Y ou are a real comedian,” h e said, taking my hand and looking me straight in the eyes.我想借你家客房用一下。

I wonder if I can use your guest room.3) Tense你哪本书不看，我就拿哪本。

I‟ll take whatever book you‟re not reading.4) passive voice and active voice （语态）这种药用得相当普遍。

The medicine is widely used.5) subjunctive mood （语气）那天你来个电话，我就不去了。

If you had phoned me that day, I would not have gone to meet you因哀叹“人人为我”的风尚，许多权威人士对未来忧心忡忡，哈佛社会学家说：“某个运动看似摧枯拉朽，但常意味着将会一事无成。

2009语言学教案

Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching proceduresnguage1.1Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.1.2What is language?different senses of languagewhat a person says( concrete act of speech)a person‘s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writinge.g. colloquial languagean abstract systemdefinitionsL a n g u a g e i s a m e a n s o f v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n.I t i s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i n g b y s p e a k i n g o r w r i t i n g i s a p u r p o s e f u l a c t.I t i s s o c i a l a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t h a t l a n g u a g e i s a s o c i a l s e m i o t i c a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n o n l y t a k e p l a c e e f f e c t i v e l y i f a l l t h e u s e r s s h a r e a b r o a d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n i n c l u d i n g s u c h a s s o c i a t e d f a c t o r s a s n o n v e r b a l c u e s,m o t i v a t i o n,a n d s o c i o-c u l t u r a l r o l e s.What is communication?-- A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).1.3 Design features of language语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a.arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The link between them is a matter of convention.1)A r b i t r a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s o u n d o f a m o r p h e m e a n d i t s m e a n i n g,e v e n w i t ho n o m a t o p o e i c w o r d s:E.g. ―house‖uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)2)A r b i t r a r i n e s s a t t h e s y n t a c t i c l e v e l:l a n g u a g e i s n o t a r b i t r a r y a t t h e s y n t a c t i c l e v e l.e.g.H e c a m e i n a n d s a t d o w n.H e s a t d o w n a n d c a m e i n.H e s a t d o w n a f t e r h e c a m e i n.3)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds thathave a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.1b.Duality ----T h e p r o p e r t y o f h a v i n g t w o l e v e l s o f s t r u c t u r e s,s u c h t h a t u n i t s o f t h e p r i m a r y l e v e l a r e c o m p o s e d o f e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e c o n d a r y l e v e l a n d e a c h o f t h e t w o l e v e l s h a s i t s o w n p r i n c i p l e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n:c. Creativity -- L a n g u a g e i s r e s o u r c e f u l b e c a u s e o f i t s d u a l i t y a n d i t s r e c u r s i v e n e s s.W e c a n u s e i t t o c r e a t e n e w m e a n i n g s.1)B e c a u s e o f d u a l i t y t h e h u m a n s p e a k e r i s a b l e t o c o m b i n e t h e b a s i c l i n g u i s t i c u n i t s t o f o r m a ni n f i n i t e s e t o f s e n t e n c e s,m o s t o f w h i c h a r e n e v e r b e f o r e p r o d u c e d o r h e a r d.2)T h e r e c u r s i v e n a t u r e o f l a n g u a g e p r o v i d e s a p o t e n t i a l t o c r e a t e a n i n f i n i t e n u m b e r o fs e n t e n c e s.e.g.H e b o u g h t a b o o k w h i c h w a s w r i t t e n b y a t e a c h e r w h o t a u g h t i n a s c h o o l w h i c h w a s k n o w nf o r i t sg r a d u a t e s wh o...d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present(in time and space) at the moment ofcommunication.1.4origin of languagea.T h e‗D i v i n e‘o r i g i n:b.T h e―b o w-w o w‖t h e o r y:I n p r i m i t i v e t i m e s p e o p l e i m i t a t e d t h e s o u n d s o f t h e a n i m a l c a l l s i nt h e w i l d e n v i r o n m e n t t h e y l i v e d a n d s p e e c h d e v e l o p e d f r o m t h a t.c.T h e―p o o h-p o o h‖t h e o r y:I n t h e h a r d l i f e o f o u r p r i m i t i v e a n c e s t o r s,t h e y u t t e r i n s t i n c t i v e s o u n d s o f p a i n,a n g e r a n d j o y.A s f o r e v i d e n c e,w e c a n o n l y c i t e t h e u n i v e r s a l u s e o f s o u n d s a s i n t e r j e c t i o n s.d.T h e―y o-h e-h o‖t h e o r y:A s p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e w o r k e d t o g e t h e r,t h e y p r o d u c e d s o m e r h y t h m i cg r u n t s w h i c h g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d i n t o c h a n t s a n d t h e n i n t o l a n g u a g e.1.5functions of languageLinguists talk about the FUNCTIONS of language in an abstract sense. They summarize practical functions and attempt some broad classifications.a. Jakobson (1960): r e f e r e n t i a l(t o c o n v e y m e s s a g e a n d i n f o r m a t i o n),p o e t i c(t o i n d u l g e i n l a n g u a g e f o r i t s o w n s a k e),e m o t i v e(t o e x p r e s s a t t i t u d e s,f e e l i ng s a n d e m o t i o n s),c o n a t i v e(t o p e r s u ade a n d i nf l u e n c e o t h e r s t h r o ugh c o m m a n d s a n d r e q u e s t s),p h a t i c(t o e s t a b l i s h c o m m u n i o n w i t h o t h e r s)m e t a l i n g u a l(t o c l e a r u p i n t e n t i o n s a n d m e a n i n g s).T h e y c o r r e s p o n d t o s u c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n e l e m e n t s a s c o n t e x t,m e s s a g e,a d d r e s s e r,a d d r e s s e e, c o n t a c t a n d c o d e r e s p e c t i v e l y.b. Halliday early: instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.Halliday (1994): ideational (logical), interpersonal (social) and textual (relevant)I d e a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n c o n s t r u c t s a m o d e l o f e x p e r i e n c e a s w e l l a s l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s,i n t e r p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n e n a c t s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t e x t u a l f u n c t i o n c r e a t e s r e l e v a n c e t o c o n t e x t.b.classification in the textbook:1)I n f o r m a t i v e:I t m e a n s t h a t l a n g u a g e c a n b e u s e d t o g i v e o r r e c o r d i n f o r m a t i o n,t o t e l l w h a tt h e s p e a k e r s b e l i e v e,o r t o r e a s o n t h i n g s o u t.I t i s a l s o c a l l e d i d e a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n t h ef r a m e w o r k o f f u n c t i o n a lg r a m m a r.2)I n t e r p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n:I t i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o c i o l o g i c a l u s e o f l a n g u a g e,a n d b y w h i c hp e o p l e e s t a b l i s h a n d m a i n t a i n t h e i r s t a t u s i n a s o c i e t y.23)P e r f o r m a t i v e:T h e p e r f o r m a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f l a n g u a g e i s p r i m a r i l y t o c h a n g e t h e s o c i a l s t a t u so f p e r s o n s.4)E m o t i v e f u n c t i o n:T h e e m o t i v e f u n c t i o n o f l a n g u a g e i s o n e o f t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l u s e s o fl a n g u a g e b e c a u s e i t i s c r u c i a l i n c h a n g i n g t h e e m o t i o n a l s t a t u s o f a n a u d i e n c e f o r o r a g a i n s t s o m e o n e o r s o m e t h i n g.5)P h a t i c c o m m u n i o n:I t r e f e r s t o t h e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n o f l a n g u a g e.6)R e c r e a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n:I t r e f e r s t o t h e u s e o f l a n g u a g e f o r t h e s h e e r j o y o f u s i n g i t,s u c h a s ab a b y's b a b b l i n g o r ac h a n t e r's c h a n t i n g.7)M e t a l i n g u a l f u n c t i o n:O u r l a n g u a g e c a n b e u s e d t o t a l k a b o u t i t s e l f.2.linguistics2.1What is linguistics?Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.2.2Main branches (scope) of linguistics2.3Important distinctions in linguisticsa.Descriptive vs. prescriptive―描写式‖和―规定式‖They represent two different types of linguistic study.If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.b.Synchronic vs. diachronic―共时‖和―历时‖The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.ngue & parole “语言”和“言语”3The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.petence and performance 语言能力和语言运用The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‘s.Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. HomeworkQuestions and Exercises1,4,6,12Self-study guideRead ―A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of English‖Chapter 1 IntroductionChapter 2 Speech SoundsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points:description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyTeaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distributionTeaching procedureAs we know, there are two branches in linguistics, which deal with speech sounds. They are phonetics (the study of sounds) and phonology (the study sound patterns). In this chapter, we will discuss these two branches.1. Phonetics1.1 Speech production and perception3 sub-branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics----the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech Auditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speech sounds1.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)refers to the parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.The three cavities of the vocal tract: the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), and the nose (nasal cavity). The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities, resulting in the production of various sounds.The pharyngeal cavityLarynx: a t the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam‘s apple. This is the first place where sound modification might occur.vocal folds (vocal cords): V ocal cords are two membranes, the positions of which gives different sounds.●When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless.e.g. [p, s, t ]●When they are close together, the airstreams caus es them to vibrate and produces voiced sounds.e.g. [b, z, d]4●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then produce the glottal stop [?] The oral cavityThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification.Tongue: the most flexibleUvula, the teeth and the lipsHard palate, soft palate (velum)Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teethV arious obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of various sounder [p][b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g]The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth .The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum (soft palate) can be draw back to close the passage so that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and most consonants. The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and produce nasal consonants [m] [n] [g]1.3.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time. It isa standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.The basic principle: using a separate letter selected from major European languages for each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.1.4 English speech sounds1.4.1 ClassificationConsonants: sounds produced by constricting and obstructing the vocal tract at some place.V owels: sounds produced with no obstruction.pure vowels (monophthong)—vowels where the quality remains constantthroughout the articulation.vowel glides----vowels where there is an audible change of qualitySemi-vowels (semi-consonants)P: the sounds produced with little obstruction (also called glides or transition sounds).e.g. yet wet hotT h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n v o w e l s a n d c o n s o n a n t s l i e s i n t h e o b s t r u c t i o n o f a i r s t r e a m.1.4.2 Descriptiona. Consonants1)The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplishedStop (or Plosive); Nasal; Fricative擦音; Approximant无摩擦延续音; Lateral 边音;Trill 颤音; Tap and Flap 闪音; Affricate 破擦音;52)The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.Bilabial双唇音; Labiodental唇齿音; Dental齿音; Alveolar齿龈音; Postalveolar后齿龈音; Retroflex卷舌音; Palatal腭音; Velar软腭音; Uvular小舌音; Pharyngeal咽音; Glottal声门音3)Three parameters to identify a consonant:a)place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occursb)manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplishedc)state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voicelesse. g. [p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stopb. Vowelsthe quality of vowels depend on position of tongue and the shape of lips.Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description:a)the height of tongue raising: high, middle, lowb)the position of highest part of the tongue :front, central, backc)the shape of the lips (the degree of lip-rounding ) : rounded, unroundedd)the length or tenseness of the vowel : tense vs. lax or long vs. shorte. g. [ :] high front tense unrounded vowel[ ] high back lax rounded vowel2. from phonetics to phonology2.1 phonology and phoneticsPhonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. While both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetic studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received. Phonology, on the other hand, is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phonology is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.2.2 coartitulation and phonetic transcriptionsa.Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation (先期协同发音) . e.g. lambIf the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation (后滞协同发音) . e.g. map.b. Two ways to transcribe speech soundsBroad transcription（宽式标音）: the use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription. Narrow transcription（严式标音）: The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.Diacritics: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a sound6value different from that of the same letter without the mark.Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].2.3 phonemesa. phoneme: A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word fromanother in a given language is a phoneme. It‘s a basic unit in phonological analysis. It is not any particular sound, but an abstract segment. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. (the sound type in the mind)The phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.P honemes are placed in slashes ―/ / ‖ (phonemic transcription)phone: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.It‘s a phonetic unit or segment. (in the mouth)e.g. Neither the sound [p] in pit or the sound [b] in bit is a phoneme. They are phones; they are the phonetic realization of the phoneme /p/ and /b/.b. Minimal pairs and complementary distribution1)Complementary distributionNot all speech sounds occur in the same environment, when the two sounds never occur in the same environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.2)Minimal pairs (最小对立体)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment, which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a min imal pair. When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair.Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling.Three requirements for a minimal pair:e.g. a minimal pair : lit-lip; phone-tone; pill-billa minimal set: beat, bit, bet, boot, but, biteThe minimal pair test helps establish which sounds contrast in a language.2.4 allophonesa. allophone: when we have a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we referto them as the allophones of that phoneme.One phoneme may have several allophones, but the choice of an allophone is rule-governedNot all phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the same phoneme. They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.b. Free variationA phone may sometimes has free variants.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.72.5 Phonological processes(音系过程), phonological rules(音系原则) and distinctive features(区别特征)a. Assimilation (同化)Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation(逆同化); the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation(顺同化).b. Phonological process is such a process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.Three aspects to it:A set of sounds to undergo the processA set of sounds produced by the processA set of situations in which the process appliesc. Phonological rules:e.g. /v/→[f]; /z/→[s] etc.voiced fricative →voiceless / ____ voicelessNasalization rule: [-nasal] →[+nasal] / ____ [+nasal]Dentalization rule: [-dental] →[dental] / ____ [dental]V elarization rule: [-velar] →[+velar] / ____ [+velar]d. Epenthesis, rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition1)For the indefinite article a/an, we treat the change of a to an as an insertion of a nasal sound. Theriotically, this process is known as Epenthesis.2) The Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applies first.2.6Distinctive featuresThe features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features.Distinctive features are language-specific.e.g. ―b a‖ (爸) ―p a‖(怕)In Chinese, these two sounds are distinguished by aspiration , while in English they are distinguished by ―voicing‖2.7 suprasegmental features 超音段特征Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are: syllable, stress, tone and intonation.a. the syllable structureA syllable must have a nucleus or peak.Maximal Onset Principle (MOP): When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.b. stressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.In transcription, a raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to.c. intonationIntonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.d. tone8HomeworkQuestions and Exercises 1,2，3, 4Self-study guideRead ―Modern Linguistics‖ by He Zhao-xiong学术前沿一：外语语音教学的回顾和现状及Jazz Chants 教学法1. 20世纪50至60年代：根据行为主义心理学，语言是一套行为习惯，而语言学习就是一个形成习惯的过程。

大学英语专业新生的语音错误的补救教学法

辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文大学英语专业新生的语音错误的补救教学法姓名：***申请学位级别：硕士专业：英语语言文学指导教师：***20040501大学荚浯专鼗毅生熬语音错误憋辜｝救教学法安丽按要；经过了拐孛、瘫孛六年熬荚谖学露，大学荚谖专韭薪生在串岔语语音系统孛裘凌如下特点：掌握所有音索和基本的韵律特征，已经处于语音学习的高级阶段，然而在实际教学中他们的语音水平却不能令人满意，存程备种各样语音锩误。

这些错误究其原因主要来自于这样几个方面：即汉语的干扰，学生对英语音系举和语音学知识的欠缺｛鬟及在交际语壤审攀生捷嗣语誊谨误等等。

戈热强大学英语谮港教学效果我弱爨矮对犬学阶段静语音教学的奉质有清凝地认识，扶弼据出有针对健的解决方案。

对予英语专她的新生来讲，朱来的职业要求他们在语音方砸达到更高的骤求，而不仅仪照可理解和被接受。

而随好的语音对于英语专业的学生也尤为重要，语音能力的好坏也很大稷壤土影响着萁饿语言技能抟掌捱。

大学英语专渡一年级是封好语音基础的燕簧黔段。

瓣容覆疑浯窘教学爱：要｛｜越鄹生静是够重褫，著斑设立攀猿酶语音谦。

熬疆如何对火学英语专业新生进行语音教学才是研究者和教师应该考虑的问题。

大学英语专业新生的语音课要注意中学和大学之间的教学衔接，避免造成资源浪费。

本文旨在道过深入分析大学英谬专业额生所艇应出的在音素、韵律特征及谖用等各个疆誉基嚣上熬镶误，寻求其锩谟豹攫溪嚣接矮，簸瑟鸯铮瓣瞧蘧撬遗｛｝教法瓣耨生进行鞍为系统、科举的语音教学。

补救教学法有助于清晰地认识到大学英语专波新生中介语语音系统中所建构的正确语音和所存在的种种错误，对臌确语音加以肯定和强化，对错误语音进行系统的错误分析。

分析其来源和实质，从倘有的放矢地从增强学熊瓣英汉舞秘瀣蠢瓣差舅意识，翅强英语蠢系学窝语音学期｛更教学及浯趸学练联教学凡穷露提出大学英语专韭薪生谣脊教学鹩解决蠢寨，默丽提蒜靛率，达到曼好豹教学效果。

补救法是一种行之有效的方法，它合理±呶衔接了中学英谬教学和大学英语教学，有效地增强了大学英语语音教学的教学效果，节约了时间和资源。

2009年全国大学生英语竞赛决赛试题答案（C类）

2009年全国大学生英语竞赛决赛试题答案（C类）2009年全国大学生英语竞赛决赛试题答案（C类）2009 National English Contest for College Students(Level C - Final)参考答案及作文评分标准Part I Listening Comprehension (25 minutes, 30 marks)Section A (5 marks)1. C2. B3. A4. B5. CSection B (10 marks)6. B7. C8. C9. B 10. A 11. B 12. C 13. C 14. A 15. BSection C (5 marks)16. B 17. A 18. A 19. C 20. ASection D (10 marks)21. fictional 22. utilitarian function 23. liquids 24. waterproof25. wrapped around26. architecture and sculpture 27. abstract 28. outlined in black 29. reverse30. accidentallyPart II Vocabulary and Structure (10 minutes, 15 marks)31. B 32. C 33. B 34. D 35. B 36. A 37. A 38. A 39. B 40. C 41.B 42.C 43. C 44.D 45. BPart III Reading Comprehension (20 minutes, 35 marks)Section A (5 marks)46. D 47. D 48. C 49. C 50. ASection B (10 marks)51. long-lens camera 52. the nose of a helicopter 53. it is expensive / dear / costly54. adapt to the action 55. Mount EverestSection C (10 marks)56. The robots have lasted much longer than expected.57. An abundance of rocks and soils.58. It has to drive backwards.59. Three.60. Because of the high cost / expense.Section D (10 marks)61. future job openings 62. to design 63. access databases 64. experts 65. higherPart IV Cloze (15 minutes, 15 marks)66. take 67. result 68. which 69. examples 70. appropriate 71. effective 72. physical 73. flexibility 74. What 75. combined 76. account 77. avoiding 78. such 79. expect 80. if / though Part V Translation (15 minutes, 20 marks)Section A (10 marks)81. 20世纪标志着一个时期，这个时期建筑师也许比以往任何时候更注重尝试建筑形式，并从各种各样的资源中获得灵感。

2009级第二学期大学英语考试大纲

2009级第二学期大学英语考试大纲2009级A班考试大纲1. 考试范围：《新世纪大学英语》综合教程第三册1-7单元、第8单元自学；《大学英语》(全新版)阅读教程以及《新世纪大学英语》快速阅读教程第三册1-8单元；《大学英语》(全新版)听力教程第三册的全部内容；《新世纪大学英语听力》（泛听材料）第三册2．试卷结构：试卷由听力、词汇与结构、快速阅读、深度阅读、综合填空、写作6大部分组成，具体小题数、分值及时间分配等如下：Part I Listening Comprehension （30%）Section A：分值：1010个短会话(short conversations，每题1分，多项选择题)Section B：分值：103篇短文/长对话(short passages or long dialogues，10个小题，每题1分，多项选择题)Section C：分值：10 1篇复合式听写(compound dictation，11个小题，前8题（填词）每题0.5分，后3题（填入句子）每题2分)小题数：31 分值：30% 时间：约30min.出题范围：本学期所学的《大学英语》(全新版)听说教程第三册约占30%，《新世纪大学英语听力》(调频台泛听) 第三册约占40%，课外约占30%。

Part II Vocabulary & Structure （15%）小题：30 分值：15% （每题0.5分）时间：15min.出题范围：《新世纪大学英语》综合教程第三册1-8单元Text A/B中的词汇及语法Part III Skimming and Scanning （10%）小题：10 分值：10% （每题1分）时间：10 min.出题范围：来自本学期所学的《新世纪大学英语》快速阅读教程第三册1-8单元四级考试新题型(前7题为判断题，后3题为填词或短语)Part IV Reading in Depth （20%）Section A: 1篇四级考试新题型选词填空题(banked Cloze)小题：10 分值：10% （每题1分）时间：10min.Section B:1篇选择题小题：5 分值：10% （每题2分）时间：15min.出题范围：Section A 来自课外，Section B来自本学期所学的《大学英语》(全新版)阅读教程第三册1-8单元Part V Cloze （10%）小题：20（2篇）分值：10%（每题0.5分）时间：10min.出题范围：《新世纪大学英语》综合教程第三册1-7单元（选择题，非首字母填空）Part VI. Writing （15%）小题：1 分值：15% 时间：30 min.出题范围：与本学期所学的《新世纪大学英语》综合教程1-7单元的主题和内容相关1．考试范围：《新世纪大学英语》综合教程第二册1-7单元、第8单元自学；《大学英语》(全新版)阅读教程以及《新世纪大学英语》快速阅读第二册1-8单元；《大学英语》(全新版)听力教程第二册；《新世纪大学英语听力》（泛听材料）第三册2．试卷结构：试卷由听力、词汇与结构、快速阅读、深度阅读、综合填空、写作6大部分组成，具体小题数、分值及时间分配等如下：Part I Listening Comprehension （30%）Section A：分值：1010个短会话(short conversations，每题1分，多项选择题)Section B：分值：103篇短文/长对话(short passages or long dialogues，10个小题，每题1分，多项选择题)Section C：分值：10 1篇复合式听写(compound dictation，11个小题，前8题（填词）每题0.5分，后3题（填入句子）每题2分)小题数：31 分值：30% 时间：约30min.出题范围：本学期所学的《大学英语》(全新版)听说教程30%，《新世纪大学英语听力》(调频台泛听) 第三册占40%，课外约占30%。

Exposition of language features

Exposition of language features
Name： Name：zhangjian Work units：YaHe Power Plant units：
Content Summary
1. Scientific content 2. Structural reason Article 3.The accuracy of the language
Structural reason Article
Sometimes things and good sense are often more complex, in order to give the reader a clear understanding on its characteristics must have a certain coherent and order. Common description of the order of time sequence of spatial order and logical order. This shows the order of the structure is often reflected in the article level, so read the description text, the sort order of structural levels and take note is the same.
Thank the end of the full text
The accuracy of the language
Description text very practical, so expository language requirements are accurate, to the readers to scientific knowledge. Rapid development in technology today, more and more extensive exposition of the application, the subjects of textbooks, science reading, knowledge of comedy, commentarቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ, instructions, etc. are shown in the. It can be said to illustrate the text and our daily learning, living, working very closely linked.

Language Transfer(二语习得论述题重点)

Language TransferDuring the process of foreign language learning, the influence of mother tongue in foreign language study can not be ignored. Generally speaking, there are positive transfer and negative transfer of mother tongue in foreign language learning. Positive transfer plays a positive role in English learning, while negative transfer just the opposite and cause a lot of troubles. Language transfer mainly shows in the following aspects: Phonemics, vocabulary，grammar，writing etc. We should make best use of the advantages and overcome the disadvantages.Teachers:Teachers should help students find out the commonalities of two languages in the processing of teaching, and make Ss eliminate anxiety to learn English.(Awareness of the Differences and Similarities between Native Language and the Target Language the differences of the two languages are the important point in teaching) Teachers also should view and handle students' mistakes correctly, and don't correct and criticize too much when they make mistakes in order to avoid students not to use target language to express themselves.Pay attention to teaching methods. Having English-Chinese Bilingual Extensive Reading Exercises;Effectively Utilizing Bilingual DictionariesStudents:Have a correct view on language transfer. in stead of regarding negative transfer as barriers in the process of learning English, learners should fully recognize it and realize that it is an essential stage and a learning strategy in the process of English learning. Through contrastive analysis and error analysis one find out the causes of mistakes and make every effort to avoid or minimize negative transfer.Increasing the amount of language input. learners should be given a large amount of foreign language input, read more ,listen more, practice more and recite more，especially the original English material, and learners should be encouraged to communicate with each other in English, only in this way can learners avoid or minimize the influence of negative transfer.Enhance the import of cultural background. In the process of teaching, teachers should use the method of contrastive analysis, and find out the differences and similarities of two languages through the comparison of them, especially the customs and historical background. Enhance the learning of culture background of Britain and America, only in this way can help learners acquire a second language faster and better.The influence and interference of MT is inevitable.What we should do is to understand the root cause, the ways and classifications of MT Transfer and to have a better view of English learning.FossilizationAccording to Krashen there are five reasons for fossilization. Insufficient quantity of the target language input ;Inappropriate quality of the target language input ;The affective filter ;The target language output filter ;The acquisition of deviant forms of the target language. A ccording to many researchers, fossilization can’t be eliminate, but it can be reduced to some degree.Teachers:Formulating Appropriate Teaching Strategies At the initial stage:teachers should let students focus on the language. features of the target language and emphasize its accuracy and fluency. At the advanced stage, learners begin to leam the advanced grammar and complex sentence structure, so teachers should warn students not to use some communicative skills or their learned knowledge to avoid or paraphrase their unfamiliar language.Helping Students formulate appropriate learning strategies Teachers should pay special attention to lead students to adopt the learning strategies which are suitable to the present stage and help students find out learning strategies which are right for them. Teachers should teach students how to leam and use different learning strategies with the change of learning content. Moreover, teachers should examine whether the learning strategies adopted by students are effective and make timely adjustments. Directing Students' Communicative Strategies Teachers should cultivate students' communicative competence and make students adopt active and effective strategies to solve the difficulties in the communication to reduce the IL fossilization. In addition, teachers should increase more effective and correct input and guide students to adopt the correct communicative strategy and grasp the higher language competence, thus the fossilization can't appear early.Arousing Students' Intrinsic Learning MotivationCultivating Students' Cross-culture AwarenessCoping with Students' Errors Correctly(giving effective feedback)Improving Teachers' QualityStudents:Self-consciousness of language fossilizationReducing the negative transfer of mother tongue (Accumulation of declarative and procedural knowledge;Increase of language output ;Exposure to Target language and Target language culture)Increasing the quality and quantity of optimal input.Adoption proper learning strategiesInterlanguageAll in all, teachers should keep in mind that interlanguage is a process which is approaching the target language step by step. During this process students slowly revise the interim systems to accommodate new hypotheses about the target language system. Teachers should pay much attention to the studies of interlanguage so as to treat students’interlanguage fairly and properly, value the training of learning strategies and provide students with more opportunities for comprehensible input and output so that learners’interlanguage could develop rapidly towards the target language.Learning strategies should be taught or trained;Positive attitude towards errors;Input and output should be balanced in class;Make full use of positive transfer.Critical Period HypothesisPutting Emphasis on Pronunciation and Listening; Paying AttentiontoTeaehing Strategies1.在我国,外语学习并非越早越好，英语学习的最佳时期是10岁。

ChapterTwoLitera...

摘要双关，作为一种修辞手法,广泛地存在于书面和口头语言中，并且一直是学者们的热点研究对象。

但是对于双关的传统研究，集中在双关的定义，分类，特征和修辞效果, 或是双关的汉英对比和汉英双关之间的翻译上。

最近，很多学者也从语言学视角像语义学角度，语用学角度和认知角度对双关现象开始进行研究。

其中，也有运用概念整合理论对双关的研究，但是大部分不够深入，细致。

此外，也有研究用其他认知理论揭示双关背后的生成机制。

但是这些认知研究很少关注双关幽默的产生。

认知语言学认为，语言是认知能力的一种反映，我们的研究正是着眼于双关的在线意义建构过程，从中揭示双关是如何产生幽默效果的，从而达到探索双关背后的认知机制的目的。

本研究的理论框架是概念整合理论。

这是一个动态的在线意义建构理论，也是一个具有很强解释力的理论，它曾被运用于多种语言现象的解释，并广泛地运用到科学研究，社会科学等各个领域中。

本研究把概念整合理论框架运用于双关语言现象的解释，得到如下结论：概念整合理论可以应用于双关语言现象的解释，双关是一种概念整合能力的反映。

幽默产生于概念整合过程中，并且是在整合空间中产生的。

双关运用语言在形式或是语音上的相似性，形成一个铰链。

铰链在类属空间的构成中起到很重要的作用。

而类属空间又控制着两个输入空间之间的映射。

而后这两个输入空间中的成分被选择性地投射到合成空间中。

在合成空间里，经过组合(composition)，完善(completion)，扩展(elaboration)几个过程，形成一个新显结构。

这个新显结构的产生过程往往会在空间中形成冲突，而幽默效果就在解决冲突的过程中显现出来了。

本文希望能够给以后的双关语言研究带来一些启示并促进其更长远深入的发展，同时促进概念整合理论的进一步应用。

本研究是以认知角度出发，希望本文的发现能够对认知语言学，乃至认知科学的研究，起到一定的促进作用。

关键词：概念整合理论,双关,意义建构过程,幽默ABSTRACTPun, as a figure of speech, is popularly employed in both oral and written language. It has attracted many scholars’ attention and has been studied from various angles. However, most of the studies are limited to its definition，classifications，features，and rhetoric effects, or the comparison and translation between puns in Chinese and English. Lately, there are more and more researches of pun from linguistic perspectives like semantic perspective, pragmatic perspective, and cognitive perspective. A few of them concern the underlying cognitive mechanism of pun in terms of Conceptual Blending Theory, but most of which are still rough. There are also some cognitive studies of pun by means of other cognitive theories, which offer us much nourishment and give us some hints. Nevertheless, few of them pay attention to the creation of humor in pun.Cognitive linguistics posits that language is a reflection of human cognitive ability. With this as a guideline, this study aims to reveal pun’s meaning construction process and thereby to find how humor is produced in pun, so that the cognitive mechanism behind pun can be explored.The theoretical framework we employ is Conceptual Blending Theory. As an on-line meaning construction theory and a powerful explanatory theory, its application is not only found in language phenomena, like syntax, idioms, and poetic image, but also in other disciplines like social science and scientific field.The conclusion achieved in this paper is that Conceptual Blending Theory is applicable to pun’s explanation, and pun is a reflection of human’s conceptual blending ability. By utilizing the similarities of sound or form of expressions, it merges the two meanings into a hinge which helps to establish the generic space that governs mappings between the inputs.The elements from the inputs are selectively projected into the blend. In the blend, through composition, elaboration and completion, the new emergent structure arises. But in the blend, there always exist conflicts. Humor effects are found in the process of resolving the conflicts.Through this research, we hope that we can leave some hints for the later studies of pun and hope them can be more profound and deeper. Also, we expect that Conceptual Blending Theory can be applied to more language phenomena and other fields. Since our study is a cognitive one, we hope that it can advance the development of cognitive linguistics and further promote the development of cognitive science.KEY WORDS: Conceptual Blending Theory, pun, meaning construction process, humor关于学位论文独创声明和学术诚信承诺本人向河南大学提出硕士学位申请。

全国2009年7月自考综合英语(二)试题_真题(含答案与解析)-交互

全国2009年7月自考综合英语(二)试题(总分100, 做题时间150分钟)课程代码：00795请将答案填在答题纸相应的位置上I．语法、词汇。

从A、B,C、D四个选项中，选出一个正确答案，并将所选答案的字母填在答题纸相应的位置上。

错选、多选或未选均无分。

(本大题共15小题，每小题1分，共 15分)Complete each of the following sentences with the most likely answer.(15 points)1.Einstein’s special theory of ______ , far from being obscure and difficult, can be understood in its basics with no more than first-year algebra.SSS_SINGLE_SELA relativeB relativenessC relativityD relatively该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:C2.They are still not fully able to distinguish right ______ wrong.SSS_SINGLE_SELA betweenB fromC forD against该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:B3.The moment when she knew that her boyfriend was going to break up with her, her eyes ______ a hurt look.SSS_SINGLE_SELA took outB took overC took toD took on该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:D4.At parties Jack doesn’t mind making a ______ of himself as long as it brings about joy and laughter.SSS_SINGLE_SELA foolB heroC cowardD man该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:A5.She turned down the request because it was __ the limits of his power.SSS_SINGLE_SELA aboveB overC offD beyond该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:D6.They ______ in going in spite of the awful weather.SSS_SINGLE_SELA insistedB existedC persistedD consisted该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:C7.You will succeed in the end ______ you give up halfway.SSS_SINGLE_SELA even ifB as thoughC as long asD unless该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:D8.It’s very ______ of you to water my garden while I was away.SSS_SINGLE_SELA consideredB considerateC consideringD considerable该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:B9.Helen probably ______ her rapid recovery to her husband’s devoted care.SSS_SINGLE_SELA obligedB contributedC belongedD owned该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:D10.______ the plan carefully, he decided to take it.SSS_SINGLE_SELA To have judgedB To judgeC Having judgedD Judging该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:C11.I would like to attend the dancing class, but I was ______ the chances at school.SSS_SINGLE_SELA lostB deniedC missedD dismissed该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:B12.Widespread corruption ______ serious problems to the government.SSS_SINGLE_SELA posesB hasC affectsD results该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:A13.She seemed ______ all her passion after she failed the Entrance Exam for University.SSS_SINGLE_SELA to have lostB having lostC to loseD losing该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:A14.I consider his suggestion the most ______ that has so far been offered.SSS_SINGLE_SELA sensibleB sensitiveC sentimentalD strenuous该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:A15.The prize will go to ______ of them writes the best article.SSS_SINGLE_SELA whoeverB whomeverC whicheverD whatever该题您未回答:х该问题分值: 1答案:AII．完形填空。

09年自考“英语(二)”完整讲义(81)

09年自考“英语（二）”完整讲义（81）8.Emotional reaction varies greatly from person to person.vary … from …。

to …全句大意：人与人的情绪反应差异很大。

Physical distractors are always present and rarely understoodOur environment is much more important to how we feel and react than we often think.⑼Particularly is this true of the effect of physical distractors on mental tasks.⑽One research report has shown that comprehension and retention of reading were decreased when students listened to lively music. However，rate of reading was not affected ，so that many students were not aware that they were affected by the background distractor. Another study found that the ability to recall accurately was affected by distracting conditions. Most of the evidence indicates that noise affects adversely higher mental task output. Still，the effect of distractors is seldom fully appreciated by students.9.Our environment is much more important to how we feel and react than we often think.本句中much more … than … 结构表示“远比…要…得多”，…。

09年自考“英语(二)”完整讲义(66)

09年自考“英语（二）”完整讲义（66）3.Generally speaking，the quality of life，especial as seen by the individual，is meaningful in terms of the degree to which these various areas of life are available or provide satisfaction to the individual.“especially as seen by the individual” 是定语从句，其中的关系代词as 作主语，相当于which is，谓语动词中省去了is .意思是“特别是在个人看来（个人所认为的生活质量）”词组“in terms of” 的意思是“按照，按照；在…方面，就…而言”。

例如：In terms of education，every person should have opportunity.就教育来说，每个人都应该有机会。

“ to which these various areas of life are available or provide satisfaction to the individual” 是定语从句修饰“ the degree” .一般来说，生活质量，特别在个人看来，其意义是由这些不同的生活领域可以供个人享受或者可以使个人满意的程度来衡量的。

词组“ to … degree” 到… 程度例如：We‘re all involved in this matter，but to different degrees.我们都与此事有牵连，但程度不一样。

The number of terrorist attacks has increased to a frightening degree. 恐怖袭击的次数上升到一个令人恐惧的程度。

AN ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE FEATURES IN ENGLISH ADVERT

AN ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE FEA TURES IN ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS摘要本文旨在通过对书面英语广告的语言分析总结出广告英语在词汇﹑句法﹑篇章上的语言特点。

为了使研究从数据出发得出科学结论，本文作者建立了一个拥有60 篇各类广告的小型语料库。

通过对此语料库中日用品广告﹑科技设备广告﹑服务业广告的深入细致的定量和定性分析，总结出广告英语在此三类广告中的相同点与不同点，并且根据语言的意义，风格及功能解释广告英语的共性以及广告英语在不同类型广告中的特殊性。

本文共分五个部分，第一部分和第五部分分别为介绍与总结，中间三个部分为本文核心，分别展开广告英语在词汇﹑句法﹑篇章三个层面的分析。

本文的结论均来自于对语料库的分析。

整个研究从数据出发，由数据驱动，由此进行语言学上的分析与概括。

关键词: 广告英语，词汇，句法，篇章，相同点，不同点AN ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE FEA TURES IN ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTSAbstractThis paper presents an analytical study of the language features of English advertisements at lexical, syntactic and discourse levels. In order to conduct a data-driven study, the author builds a corpus of 60 English advertisements. It is hoped that through the detailed survey of three types of advertisements: namely, daily consumer goods ads, technical equipment ads, service ads, similarities and differences in advertising language features can be summarized and possible reasons will be given in the light of the meaning, and function of language.This paper will be presented in five parts. The first part is the introduction and the last conclusion. The focus of the paper is laid on the three middle parts which respectively analyze language features at lexical, syntactic and discourse levels. The conclusion of this paper is drawn from the data analysis. In the analysis, examples from the corpus will be given; figures, tables and graphs will also be offered to make the paper understandable and persuasive.It is hoped that the study can shed light on the language features of advertisements and also provide help to copy writers and advertising English learners.KEYWORDS: English Advertisements, Lexical, Syntactic, Discourse,Similarities, DifferencesContents1. Intr oduction (1)1.1 Rationale of the study (1)1.2 Definition of advertising (1)1.3 Focus of the present study (1)1.4 Sources of data (2)2. Lexical features (2)2.1 Classification of advertising and its audience (2)2.2 Similarities at the lexical level (3)2.2.1 Few verbs are used (3)2.2.2 Use of emo tive words (4)2.2.3 Make pun and alliteration (4)2.2.4 Use of weasel words (5)2.3 Differences at the lexical level (6)2.3.1 Gender identity in advertisements (6)2.3.2 Selection of Adjectives (7)2.3.3 Compound words (8)2.3.4 Use of pronouns (8)3. Syntactical features (9)3.1 Similarities (9)3.2 Differences (10)3.2.1 Headlines (10)3.2.2 Comparison of headlines of different types of ads (11)4. Discourse features (12)4.1 Body co py of advertisements (12)4.2 Differences in body copy (12)5. Conclusion (14)AcknowledgementSincere thanks go to Dr. Wei Naixing for his insightful guidance and earnest help all through the searching, analysis and paper-writing stages.The author also wants to extend her thanks to Ms. Linda Frost who has given much help in data collecting.References[1] Bolinger, Dwight & Sears, Donald A. Aspects of Language third editionNew Y ork: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1981[2] Bovee, Courtland L. & Arens, William F. Contemporary Advertising forth edition Homewood, IL: Irwin 1992[3] Gove, Philip Babcock Webster’s Third New International DictionarySpringfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co. 1976[4] Gregory, Michael Language V arieties and Their Social ContextsLondon: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. 1981[5] Jefkins, Frank William Advertising Philadelphia, PA: Macdonald and Evans 1985[6] O’Donnell, W. R. & Todd, Loreto V ar iety in Contemporary EnglishLondon: George Allen & Unwin (Publishers) Ltd. 1985[7] Roberts, William H. & Turgeon, Gregoire About Language second editonBoston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1989[8] V estergaard, Torben & Schr der, Kim The language of AdvertisingOxford[Oxfordshire]; New Y ork, NY, USA: B. Blackwell 1985[9] 方薇《现代英语广告教程》南京大学出版社1997[10] 崔刚，韩宝成，李营，《广告英语》北京理工大学出版社19931. Introduction1.1 Rationale of the studyWe live in a world of advertising. As potential consumers, we are endlessly bombarded with all kinds of product or service information from various media including newspapers, magazines, television, radio, posters and Internet, etc. Advertising provides a valuable service to society and its members, because it defines for consumers the meaning and the role of products, services, and institutions. It indicates the difference that exists between brands of products and alternative services, as well as the distinguishing characteristics of companies and institutions. Advertising also tells the consumer what a specific product, brand or service should do when it is used and thus helps him or her to understand and evaluate experience with the products and services that he or she uses. On the other hand, by making people aware of products, service and ideas, advertising promotes sales and profits. Finally, advertising is one of the major forces that are helping improve the standard of living around the world. Combined with all these communicational, marketing and social functions. Advertising becomes indispensable in the modern world.Naturally, advertisements in English have become an important means of communicating ideas, demonstrating a variety of linguistic features of its own. The present study attempts to examine these features at the lexical, syntactic and discourse levels, in the hope of bringing them to light and, thereby, offering help to advertisement writers and language learners.1.2 Definition of advertisingAccording to the Definition Committee of American Marketing Association( 方薇, 1997:2), advertising is defined as follows:Advertising is the nonpersonal communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through the various media.1.3 Focus of the present studyUsually, advertising communicates information in three types: audio, visual, and language. It is a more common case that an advertisement is a mixture of the three. In radio advertisements, music is always accompanied by language; on TV and motion pictures, music and language illustration are mixed with each other. In magazines and newspapers, advertisements are a combination of pictures and language of written information. Although music and pictures can provide some hints, or create a kind of atmosphere, the information about the product is limited. Even worse, it may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, we may say that language in a way provides more exact, detailed and dependable information whereas music and pictures only act as a supplementary means in advertising. Advertising language, playing a role of communication and persuasion, has developed its own features.This paper will focus on the language features of English advertisements at lexical, syntactic and discourse levels. It is hoped, by a contrastive study of advertisements on three types of products (daily consumer goods, technical equipment and service), similarities and differences of the three types of advertisements will be summarized and possible reasons will be given in the light of the meaning, and function of language.1.4 Sources of dataAll the advertisements studied in this paper are taken from English magazines. They are chosen from Time, People and Newsweek (issues from 1999-2000), because these three magazines have a huge circulation, covering all kinds of audience. Almost all kinds of advertisements can be found in these magazines. In order to get valuable information for the study, a corpus of 60 advertisements was built, which consists of 20 daily consumer goods ads, 20 technical equipment ads, and 20 service ads. Conclusions will be drawn through quantitative and qualitative studies of the data.2 Lexical Features2.1 Classification of advertising and its audienceGenerally speaking, advertisements can be divided into two types: public relation ads and commercial ads. The former tries to advocate reputation for a social group, whose purpose is to leave a favorable impression upon the potential audience. The latter leads to the act of purchasing the products or using the recommended service. Commercial ads are much more presented through mass media for the reason that manufacturers and companies are willing to spend a large sum of money to make a certain product known or to boost the image of a certain brand. In some cases, competitors, like Coca-cola and Perpsi, even spare no expense to launch advertising campaigns to win over the market share. Commercial advertising can also be divided according to the target audience into two groups: consumer advertising and business advertising. Most of the ads in the mass media are consumer advertisements. They are typically directed at consumers. Bycontrast, business advertising tends to be concentrated in specialized business publications, professional journals, trade shows targeting at a certain group of people involved in some business. Since consumer advertising is most accessible to common people, the present study on will focus on consumer advertising. The classification of advertising is clearly shown in the following graph:Graph 1 Classification of advertisementsPublic ads Daily consumer goods adsAdvertising Consumer ads Technical equipment adsCommercial adsBusiness ads Service adsThe bold parts show the scope of advertisements we study. Daily consumer goods are necessities of daily life, such as food, detergent, hygiene, etc. Technical equipment is technical toys and electric equipment such as camera, vehicle, hi-fi, etc. Service covers bank, insurance, fund, etc.Actually, advertising works effectively some of the time and doesn’t work other times. The single crucial reason that advertising does not work is that in specific instances the information it conveys never reaches the consumer at all, or is judged by the consumer to be either redundant, meaningless, or irrelevant. For example, a motorbike advertisement will probably be invisible to housewives on the lookout for new cutlery. Social status and individual interest decide that consumer goods ads are mainly targeting at women while technical equipment ads are largely aiming at men. The amount of shared knowledge between the advertiser and the audience together with the thinking habit of the audience directly influences the advertising language. Since products and audience change in every advertisement in order to achieve high advertising effectiveness, language used differs in different types of advertisements. Thus, in this paper we discuss not only the similarities of language shared by all types of advertisements but also differences of language used in different kinds of advertisements.2.2 Similarities at the lexical levelIn order to make the information accessible to audience effectively, the choice of words in advertising is very cautious and skillful. The aim of the advertiser is quite specific. He wishes to capture the attention of the members of a mass audience and by means of impressive words to persuade them to buy a product or behave in a particular way, such as going to Hawaii for all their holiday needs. Both linguistic and psychological aspects are taken into consideration in the choice of words. Sharing the same purpose of advertising －to familiarize or remind consumers of the benefits of particular products in the hope of increasing sales, the techniques used at the lexical level by advertisers do not vary markedly. The following points are some prominent similarities.2.2.1 Few verbs are usedG. N. Leech, English linguist, lists 20 most used verbs in his English In Advertising: Linguistic study of Advertising In Great Britain ( 方薇, 1997:20). They are: make, get, give, have, see, buy, come, go, know, keep, look, need, love, use, feel, like, choose, take, start, taste.All these verbs listed above are also popular in the corpus we built.Y ou will often read such sentences in an advertisement:Buy x. Use it. We make… X will give you what you need. Y ou’ll love x. Get x. Fox example:We’ll make this quick. (Hertz Car Return)Get great coverage that’s so weightless and water-fresh. (ALMAY)All you need is a taste for adventure. (Millstone Coffee)Y ou’ll love it even more with the 2.1 megapixel C-2000 ZOOM. (Olympus Camera)Don’t have much of a personality? Buy one. (Honda Motor)…All these frequently used verbs are monosyllabic and most of them have Anglo-Saxon origin that is the common core of English vocabulary. Linguistic study shows English native speakers tend to use words of Anglo-Saxon origin, because native words have comparably stable meaning. In advertising, these simple words can win the consumers by their exact, effective expression and a kind of closeness. Etymological studies show that the 20 verbs listed before, except use and taste which are from ancient French, all are Anglo-Saxon origin. Even the two words, use and taste have long become indispensable lexical items in the stock of common core vocabulary of the English people, developing their stable meaning and usage.2.2.2 Use of emotive wordsA close scrutiny of recent advertisements suggests that the soft-sell technique is now popular. By soft-sell technique we mean the one that favors a more emotive and less directive approach to promote a product, mainly focusing on the building of brand image. As a result, emotive words, most of which are pleasant adjectives, are greatly encouraged to use.Data from the corpus shows that the most frequently used adjectives are as follows:new, good/better/best, fresh, free, delicious, sure, full, clean, wonderful, special, crisp, real, fine,great, safe, and rich.These adjectives help to build a pleasant picture in readers’ minds and manage to create a belief in the potential consumer: If I buy this product or if I choose this service, I will lead a better life. In addition, comparatives and superlatives occur to highlight the advantage of a certain product or service. For example:Nothing comes closer to home. (V egetable and Chicken Pasta Bake)Think Lysol is the best disinfecting spray. (Disinfecting Spray)The world’s coolest CDs aren’t made in New Y ork, London or L.A. They are made in my apartment. (Philips CD Recorder)The Compaq Armada family is lighter, with new rounded edges for easier packing. (Compaq)…2.2.3 Make pun and alliterationPun is an amusing use of a word or phrase that has two meanings which is called Polysemy or of words with the same sound but different meanings which is called Homonymy. Pun, the game of words, will leave a deep impression on readers by its readability, wit, and humor. However, to make a successful and impressive pun is not easy. Except for its own meaning, the word used as a pun is usually closely related to the characteristics of a certain product or the brand name of the product. Such coincidence doesn’t occur often. Here we present s everal classic pun- used advertisements. For example:Give your hair a touch of spring.Ask for more. (More is a famous brand of cigarette)Give your business the sharp edge. (Sharp Corporation)…By using pun, advertisements will be easily remembered by the readers. In addition, filled with wit and humor, puns help the advertised product win favor from readers.Alliteration is the use of words that begin with the same sound in order to make a special communicative effect. Usually they are pleasing to ears because of the clever choice of the word by the advertiser. In addition, the repetition of the beginning sound emphasizes the meaning the advertisement wants to express. The following are examples picked from the corpus.…, everything you n eed for that big bargain basement special.…, and vitamin E to leave skin soft and smooth.Treat your weary ghosts and goblins to a warm bowl of chill and ……2.2.4 Use of weasel wordsA weasel word is defined as “a word used in order to evade or retreat from a direct or forthright statement or position” according to Webster Dictionary (Philip Babcock Gove, 1976). The use of weasel words has become a device in advertising. Weasel words make people hear things that aren’t being said, accept as t ruth that have only been implied, and believe things that have only been implied and suggested. Let’s take a look under a strong light at several frequently used words.HelpOcean Spray Cranberry Juice Cocktail helps maintain urinary tract health.It helps control the bacteria in this system.A breakthrough way to help stop wear-outHelp finance the video equipment.…All the examples shown are from our corpus. 23% advertisements of all samples use the word help. These helps can be omitted because they have lost their original meaning: aid, assist. Y et, help in advertising English is never redundant. It has magic power in advertisers’ eyes. Help is the great qualifier; once the advertiser says it, he can say anything after it. Help qualif ies everything. The audience has never heard anyone say, “This product will keep you young,” or “This toothpaste will positively prevent cavities for all time.” Obviously, advertisers can’t say anything like that, because there are not any products like that made. But by adding that one little word help, in front, they can use the strongest language possible afterwards. And the most fascinating part of it is that the readers are immune to the word. The readers literally don’t hear the word help. They only knew what comes after it. That is strong language, and likely to be much more important to the readers than the little word at the front.LikeIt’s like getting on bar free.Cleans like a white tornado.It’s like taking a trip to Portugal.…Like is also a qualifier, and is used in much the same way as help. But like is also a comparative element, with a very specific purpose; advertisers use like to get the audience to stop thinking about something that is bigger than or better or different from the product which are being sold. In other words, they can make the audience believe that the product is more than it is by likening it to something else. Like help, like doesn’t catch much attention. However by using it, almost anything can be said and promised afterwards.2.3 Differences at the lexical level2.3.1 Gender identity in advertisementsWhile we found quite a lot of similarities in the choice of words, we have also found some delicate differences in the choice of words in the three types of advertisements as classified before: daily consumer goods ads, technical equipment ads, and service ads.Language, as a communicative tool, is not only to impart information, to communicate ideas about a product, etc., but also to convey information about the relationship between the addresser (advertisement) and the addressee (the audience). An intimate relationship between the advertisement and the audience is always hoped to achieve. So according to different audience, language applied is different.What constitutes a female and a male identity, according to advertising? Table 1, based on the language of advertising (Torben V estergaard & Kim Schr der, 1981:74), gives the commodity profile of two gender-identified magazines: Women and Playboy and also provides the distribution of the different types of advertisements.Table 1 Distribution of three types of advertisementsPercentage of adsWomen (%) Playboy (%)DailyConsumerGoodsHygiene 10 3Beauty 18 1Clothes 12 14Food, Detergents 31 -Tobacco 8 15Beer, Spirits - 25Leisure - 3TechnicalEquipmentV ehicle - 27Radio, hi-fi - 4Computer - 7Service Insurance, banking 2 -Others 19 1It can be seen from table 1 that the hygiene, beauty, food and detergents ads are dominant in the women’s magazines while technical equipment ads prevail in men’s magazines. The reason is that women are potential purchasers of daily consumer goods while men are potential purchasers of tech nical equipment. So advertising language tries to win its audiences by noticing audiences’ gender identity.In addition, since the subjects involved in advertisements vary from simple to complex, shared knowledge by the addresser (ads) and addressee (the audience) varies. For example, knowledge of technical equipment, sometimes demands high educational background or special interests in a certain field. To convey different knowledge clearly, advertisements don’t always speak in the same way. In the following section, we will make a comparative study of three points in order to find differences in the choice of words in three types of advertisements: the selection of adjectives, the use of compound words and the use of pronouns.2.3.2 Selection of adjectivesAdjectives, as emotive and exciting words, are used to enhance the facts of a certain product or service. In the study of the selection of adjectives, we have first divided adjectives into two groups: descriptive adjectives and evaluative adjectives. The former is used in objective description and the latter give the advertiser’s subjective comments. Then we have listed those frequently used descriptive adjectives and evaluative adjectives in daily consumer goods ads and technical equipment ads, and we surprisingly have discovered descriptive adjectives differ from each other in two kinds of advertisements.Table 2 Comparison of frequently-used adjectivesin daily consumer goods ads and technical equipment adsDescriptive adjectives Evaluative adjectivesDailyConsumerGoodsAdsradiant, shiny, dazzling, goldsoft, smoothfreshcreamy, crispycleaneasy, convenientrich, effective, crucialhealthy, fastvaluable, flewessentialgood/better/bestmagicTechnicalEquipmentAdsaudible, visiblehigh-volume, full-colour,high-speedmagnetic, sharpinvisible, multipleflexible, versatileTable 2 shows that descriptive adjectives in daily consumer goods ads such as fresh, crispy, and soft, tend to convey the sense of sight, touch, and taste. The temptation aroused by this vivid description of a product is hard to resist especially for women who tend to be moved by pleasant senses; compared with men, women are inclined to think in terms of images and perceive through senses. However, men, the target audience of technical equipment, are good at rational thinking. Men are not controlled by senses. On the contrary, the product’s interior quality and function is what they pay attention to. So the descriptive adjectives used in technical equipment ads are the ones conveying information of the product, such as audible, visible, high-volume, high-speed, etc.2.3.3 Compound wordsA compound word is often a noun or an adjective made up of two or more words. Compound adjectives are often seen in advertisements. In the present study, we found compound words turn up with varying proportions in three types of advertisements.Compound-used AdsTotalAdsPercentageDaily Consumer Goods 5 20 25%Technical Equipment 13 20 65%Service 7 20 35%Obviously, compound words turn up in 65% technical equipment ads, 40 percentage points higher than that of daily consumer goods ads; 30 percentage points higher than service ads.Compound words in technical equipment ads, are usually combined to give an exact description of a certain feature or a certain function such as high-volume, full-color, multi-functional, non-stop, water-cooled. Often numbers are employed in front of the hyphen, which is seldom seen in other advertisements, such as 64-bit, 24-valve, 4-wheel, 255-horsepower.This difference can be accounted for in terms of the different complexities of the goods. In comparison with daily consumer goods and services, technical equipment is much more complicated in function and structure. It is just the advantageous function or newly designed structure that the advertiser wants to highlight in technical equipment ads. Thus, the advertiser employs, even coins, so many compound words that they can make the introduction of complicated technical equipment brief and precise. Grammatically, compound words help to avoid using clause, which enhance the readability of advertisements.2.3.4 Use of pronounsPronouns of the first and second person: we, I and you outnumber the other pronouns in advertisements. It is because that you, we and I help create a friend-like intimate atmosphere to move and persuade the audience. Advertisements with lots of pronouns of the first and second person are called gossip advertisements. Here, gossip has not the least derogative meaning. It originates from old English god sib, meaning friendly chats between women. Advertisements that go like talking with friends closely link the advertisement and the audience. The audience will easily accept a product, a service or an idea as if a good friend recommended them.Though pronouns of the first and second person are popular in advertisements, there are some differences in the use of these pronouns in the three kinds of advertisements. The first person wealmost never occurs in daily consumer goods ads and technical equipment ads, whereas we is used in almost 80% the service ads in the corpus. The following are some examples.What can we do for you?So come on and join us as we celebrate MillenniaMania Singapore.…, we help our neighbors find the best ways to give to their favorite charitiesWe’re stronger than ever.…There are two factors to explain the phenomenon. First, in daily consumer goods ads and technical equipment ads, a product is the focus of information. When the product needs to be mentioned, “it” is used, and in most cases, the brand name is used, even repeated to impress the readers. However, in service ads, service is actually the product. Since service is intangible, we can be regarded as the replacement of the service. Second, it is more necessary for service ads to create a friend-like atmosphere, because winning trust is the first thing service ads want to do.3. Syntactical features3.1 SimilaritiesThe purpose of all advertising is to familiarize consumers with or remind them of the benefits of particular products in the hope of increasing sales, and the techniques used by advertisers do not vary markedly. An advertisement is often merely glimpsed in passing and so, to be effective, its message must be colorful, legible, understandable and memorable. The rules governing the language of advertising are similar. We have summarized the lexical features of English advertisements. If words are leaves of a tree, and sentences branches; the branches must also possess their similarities.First, length of a sentence in advertising is usually short. A sentence in daily consumer goods ads has 10.3 words on average; in technical equipment ads, 11.8 words; in service ads, 12.3 words.Second, as to sentence structure, simple sentences and elliptical sentences are often used in advertisements. Compared with complex sentences, simple sentences are more understandable and forceful. Elliptical sentences are actually incomplete in structure but complete in meaning. The adoption of elliptical sentences can spare more print space, and take less time for readers to finish reading. In addition, a group of sentence fragments may gain special advertising effectiveness. Let us compare the following two advertisements.a. Baked. Drenched. Tested to the extreme. A Motorola cellular phone …b. The Motorola cellular phone are baked and drenched to extreme.Obviously, by using elliptical structure, sentence a is far more brief, eye-catching and forceful than sentence b. What’s more, it conveys attitudes that sentence b lacks. Sentence a implies a kind of appreciation for the phone, by splitting the sentence into several fragments and rearranging its word order. Therefore skillful arrangement of elliptical sentences may add color to a sentence.Third, as to sentence patterns, interrogative sentences and imperative sentences are heavily used in English advertisements. Imperative sentences are short, encouraging and forceful. They are used to arouse audiences’ wants or encourage them to buy something. For instance:Enter something magical. (Oldsmobile)Feel the clean all day. (ALMAY)Bye one. (Honda motor)…In the explanation of the high frequency of the use of interrogative sentences, Linguist G.N. Leech ( 方薇,1997:77) discusses two main functions of interrogative sentences. V iewing from the angle of psychology, interrogative sentences divided the process of information receiving into two phases by first raising a question and then answering it. Thus it turns the passive receiving into active understanding. From the linguistic angle, interrogative sentences decrease the grammatical difficulty, because they are usually short in advertisements. Take the following interrogative sentence as an example: if it is asked to condense to one sentence, the condensed one will be complex and dull.What’s in Woman’s Realm this week? A wonderful beauty offers for you.→There’s a wonderful beauty offer for you in Women’s Realm this week.Fourth, the passive voice is usually avoided because the passive voice gives the audience an indirect and unnatural feeling. In daily communication, passive voice is seldom used; so is in advertisements. Present tense prevails in most advertisements because present tense implies a universal timelessness. On the rare occasions where the past tense and the present perfect tense is used, it stresses the long traditions associated with a product, such as “We’ve taken our whisky in many ways, but always seriously”; or emphasizes its reliability, such as “We’ve solved a long-standing problem,”; or makes an appeal to authority, such as “Eight out of ten owners said their cats preferred it.”3.2 Differences。

第五章言语交际2

二、文化影响言语交际
2、文化在语篇层级对语言的影响、（2）演绎模式和归纳推理模式）演绎模式和归纳/推理模式演绎模式是在谈话的开始就介绍主要观点，演绎模式是在谈话的开始就介绍主要观点，接着次要或支撑性的论证紧随其后。接着次要或支撑性的论证紧随其后。这种模式形式可以概括如下：式形式可以概括如下： X（comment, main point, or action （ suggested）） Because of Y（topic, background, or reasons）（）
二、文化影响言语交际
2、文化在语篇层级对语言的影响、（1）线性和非线性语言）第二：闪含语，由一系列向前移动、第二：闪含语，由一系列向前移动、呈之字形的线条组成，表示平行的移动。字形的线条组成，表示平行的移动。
二、文化影响言语交际
2、文化在语篇层级对语言的影响、（1）线性和非线性语言）第三：是包括汉语、日语、韩语、第三：是包括汉语、日语、韩语、泰语等在内的东方语言的代表。在内的东方语言的代表。东方语言被设计成环形、螺旋型，东方语言被设计成环形、螺旋型，是间接这种语言在段落发展表现为，的。这种语言在段落发展表现为，段落组织是离题的，没有中心的、间接的，织是离题的，没有中心的、间接的，对于英语本族人来说甚至是笨拙的。英语本族人来说甚至是笨拙的。
2、文化在语篇层级对语言的影响、（1）线性和非线性语言）种语言群相关的5种文化思维模式与5种语言群相关的种文化思维模式种语言群相关的第一: 英语，是一条箭头向下的垂直直线，第一英语，是一条箭头向下的垂直直线，英语段落的直线逻辑发展，英语段落的直线逻辑发展，即开始是论题陈述，陈述，接着是用支撑论题的相关观点来发展论题，最后是对整个文章做出结论。展论题，最后是对整个文章做出结论。英语段落的发展是以直线性、直接、英语段落的发展是以直线性、直接、清楚和逻辑为典型特征的，和逻辑为典型特征的，这是说英语的本族人认为好的英语写作的决定性的评价标准。人认为好的英语写作的决定性的评价标准。