Session 3 The psychology of SLA(1)

Session 3 The Psychology of SLA（1）nguage and the brain●Language activity is not localized, but core linguistic processes are typically housed inthe left hemisphere (p.68). “…no longer expect that there are language areas that are entirely …responsible for language...” (Obler & Gjerlow 1999).●The critical period hypothesis(Lenneberg 1967): Brain plasticity in childhood wouldallow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal language would not be possible.Table 4.1 Principal communicative specializations of left and right hemispheres (p.69)Left hemisphere Right hemispherePhonology Nonverbal (as babies‟ cries)Morphology Visuospatial informationSyntax IntonationFunction words and inflections Nonliteral meaning and ambiguityTone systems Many pragmatic abilitiesMuch lexical knowledge Some lexical knowledge●Research interests:1) How independent are the languages of mutilingual speakers?Tentative answer: Multiple language systems are neither completely separate norcompletely fused.2) How are multiple language structures organized in relation to one another in the brain? Areboth languages stored in the same areas?Tentative answer: L1 and L2 are stored in somewhat different areas of the brain, but bothpredominantly in areas of the left hemisphere. However, the righthemisphere might be more involved in L2 than in L1.3) Does the organization of the brain for L2 in relation to L1 differ with age of acquisition, theway it is learned, and level of proficiency?Tentative answer: Probably yes. A) Age of acquisition influences brain organization formany L2 learners. There is evidence that individuals who acquire L2later in life show more right-hemisphere involvement. B) “…secondlanguage may be learnt by many means rather than the single meansfound in L1 acquisition and, consequently, may have a greater apparenthemispheric spread.” (Cook 1992). C) Probably the organization of L2knowledge is more diffuse for lower levels of proficiency and morecompact for highly fluent L2 users.4) Do two or more languages show the same sort of loss or disruption after brain damage?When there is differential impairment or recovery, which languagerecovers first?Tentative answer: Brain damage results in the same or very similar patterns of loss andrecovery for both/all of most multilingual persons‟ languages, but manyexceptions have been reported. Different languages can be affecteddifferentially by brain damage and different abilities (oral vs. written) inthe same language may be differentially impaired, suggesting thatdifferent elements of language are located in separate parts of the brain.2. Learning processes●Information processing (IP) ( J. Anderson 1976; 1983; ACT*)Anderson distinguishes between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Learning develops from declarative to procedural stages, from acquisition of isolated facts and rules to processing of longer associated units and increasing automatization, which frees attentional resources for higher-level skills.●Automaticity and Restructuring (McLaughlin 1990)Automaticity: control over linguistic knowledge. Practice makes perfect.Restructuring: qualitative, discontinuous changes made to internalized representations due to new learning, making mental representations more coordinated, integrated and efficient, sometimes associated with U-shaped pattern.Automatic vs. Controlled processing: The former refers to a consistent and regular association between input and output patterns; the latter refers to association yet to build up, characterized by slow responses, …stepping stones‟ for automatic processing.Learning involves transfer of information to long-term memory, routinization, attention.●Ten IP assumptions (Savaille-Troike, p.73-4)1) Second language learning is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. In this respect language learning is like the acquisition of other complex skills.2) Complex skills can be reduced to sets of simpler component skills, which are hierarchically organized. Lower-order component skills are prerequisite to learning of higher-order skills.3) Learning of a skill initially demands learners‟attention, and thus involves controlled processing.4) Controlled processing requires considerable mental “space,” or attentional effort.5) Humans are limited-capacity processors. They can attend to a limited number of controlled processing demands at one time.6) Learners go from controlled to automatic processing with practice. Automatic processing requires less mental “space” and attentional effort.7) Learning essentially involves development from controlled to automatic processing of component skills, freeing learners‟controlled processing capacity for new information and higher-order skills.8) Along with development from controlled to automatic processing, learning also essentially involves restructuring or reorganization of mental representations.9) Reorganizing mental representations as part of learning makes structures more coordinated, and efficient, including a faster response time when they are activated.10) In SLA, restructuring of internal L2 representations, along with larger stores in memory, accounts for increasing levels of L2 proficiency.●R. Schmidt‟s (1990) noticing hypothesis: Input is not available for processing unless learnersactually notice it. Factors contributing to noticing include:Frequency of encounter with itemsPerceptual saliency of itemsInstructional strategies that can structure learner attentionReadiness to notice particular items (related to hierarchies of complexity)Task demands or the nature of activity the learner is engaged in●M. Swain‟s (1985;1995) output hypothesis:1) Enhancing fluency by furthering development of automaticity through practice2) Noticing gaps in their own knowledge as they are forced to move from semantic tosyntactic processing, which may lead learners to give more attention to relevant information.3) Testing hypotheses based on developing interlanguage, allowing for monitoring andrevision4) Talking about language including eliciting relevant input and (collaboratively) solvingproblems.●Theories regarding order of acquisitionMutidimensional model (Clahsen et al 1983) based on the studies of the German L2 learning :Learners acquire certain grammatical structures in a developmental sequence.Developmental sequences reflect how learners overcome processing limitations.Language instruction which targets developmental features will be successful only if learners have already mastered the processing operations which are associated with the previous stage of acquisition.Processability theory (Pienemann 1998), a reorientation of the Mutidimensional model, also aims to determine and explain the sequences. It is claimed that language instruction will be effective only if it targets the next stage in an L2 learner‟s developmental sequence. …even when learners profit from more advanced levels of instruction, they progress through the same developmental sequence (see p.77 for the acquisitional hierarchy of processing skills).●Competition Model (Bates & MacWhinney 1981)A functional approach assuming that all linguistic performance involves …mapping‟between external form and internal function. It is also regarded as a performance model emphasizing the concept that speakers must have a way to determine relationships among elements in a sentence. It interprets sentences by means of competing cues (e.g. word order, lexical meanings, animacy, morphology).e.g. T he cows eat the grass.The grass eats the cow.Languages differ in the use of cues for sentence interpretations (range of cues is universal).A L2 learning question: How do L2 learners adjust their L1 speech-processing mechanisms to L2 in the use of cues?Research methodology: presenting sentences with conflicting cuesMajor findings: (1) learners facing conflicts between NL and TL cues and cue strengths, (2) precedence of a meaning-based comprehension strategy over a grammar-based one, (3) learners first resorting to their NL interpretation strategies, then, upon perception of conflicts, to a universal selection of meaning-based cues.Connectionist approachesLearning is seen as simple instance learning, which proceeds based on input alone; the resultant knowledge is seen as a network of interconnected exemplars and patterns, rather than abstract rules.Learning takes place as the network is able to make associations and associations come through exposure to repeated patterns. The more an association is made, the stronger that association becomes.The best known connectionist approach within SLA is Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) (Rumelhart & McClelland 1986). Processing is parallel: many connections are activated at the same time. Knowledge is stored in memory retrieved as …connection strengths‟between units which account for the patterns being recreated.Proponents of connectionist approaches to language acquisition claim that frequency is …an all-pervasive causal factor‟ (N. Ellis 2002). There are arguments against a strong deterministic role for frequency of input in language learning. For example, some of the most frequent words in English (e.g. the) are relatively late to appear (Why do you think this is the case?).ReferencesSchmidt, R. 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11:129-88.。