GRE,GMAT,TOEFL机经背景知识整理_人文

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纽约地铁历史 说 起 纽 约 地 下 铁 , 大 家 对 它 的 感 觉 是 ," 纽 约 地 下 铁 怎 么 那 么 复 杂 啊 !", 路 线 那 么 多 , 有 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,J,L,M,N,Q,R,S,Z 等线,还有分快车 (Express),慢车(Local),到了尖峰 时间时(Rush Hours),有些站还不停……等. 事实上从纽约地下铁于 1904 年通车时,就注定了它 复杂的命运. 纵观纽约地下铁发展史,刚开始是私人企业获得纽约市政府的许可,自行建造, 自行营运,但是 因为多数人要求将这些私营系统收回公有,于是于 1940 年代 ,纽约市政府把这些地铁系统 收回公营.在收回的前十年,纽约的政客们为了这个问题,展开了血腥的政治斗争. 目前纽约人简单地将纽约地下铁分成三大系统: 1. IRT (Interborough Rapid Transit) 2. IND (INDependent Subway) 3. BMT (Brooklyn Manhattan Transit) IRT 由于规格上跟 IND 以及 BMT 不同(IRT 所容纳的车厢比较小),所以无法与 IND 或 BMT 相连,而事实上 IND 与 BMT 早以相通,因此在路线上 IRT 是以数字表示, IND 与 BMT 系统是以英文大写字母表示. 三大系统中 IRT 是最早营运的系统,事实上在 IRT 于 1904 年通车前,在曼哈顿 (Manhattan) 区,布禄仑(Brooklyn,布禄仑是老华侨讲的,也可叫布鲁克林)区,及皇后(Queens)区都有高架捷 运系统,电车系统,美国职棒有一个队叫道奇队 (Dodgers),就是因为在布鲁克林区,许多行人要 躲避来往的电车所取的名字. IRT 要建地铁,认为这是未来的趋势,于是就向纽约市府申请盖 地铁,经过多年的施工, 于 1904 年通车,这一条路线,从纽约市府开始往北走,到了中央车站 (Grand Central) ,往西行,沿着 42 街到时代广场(Times Square),在向北沿着百老汇大道 (Broadway) 走,过了 96 街后,一条线继续沿着 Broadway 走,令一条线穿过中央公园到布朗 克斯区(The Bronx),以布朗克斯动物园为终站.在布朗克斯区是以高架行驶. 在 1908 年时,这 条线又向南延伸至 Brooklyn,以 Atlantic Avenue 为终点站. 这条路线最大的特点就是,总共有四条轨道,两条作慢车,两条作快车.这就是以后盖纽约地铁 的标准,这也是纽约地铁与其他地区地铁与众不同的地方. IRT 后来想要扩充当时的路线,并且积极反对其他私营企业盖地铁,结果未如所愿, 在 1910 年代,纽约市府通过一个计画叫 Dual Contracts.市府同意 IRT 及 BRT (Brooklyn Rapid Transit, 也就是后来的 BMT)盖地铁. 当第一条地铁于 1904 年通车,虽然得到很多的赞扬,但也获得很多批评,例如尖峰时间拥挤, 车厢肮脏等等,在那时很多人有一个共识,那就是公共运输系统不能为单一企业垄断,当然公 共运输系统最好是由政府来经营,但是以当时纽约州

及市的财力显然无法负担,变通的方法就 是多家竞争,这是 1913 年 Dual Contracts 通过的缘由.经由 Dual Contracts 的实施, IRT 除 了延伸原有的路线外,并将触角深入布朗克斯,皇后,及布鲁克林区. BRT 则首次突破布鲁克林 区,进入曼哈坦区,而且又从曼哈坦区深入皇后区.对这两个公司来说,可是一大福音. 可是 Dual Contracts 的建设经费达到 3 亿美元(现值 50 亿美元),以当时纽约的财政,怎么 负担? 变通的方法就是政府分担一半的建设经费,其余由 IRT 及 BRT 负担,但 IRT 及 BRT 可获得 49 年的经营权. Dual Contracts 是实施了,但是其中风风雨雨不断,依照合约规定,工程必须于 1917 年前完成, 但是没有做到.而且当时 IRT 及 BRT 受到当时市长 John F. Hylor 的挑战, Hylor 极力主张地 铁公有,他力主建立一个公建,公营的地铁系统(也就是 IND 的由来),并且主张收回私有的地 铁系统,他于 1925 年提出建立第三个地铁系统(也就是 IND ),由于他作风强悍,树敌甚多,于 同一年的民主党初选中败给对手 Jimmy Walker. Hylor 的得意之作, Independent Subway(IND), 于 1932 年在没人注意下通车了.
在此同时, IRT 及 BRT 受到劳资纠纷的影响,营运勉强维持,但是 BRT 就很倒霉了, 1918 出 现了纽约地铁史上最惨重的车祸,当时 BRT 闹罢工, BRT 临时将职员派去做驾驶,有一职员 没有注意到标志,遇到急弯时没有减速,因为车厢是木造的,整个列车撞墙,结果 102 人在此大 车祸中罹难. Hylor 藉由此事件, 大肆抨击 IRT 及 BRT, BRT 后来由于经营不善,于 1923 年 改组为 BMT.除此之外, Hylor 藉由种种压力,迫使 IRT 及 BRT 放弃不少权力. IND 通车的同时,合并三大系统之声响起,虽然经过很多阻力,如劳工问题等,但经过多方的努 力,纽约市府与 IRT,BMT 达成协议,政府出钱收购 IRT 及 BMT, 于 1940 年,合并大功告成! 合并之后,IRT,IND,BMT 现在只是纽约地铁的子系统. 合并之后,纽约市府将老旧的高架铁路视状况拆除,并且试着将 IND 与 BMT 连在一起,但因 二次大战的关系而延误计划的进行.二次大战过后,于 1953 年为了统筹纽约地铁的事物,在 纽约市府底下设立纽约市捷运局(New York City Transit Authority),在 NYCTA 成立后,经过多次 计划后, IND 与 BMT 已经是一个系统,捷运局积极购买新车以加速汰旧换新.买的车种是以 合约号码做为代号,如 R32,R33,R46,R62,R68 等,于 1979 年时将所有二次大战前营运的车辆 淘汰, 1980 年代末期完成所有车厢冷气化. 但是由于劳工问题使纽约地铁于 1960 年代末期服务品质加速恶化,票价不断升高,铁道状况 日益恶化,地铁犯罪率增加,车厢,车站涂鸦日益严重.于 1980 年代初期,联邦拨款补助纽约地 铁改善服务品质,现在情况改善很多,你很少看到车厢有涂鸦的痕迹,地铁

警力增多,铁道常看 到有人做保养,现在的纽约地下铁,比以十年前好太多了. ******************************************************************************* 美国高等法院 在美国,地方法院是民选的,但联邦法院及上诉法院却由总统提名,由参议院通过.参议院 批准法官之标准是被提名者之资格, 绝不能因被提名者之信念而否决. 当克林顿当总统八年 时,他公开说他单提名赞成堕胎者,当时共和党控制参议院,他们大多反对堕胎,但亦通过 克林顿提名之法官, 结果现在美国高等法院充塞了赞成堕胎之法官, 包括两个极自由派之最 高法院法官. Socrates (苏格拉底) (469-399BC,古希腊哲学家) 生平 苏格拉底出生于雅典一个普通公民的家庭，据说他父亲是石匠，母亲是助产婆.他早 年继承父业，从事雕刻石像的工作，后来研究哲学. 他在雅典和当时的许多智者辩论哲学问 题，主要是关于伦理道德以及教育政治方面的问题. 当时有人将他看作是智者，但他自认为 和智者不同，智者是以各种虚假的知识教授青年，而他所要寻求的则是真正的知识. 他被认 为是当时最有智慧的人. 作为公民，他曾三次参军作战，在战争中表现得顽强勇敢. 他曾在 雅典公民大会中担任过陪审官，在任上他不顾众人的反对，否决过对 6 位将军的不正义的 判决.30 僭主复辟时，他曾拒绝和他们合作.在雅典恢复奴隶主民主制后，苏格拉底被控 ，以藐视传统宗教、引进新神、败坏青年和反对民主等罪名被判处死刑. 他拒绝了朋友和学 生要他乞求赦免和外出逃亡的建议，饮鸩而死. 在欧洲文化史上，他一直被看作是为追求真 理而死的圣人，几乎与孔子在中国历史上所占的地位相同. 多年来他被认为是反民主的、维 护反动的奴隶主贵族利益的哲学家，近来已有人对此提出了不同看法. 苏格拉底本人没有写过什么著作. 他的行为和学说，主要是通过他的学生柏拉图和克塞诺芬 尼著作中的记载流传下来.克塞诺芬尼的《回忆录》中，将苏拉格底说成是一个道德高尚、 助人为乐、遵守法律、有实际事务主张的好公民，对他的哲学思想则几乎没有谈到. 在柏拉 图的对话中，《申辩篇》、《克里多篇》和《斐多篇》直接叙述了苏格拉底被审判时的自辩 以至服毒前的谈话；他的其他早、中期的对话，也都以苏格拉底作为主要对话者，阐述各 种哲学思想.此外，和苏格拉底同时的诗人阿里斯托芬在他的喜剧《云》中，还将苏格拉底 描写成为一个智者，以诡辩和谎言欺骗青年. 但一般都认为这只是一种艺术创造，不是真实
历史. 关于苏格拉底的生平和学说，由于从古代以来就有各种不同的记载和说法，一直是学术界 讨论最多的一

个问题. 首先，对柏拉图和克塞诺芬尼的记载，究竟哪个可靠的问题. 西方学者有的倾向于柏拉图， 肯定传统哲学史家对苏格拉底所作的评价，认为他是伟大的哲学家；有的倾向于克塞诺芬 尼，认为苏格拉底只是一个道德家，而非哲学家. 这两种看法现在还在继续争论. 其次，在 柏拉图对话中所叙述的哲学思想，有些是苏格拉底原来的思想，有些则是柏拉图自己的思 想，不过是藉苏格拉底之口加以阐述和发挥而已. 在柏拉图的对话中，很难将柏拉图的思想 和苏格拉底的思想区别开来. 现在，许多学者是以柏拉图早期以及部分中期的对话，并根据 亚里士多德的记载，将讨论到的伦理道德和有关知识问题的内容，当作苏格拉底的哲学思 想. ******************************************************************************* Latin language 概述 最初是义大利半岛中部西海岸拉丁部族的语言，和奥斯克?翁布利语同属古代 印欧语系义大利克语族.从现存的古代铭文看，当时的拉丁语与奥斯克?翁布利语相 互影响，由于罗马的强盛，罗马人的拉丁语逐渐在并存的诸方言中取得了优势，在罗马成 立共和国后(西元前 5 世纪初)成为共和国的官方语言. 西元前 5～西元 5 世纪共 1000 年间， 拉丁语是欧洲一个最强大的政治实体(罗马共和国之后继以罗马帝国)的语言.通过拉丁语， 古典希腊语中的丰富蕴藏传到了近代欧洲. 从拉丁语中派生出葡萄牙语、西班牙语、法语、 义大利语、罗马尼亚语等近代语言.拉丁文字和拉丁词汇是人类共有的语言资源. 语言特征 语言学家把印欧语系中的拉丁语归为 k 类语言，因为它的 centum(百)之类的词， 开头的辅音为[k] ，但在罗马帝国后期的通俗拉丁语中，c 在 e、i、y、 、 等母音前，已经 改读[s]或[ / ]了.拉丁语的重音有一定的规则：如果倒数第 2 个音节是长音，重音就落在这 个音节上，否则在倒数第 3 个音节上. 语法上不用冠词，名词有丰富的形态变化，保留了印 欧语的呼格，但把印欧语真正的离格、工具格和大部分方位格归并成一个离格. 动词的形态 变化复杂，但比希腊语简单. 由于动词有人称的变化，句子中的人称代词主语往往省略，还 有异相动词，如 loquor(我讲)，形式上是被动语态，意义上却是主动的；有独特的动形词， 可作为分词和形容词使用. 句子的词序比较自由、灵活. 词汇基本上是来自印欧语的直接继 承词，但也有许多来自其他语言的借词，例如早期希腊语借词 cupressus(柏树)已同化于拉 丁语，后来文学语言中又引进了保持希腊语原形的外来词 cyparissus. 历史 在罗马帝国全盛时期，随着罗马人军事和政治势力的扩张，拉丁语作为行政语

言传播 到西地中海的岛屿、伊比利亚半岛和高卢(今法国)，直至多瑙河流域的达齐亚(今罗马尼亚) ，成为当时帝国核心地区使用的语言. 世纪，西罗马帝国覆亡，基督教会成为西欧的重要 5 统治力量，与世俗政权并列.拉丁语是教会的官方语言，4 世纪的接近民间语的《圣经》拉 丁文译本是最具权威的教科书，因此从 5～15 世纪这 1000 年间，拉丁语是教会统治下的宗 教、文化和行政的语言，又是西欧各民族间的交际语言，称作"中古拉丁语" .同时，书面 拉丁语和民间通俗拉丁语的差别越来越大. 各地通俗拉丁语演变为各罗曼语种. 较为规范的 中古拉丁语吸收了包括日尔曼语词在内的新词语，也采用了基督教会的宗教术语. 由于中古 拉丁语在一定程度上已脱离了古典拉丁语，它在文艺复兴时期的拉丁语作家看来不够规范 和纯洁.后者的拉丁语以古典拉丁作家为范式，称作"新拉丁语"，至于民间通俗拉丁语可 以说于 8 世纪末已告终结. 欧洲文艺复兴时期以后，各民族语言代替了拉丁语，但在学术领域里拉丁语仍有它的地位. 医学、药学、动物学、植物学、化学、天文学等学科的新术语仍采用拉丁语或拉丁化的希 腊语词根作为构词的基础. 由于罗马法在后世享有的声誉，不少民族语言的法律用语和行政
用语中仍保留了许多拉丁语措辞和表达方式. 中世纪以来欧洲的寺院学校和世俗学校，以学 习拉丁语，特别是拉丁语法为主修课程，因而称作语法学校或拉丁学校，现在大学里的医 科仍然设有拉丁语入门课程，作为理解医学和药学术语的基础. 现代天主教会沿用拉丁语为第一官方语言，在教堂仪式中用拉丁语(直至 1963 年).天主教 会的拉丁语，另有它的演变，称"教会拉丁语" . 拉丁字母产生于西元前 7 世纪，其基础是伊特拉斯坎字母，后者又源出希腊文字. 最早的拉 丁铭文是刻在一个金属饰针上的一句话，考古学家鉴定，是西元前 600 年前制作的. 拉丁字 母曾被用作世界上许多语言的字母，或作为制订字母的基础. ******************************************************************************* 芭蕾舞 芭蕾舞演出用服装.包括男演员的紧身衫、裤，女演员的芭蕾舞裙、连袜裤及芭蕾舞鞋. 15～16 世纪，初期的芭蕾舞服装崇尚豪华.17 世纪，男演员穿的有金属丝箍的"拖涅利" 短裙、女演员穿的"鲁尼耶"鲸骨裙，都显得笨重.为充分展现芭蕾舞的舞姿和技巧，历史 上曾对芭蕾舞服装进行了几次革新，逐步使之完善.其中舞鞋和舞裙的改革比较重要. [芭 蕾舞鞋]：18 世纪初，M.卡马尔戈发明用柔软材料制成的无跟鞋. 1790 年在无跟鞋的鞋头部 位加入特殊的衬垫，以便于演员使用脚尖

舞蹈. [芭蕾舞裙]：1832 年，M.塔廖尼开始使用 E.拉米为她设计的一种露肩式连衣裙，称"浪漫主义芭蕾舞裙" .这种舞裙有紧贴的上衣身 ，下接过膝的钟形褶裙，裙部以数层白色薄纱裁制，配浅红连袜裤，便于演员展现大跳、 打脚等舞姿.1880 年芭蕾舞裙缩短，裸露大腿，称芭蕾短裙(tutu)，成为芭蕾舞标准裙.其 裙部由 4～5 层丝绸绉褶构成，上连在相应尺寸的背心上. 世纪以来，现代芭蕾舞剧多采 20 用艺术化的生活服装. ******************************************************************************* 吉他的 history 根据格罗夫(Grove)音乐辞典记载,古典吉他为鲁特琴族(Lute family)中具有琴格的拨弦 乐器.关于吉他起源及其形成之研究,可说是众说纷纭；这些理论包括了:1.从古希腊齐 特琴(Kithara)及吉他之语源学说(Etymology)中研究得来.2.部分学者推论认为吉他是 从美索不达米亚(Mesopotamia) , 及安娜多利亚(Anatolia)发现的长颈鲁特琴(Lute)所演变而来.3. 另一部分学者研究发 现吉他是由阿拉伯传入欧洲,因为在埃及发现平扁琴背之哥普鲁特琴(Coptic Lute) ,或可 认为是吉他的前身.由于以上大部分均为推论,且早期音乐文献多半失散,以至于在缺乏直 接证据的状况下, 目前对于吉他真正的起源尚未形成定论, 只能从非古典吉他及其他音乐历 史文献中寻找可靠而相关的蛛丝马迹. 在中世纪文学中出现和吉他有关的乐器名称,法国称之为 Giterne,英国则是 gitarer.法国 诺曼底公爵 (Duke of Normandy) 所拥有乐师名单中, 有赫特马 (Jean Hautmar) 弹奏 Guiterre Latine 及拉贝(Richard Labbe)弹奏 Guiterre Moresche 等古吉他琴族乐器之记载.马肃 (Guillaume de Machaut)亦列出 Morache et Guiternes 为鲁特琴族之一.由于当时古吉他琴 族中的拉丁吉他 Guitarra Latina,吉他 Guiterne 及摩尔吉他 uiterreMoresche 等音量不能和鲁 特琴相抗衡, 因此在欧洲大陆吉他无法广为流传, 直到文艺复兴时期西班牙出现了比维拉琴 (Vihuela)及四弦吉他(Four-Course Guitar)之后,吉他的地位才开始奠定了雏形. 一般称古典吉他为西班牙吉他,因为从 16 世纪以后,比维拉琴及四弦吉他首先在伊比利半 岛上萌芽发展,随后才发展成巴罗克时期五弦吉他,六弦吉他,最后六弦吉他亦在西班牙境 内孕育出吉他第一黄金时期,到了现代古典吉他大师塞戈维亚(Andres Segovia)手中,更 进一步将古典吉他艺术推广到欧洲之外的亚洲及美洲, 形成古典吉他史上的第二黄金期. 在 古典吉他的演变时期中,虽然也正是音乐史上巴罗克,古典,浪漫时期,器乐己成为主流；
然而当时吉他却因为无法和交响乐团整体音量匹敌,加上其本 身之特殊风格,与乐团乐器之配置有所隔阂,因此成为一独奏乐器. 至于六弦吉他的出

现, 虽然大部分学者均相信是在法国以及义大利所开始, 但却没有任何当 代文献证明是由谁最早开始制作.反而有一位德国的小提琴与吉他制琴家雅寇·奥古斯特. 奥图 (Jacob Augustus Otto) 自称是他在接受了德勒司登的乐团指挥纽曼先生 (Herr Neumann) 的一张六弦吉他订单之后,特别为 他所设计制造的.这似乎表示六弦吉他是在德国首先出现的,但是有件事绝对不能忽略,这 位制琴师奥图早年均在义大利学习制琴, 很有可能当时他就已经在学习过程中见过这种吉他 的雏形了. 至于西班牙采用六弦吉他的起源, 虽然没有书面的记载, 但一般相信大约在 1820 年左右,因为著名的西班牙吉他作曲家兼演奏家阿瓜多(Dionisio Aguado)为六弦吉他所写 的教本于 1825 年在马德里出版,足以证明在此之前,六弦吉他已经有部分人开始使用,所 以才会需要这样的教本. 在 18 世纪末至 19 世纪初,六弦吉他的发展也逐渐产生一些较为 常见的特征, 例如由于琴身上下较宽部分又加宽了些, 使得曲线更为明显；琴桥固定琴弦的 方式是将弦缠在本制插梢上,再插入琴桥上预先挖好的六个小孔中加以固定,取代 了这之前直接缠绕在琴桥上的设计；到了 19 世纪早期,在琴桥又加上了狭长的骨片或象牙 片,作为下弦枕.此外,指板也继续延伸到音孔旁.虽然无法查证何时开始采用这种设计, 但可以将其归功于一位德籍制琴家乔治·史道弗(George Staufer) ,值得注意的是,他也是 后来移民至美国纽约,并成为美国制琴工业先驱的著名制琴师马汀(Christian Friedrich Martin)的老师.马汀后来在美国研究发展出本土的钢 弦吉他, 也就是现在流行音乐界所广为使用的民谣吉他鼻祖, 有别于当时在欧洲仍采用的羊 肠弦吉他. 19 世纪早期,吉他形状渐渐改变发展成接近现代吉他的外观:金属弦纽取代木制纽头；挖 空的音孔取代玫瑰纹饰的音孔；琴桥提高了；扁平的背板变成标准形式；第十二琴格对准 琴颈和音箱联结处,此外,华丽的装饰也几乎完全消失了. 在这名家辈出的时代,必须提 到这位被称为近代吉他制作之父的著名人物,西班牙制琴师安东尼奥·托雷斯(Antonio de Torres Jurado, 1817～1892) .他所设计出的吉他新形式,可说是凌驾于在这之前所有形态的 吉他.他将弦长定为 65 公分,琴身内部构造以响孔为起点,在音箱内部配置有七根扇形力 木,并将原本较为窄小的琴身扩大,这种设计大大地提高吉他的音响效果,引起各著名制琴 师的仿效,成为现代古典吉他的制作典范.19 世纪早期,吉他形状渐渐改变发展成接近现 代吉他的外观: 金属弦纽取代木制纽头；挖空的音孔取代玫瑰纹饰的音孔；琴桥提高了；扁 平的背板变成标准形式；第十二琴格对准琴颈

和音箱联结处, 此外, 华丽的装饰也几乎完全 消失了. 在这名家辈出的时代,必须提到这位被称为近代吉他制作之父的著名人物,西班 牙制琴师安东尼奥·托雷斯(Antonio de Torres Jurado, 1817～1892) .他所设计出的吉他新 形式,可说是凌驾于在这之前所有形态的吉他.他将弦长定为 65 公分,琴身内部构造以响 孔为起点,在音箱内部配置有七根扇形力木,并将原本较为窄小的琴身扩大,这种设计大大 地提高吉他的音响效果,引起各著名制琴师的仿效,成为现代古典吉他的制作典范. A Brief History of the Guitar There is evidence that a four string, guitar-like instrument was played by the Hittites (who occupied a region now known as Asia Minor and Syria) around 1400 BC. It had characteristically soft, curved sides--one of the primary features of anything identifiable as a guitar or predecessor. The Greeks also produced a similar instrument which was later modified by the Romans, though both versions appear to have lacked the curved sides. What is interesting here is that it seems this Roman cithara appeared in Hispania (now known as Spain) centuries before the Moorish invasion.
It had long been assumed that it was only after this invasion and the introduction of the Arabic ud in the South that a guitar-like instrument first appeared in Spain. But with the Roman cithara arriving centuries prior, we might say that although the ud influenced the development of the guitar it is not the true ancestor. According to this theory, the Spanish guitar derived from the tanbur of the Hittites, kithara with a "k" of the Greeks and then the cithara with a "c" of the Romans. However, following the arrival of the Moors, the Roman cithara and the Arabic ud must have mixed and exerted mutual influences on one another for many centuries. Although there is no specific documentation, it is likely that makers of uds and citharas would have seen each other's work, if only through presentation by traveling troubadours. By 1200 AD, the four string guitar had evolved into two types: the guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar) which had a rounded back, wide fingerboard and several soundholes, and the guitarra latina (Latin guitar) which resembled the modern guitar with one soundhole and a narrower neck. In the late 1400's, the vihuela was born by adding doubled strings and increasing its size. It was a large plucked instrument with a long neck (vibrating string length: 72 to 79 cm) with ten or eleven frets and six courses. It was the vihuela which became the preferred instrument of the Spanish and Portuguese courts and remained so until the late 1600's when orchestral and keyboard instruments became more prominent. Although the guitar existed concurrently during this period, the vihuela and lute had overshadowed it until the end of the 17th century when the lute had acquired too many strings, was too hard to play and tune, and the vihuela was slowly replac

ed by the four and five course guitars (which had seven and nine strings respectively: one single high string, and three or four remaining courses--or pairs--of strings). It was perhaps the addition of the fifth course in the late 16th century that gave the guitar more flexibility and range and thus improved the potential of the repertoire that led to its ascent. By the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, some guitars already used six single strings and employed fan struts under the soundboard. These struts were added for structural support to allow thinning of the top for greater resonance and for better distribution of sound across the board. Other contemporaneous developments included the use of a reinforced, raised neck using ebony or rosewood for the fingerboard, and the appearance of machine tuners in place of the wooden pegs. (It is noteworthy that the raised fingerboard had a great impact on the technique of the instrument since the strings were then too far from the soundboard to rest one's finger on the face for support.) These guitars would be unmistakably recognized by us as early classical guitars. Beginning with the early 19th century, in the works of Agustin Caro, Manuel Gonzalez, Antonio de Lorca, Manuel Guiterrez from Spain and other European makers including Rene Lacote, and Johann Staufer, we find the direct predecessors of the modern classical guitar. By 1850, the guitar was prepared for its most important breakthrough since its inception, the work of Antonio Torres Jurado. With the encouragement of Julian Arcas and his own brilliant intuitions, Torres refined the strutting of the guitar to include as many as seven struts spread out like a fan under the soundboard. He increased the body size and the width of the neck considerably. These improvements allowed for greater volume and bass response as well as the development of a left hand technique for richer repertoire. The guitar was now prepared for the demands of the solo performer and the concert stage.
Although there have been continued developments since the middle 1800's, our modern guitar retains most of what was developed nearly 150 years ago. No one can say if we have reached the end of the evolution of the guitar, but until now, many of the best guitars from the point of view of volume, projection and sheer beauty of tone were made by the great makers, Torres, Ramirez and Arias from the second half of the last century! ******************************************************************************* 美国内战时期的诗人 Emily Dickinson Dickinson, Emily Elizabeth,American poet who was virtually a recluse at her home in Amherst, Massachusetts, where she wrote more than a thousand verses infused with emotional depth and subtlety. The first volume of her poetry was not published until 1890 ******************************************************************************* the code of Hammurabi [Hammurabi] was the ruler who chiefly established the g

reatness of Babylon, the world's first metropolis. Many relics of Hammurabi's reign ([1795-1750 BC]) have been preserved, and today we can study this remarkable King……as a wise law-giver in his celebrated code. . . [b]y far the most remarkable of the Hammurabi records is his code of laws, the earliest-known example of a ruler proclaiming publicly to his people an entire body of laws, arranged in orderly groups, so that all men might read and know what was required of them. The code was carved upon a black stone monument, eight feet high, and clearly intended to be reared in public view. This noted stone was found in the year 1901, not in Babylon, but in a city of the Persian mountains, to which some later conqueror must have carried it in triumph. It begins and ends with addresses to the gods. Even a law code was in those days regarded as a subject for prayer, though the prayers here are chiefly cursings of whoever shall neglect or destroy the law. Yet even with this earliest set of laws, as with most things Babylonian, we find ourselves dealing with the end of things rather than the beginnings. Hammurabi's code was not really the earliest. The preceding sets of laws have disappeared, but we have found several traces of them, and Hammurabi's own code clearly implies their existence. He is but reorganizing a legal system long established. ******************************************************************************* 古希腊三种柱子的详解 Columns In ancient Greece three types of columns can be found; Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. All three types of columns have three separate parts to their structure (base, shaft, and capital) with the exception of Doric which has no base. The base is all one piece as well as the capital. The shaft is composed of several pieces which fit together in a tongue-and-groove type of securing. Columns were constructed in a raw fashion first before the final product was produced Doric Style Of the three columns found in Greece, Doric columns are the most basic and undecorative, with a square and circular capital and a plain 20 sided shaft. There is no base leaving this column with a very straightforward but powerful presence in its design. During the Archaic period, Doric columns were shorter compared to their height and diameter. Doric capitals showed an evolution from a broad flaring to a more compact form. Doric, like most Greek styles, emitted a strong horizontal presence in its architectural design. The area above the columns, the frieze and architrave, had no set style and is found to have a wide variety only following the simple pattern
shown in the picture. Above each column a triglyph (vertical band) was carved and between each of these was a metope filled with sculpture of history, myths, religious events, etc. Ionic Style Ionic columns were more slender and narrowly fluted than Doric, and also had what is called entasis; which is a convex swelling to prevent an illusion of concavity in a colum

n shaft. A large base was added consisting of a textured profile like that of stacked rings. Ionic capitals consist of a scroll-like portion above a decorative shaft portion. The Ionic style has a more decorative capital. Instead of the single scene carvings of the Doric style in the frieze, the Ionic had a continuous band of carvings. Corinthian Style The Corinthian columns are the most decorative and usually the most appealing to the modern eye. They too use entasis to correct the optical illusions of the massive Greek structures. The Corinthian capitals have flowering, leaf-like structures below a lesser scroll design than that of Ionian capitals. The shaft has indented sides and the base is a more refined version of the Ionian. Unlike the Doric and Ionian roofs, which are at a slant, the Corinthian roofs are flat. The Corinthian frieze is the same as the Ionic frieze, but on a smaller scale. Greek Temple Architecture The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. ******************************************************************************* 西方艺术流派 立体派(Cubism) 立体派的由来 1908 年法国的一个展览会上,布拉克的作品被批评於杂志上说「布拉克将每一件事物都还 原了……成为立方体」 ,这种画风因此得名. 立体派兴起的动机 ? 是从黑人雕刻得到启示. ? 受塞尚的影响,塞尚说「大自然皆以球体,圆锥,圆柱体,正六面体来构成」 . ? 科学文明,照相术进步,令艺术家对「形」产生怀疑. ? 受工业机械化影响,立体派反应机器零件化的精神. 立体派的绘画观 ? 它是富有理念的艺术流派,主要目的是追求一种几何形体的美,在形式的排列组 合所产生的美感. ? 它否定了从一个视点观察事物和表现事物的传统方法,把三度空间的画面归结成 平面.因为把不同视点所观察和理解的形诉诸於画面,从而表现出时间的持续性. ? 以直线,曲线所构成的轮廓,块面堆积与交错的趣味,情调,代替传统的明暗, 光线,空气,气围表现的趣味.这些技巧显然不是依靠视觉经验和感性认识,而主要视依靠 理性,观念和思维. 立体派的技法演变 ? 初期的立体派(1907～10):此时受黑人雕刻及塞尚影响较大,呈现多视点的表现 法. ? 分析的立体派(1910～11):此时期对象已被彻底解体了,画面的空间也极度平面
化了. ? 综合的立体派(1912～15):此期物象的形态又重新出现,色彩也渐趋丰富,更重 要的是采用「拼贴法」 ,使画面出现了其他素材和文字. ? 色彩的立体派(1911～):更加重色彩的调和与对比的效果,比较喜欢用圆形,筒 形和弧形,而非直线与长方形.形象不会分解得很细碎,而是若隐若现地呈现了部份形态, 但却更具有破坏的效果. 抽象派(Abstractism) 定义 20

世纪以来西方兴起的美术思潮和流派,它否定描绘具体物象,主张抽象表现.一般所谓 抽象主义,抽象艺术,和抽象派是同义语.它包含两种类型:以自然现象出发,加以简约, 或抽取其富有表现特徵的因素,形成简单的,极其概括的形象;不以自然物象为基础的几何 构成. 抽象派绘画兴起的原因 ? 按照德国艺术史家沃林格(W.Wörringer1881～1965) 在《抽象与移情》一 书中所言,艺术创造除了移情冲动外,还有一种相反的冲动——抽象,它将客观物象从变化 无常的偶然性中解放出来,用抽象的形式使其具有永远的价值. (移情冲动在希腊,罗马等 地中海地区及温带的中国盛行,而抽象冲动在欧亚北方祖先是游牧民族的地方较盛行. ) ? 受到工业、科技推动的影响.现代化的建筑和环境,要求更为概括,精鍊和简化 的艺术形式与之相应;机器运转的速度,力量,效率,这些对视觉来说是比较抽象的观念, 刺激艺术家去做抽象美创造的尝试,抽象艺术的产生是对写实艺术的补充. 抽象绘画的原理 ? 不以描绘具体物象为目标的抽象画,通过点,线,色彩,块面,形体,构图来传 达各种情绪,激发人们的想像,启迪人们的思维. ? 从原始艺术,中世纪宗教艺术,非洲和大洋洲艺术,东方的书法中吸取养料,也 从老庄哲学,佛教禅宗中择取了适应二十世纪西方哲学和人们心理状态的观念. ? 不少抽象派作品表现逃避现实,社会虚无主义的倾向,但也有作品反映了人们未 来的憧憬.大多数的抽象派作品的著眼点在於创造独特的艺术形式. 野兽派 野兽派的由来 1905 年巴黎秋季沙龙展中,一群年轻画家如马蒂斯,鲁奥等人另辟一室展出,批评家看到 摆在马蒂斯作品下面某传统派作家的雕刻和马蒂斯的强烈绘画相形之下, 说是 「被野兽群所 包围的杜那铁罗」「野兽派」(Fauvism)之名乃生.野兽派实际上并没有具备一个运动的形态 , 和理论的体系,他们作品的共同特点是,用明亮而强烈的纯粹色,而很少描写阴影. 野兽派的理论 ? 理念:以表现内在感情为目标,吸收东方和非洲艺术的表现手法,开创一种有别 於西方古典绘画传统的疏,简的意境,有明显的写意和装饰倾向. ? 风格:阴影与物体的受光面变成同样强烈的对比色,画面看起来更加明亮,空间 也更加压缩了. 取消了明暗法, 等於否定了实体, 注重的是 「如何表现」 的问题, 而不是 「表 现什麼」的问题.完全脱离自然的模仿,注重主观的认识而忽视客观的形体,以发挥狂热的 创造力.技巧上喜用红,黄,绿,青四种强烈色彩和强劲的笔触,把对象「单纯化」 (显然 是受到日本浮世绘和黑人雕刻的影响) . ? 影响:野兽派是西方二十世纪前卫艺术运动中最早的一个派别,虽然个性表现得 有些过於大胆,

但现代艺术无论那一派都受过它的洗礼,倾向於「纯粹造形」的表现.
印象派的画风 这 群 印 象 派 结 合 , 他 们 花 草 ,风 景 画 出 来 , 必 印 美 体 认 要 然 是 粗 满 轻 他
画 认 等 须
家 为 等 注
反 对 传 统 呆 板 不 变 ,主 张 绘 画 与 色 彩 科 学 理 论 世 界 上 凡 是 能 映 入 我 们 眼 中 的 东 西 , 如 人 像 , ,都 是 富 有 色 彩 的 .画 家 绘 画 要 把 自 然 的 景 物 意 「 对 象 」 跟 「 颜 色 」 的 关 系 .
象 派 的 画 不 考 究 蕴 藏 的 意 义 , 只 强 调 光 和 色 彩 交 融 而 成 的 .他 们 捕 捉 阳 光 照 射 物 体 的 刹 那 现 象 ,表 现 阳 光 变 化 带 给 物 的 色 彩 变 化 .印 象 派 的 画 家 看 黑 不 是 黑 ,看 白 不 是 白 ,他 们 为 黑 是 深 紫 ,深 绿 ,靛 青 三 色 调 成 . 太 阳 光 是 白 色 还 是 黄 色 , 依 当 时 的 时 间 而 定 ,不 同 太 阳 光 照 在 不 同 颜 色 的 物 体 上 ,自 显 现 不 同 的 颜 色 出 来 .每 幅 画 特 别 强 调 补 色 的 对 比 ,且 笔 触 用 短 笔 触 一 笔 笔 涂 上 ,而 不 是 传 统 的 细 抹 精 描 .画 面 近 看 是 糙 ,稍 远 来 看 却 生 动 地 发 出 闪 烁 的 光 辉 ,和 明 朗 的 色 彩 ,充 著 灿 烂 的 生 机 .令 人 看 了 觉 得 赏 心 悦 目 ,易 於 理 解 ,而 感 到 松 愉 快 . 们 喜 欢 到 户 外 写 生 , 所 以 又 被 称 为 「 外 光 派 」 .
印 象 派 具 代 表 性 的 观 念 : 1. 以 光 谱 色 ( 三 稜 镜 分 析 太 阳 光 后 得 的 七 色 ) 作 画 . 2. 在 画 布 上 将 补 色 并 置 , 在 观 者 的 眼 中 自 动 调 色 , 增 加 画 面 的 彩 度 和 明 度 . 3. 否 定 固 有 色 , 不 用 黑 色 和 深 咖 啡 色 . 4. 不 用 线 条 画 轮 廓 , 认 为 阴 影 是 有 颜 色 的 , 只 是 彩 度 , 明 度 较 低 . ******************************************************************************* Maya Culture The Maya are probably the best-known of the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica. Originating in the Yucatán around 2600 B.C., they rose to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western Honduras. Building on the inherited inventions and ideas of earlier civilizations such as the Olmec, the Maya developed astronomy, calendrical systems and hieroglyphic writing. The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including temple-pyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools. They were also skilled farmers, clearing large sections of tropical rain forest and, where groundwater was scarce, building sizeable underground reservoirs for the storage of rainwater. The Maya were equally skilled as weavers and potters, and cleared routes through jungles and swamps to foster extensive trade networks with distant peoples. Around 300 B.C.,

the Maya adopted a hierarchical system of government with rule by nobles and kings. This civilization developed into highly structured kingdoms during the Classic period, A.D. 200-900. Their society consisted of many independent states, each with a rural farming community and large urban sites built around ceremonial centres. It started to decline around A.D. 900 when - for reasons which are still largely a mystery - the southern Maya abandoned their cities. When the northern Maya were integrated into the Toltec society by A.D. 1200, the Maya dynasty finally came to a close, although some peripheral centres continued to thrive until the
Spanish Conquest in the early sixteenth century. Maya history can be characterized as cycles of rise and fall: city-states rose in prominence and fell into decline, only to be replaced by others. It could also be described as one of continuity and change, guided by a religion that remains the foundation of their culture. For those who follow the ancient Maya traditions, the belief in the influence of the cosmos on human lives and the necessity of paying homage to the gods through rituals continues to find expression in a modern hybrid Christian-Maya faith. Cosmology and Religion The ancient Maya believed in recurring cycles of creation and destruction and thought in terms of eras lasting about 5,200 modern years. The current cycle is believed by the Maya to have begun in either 3114 B.C. or 3113 B.C. of our calendar, and is expected to end in either A.D. 2011 or 2012. Maya cosmology is not easy to reconstruct from our current knowledge of their civilization. It seems apparent, however, that the Maya believed Earth to be flat and four-cornered. Each corner was located at a cardinal point and had a colour value: red for east, white for north, black for west, and yellow for south. At the centre was the colour green. Some Maya also believed that the sky was multi-layered and that it was supported at the corners by four gods of immense physical strength called "Bacabs". Other Maya believed that the sky was supported by four trees of different colours and species, with the green ceiba, or silk-cotton tree, at the centre. Earth in its flat form was thought by the Maya to be the back of a giant crocodile, resting in a pool of water lilies. The crocodile's counterpart in the sky was a double-headed serpent - a concept probably based on the fact that the Maya word for "sky" is similar to the word for "snake". In hieroglyphics, the body of the sky-serpent is marked not only with its own sign of crossed bands, but also those of the Sun, the Moon, Venus and other celestial bodies. Heaven was believed to have 13 layers, and each layer had its own god. Uppermost was the muan bird, a kind of screech-owl. The Underworld had nine layers, with nine corresponding Lords of the Night. The Underworld was a cold, unhappy place and was believed to be the destination of most Maya after death. Heavenly bodies such as the Sun, the Moon,

and Venus, were also thought to pass through the Underworld after they disappeared below the horizon every evening. Very little is known about the Maya pantheon. The Maya had a bewildering number of gods, with at least 166 named deities. This is partly because each of the gods had many aspects. Some had more than one sex; others could be both young and old; and every god representing a heavenly body had a different Underworld face, which appeared when the god "died" in the evening The Maya Calendar: The Maya kept time with a combination of several cycles that meshed together to mark the movement of the sun, moon and Venus. The Maya calendar in its final form probably dates from about the 1st century B.C., and may originate with the Olmec civilization. It is extremely accurate, and the calculations of Maya priests were so precise that their calendar correction is 10,000th of a day more exact than the standard calendar the world uses today. Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex and intricate. They used 20-day months, and had two calendar years: the 260-day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365-day Vague Year, or haab. These two calendars coincided every 52 years. The 52-year period of time was called a "bundle" and meant the same to the Maya as our
century does to us. The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names. Each of the day names is represented by a god who carries time across the sky, thus marking the passage of night and day. The day names are Imix, Ik, Akbal, Kan, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. Some of these are animal gods, such as Chuen (the dog), and Ahau (the eagle), and archaeologists have pointed out that the Maya sequence of animals can be matched in similar sequence to the lunar zodiacs of many East and Southeast Asian civilizations. Writing and Hieroglyphics: The Maya writing system is considered by archaeologists to be the most sophisticated system ever developed in Mesoamerica. The Maya wrote using 800 individual signs or glyphs, paired in columns that read together from left to right and top to bottom. Maya glyphs represented words or syllables that could be combined to form any word or concept in the Mayan language, including numbers, time periods, royal names, titles, dynastic events, and the names of gods, scribes, sculptors, objects, buildings, places, and food. Hieroglyphic inscriptions were either carved in stone and wood on Maya monuments and architecture, or painted on paper, plaster walls and pottery. The unit of the Maya writing system is the glyphic cartouche, which is equivalent to the words and sentences of a modern language. Maya cartouches included at least three or four glyphs and as many as fifty. Each cartouche contained various glyphs, as well as prefixes and suffixes. There is no Maya alphabet.

Maya writing is difficult to interpret for a number of reasons. First, glyphs do not represent just sounds or ideas, they can represent both, making it difficult to know how each glyph or cartouche should be read. In addition, many Maya glyphs can have more than one meaning, and many Maya concepts can be written in more than one way. Numbers, for example, can be written with Maya numerical symbols or with the picture of a god associated with that number, or a combination of the two. Some glyphs represent more than one phonetic sound, while also representing an idea. This means that a single idea can be written in many different ways. For example, the name of the Palenque ruler, Pacal, whose name literally means "Hand-shield", appears sometimes as a picture of a hand-shield, sometimes phonetically as pa-cal-la, and at other times as a combination of picture symbols and phonetics. (http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/) ******************************************************************************* ****************************** ******************************************************************************* ****************************** 羊皮书制手抄本 公元 100 年前后,古希腊人将纸莎草纸裁成单页,双面书写,写完后粘成类似今书本型.这 种文献,史称"手抄本" .手抄本翻阅方便,载文量大,具备了现代书的外型,逐渐成为图 书的标准形式. 公元前 800 年左右, 中东地区帕加马人, 迫于亚历山大城对纸莎草的封锁以及希腊地区两大 图书馆的竞争,在公元前 2 世纪发明了用羊皮,牛皮制成羊皮纸的工艺. 它将绵羊,山羊, 羚羊,小牛或其它动物的皮进行加工处理,弄薄后,在其上书写文字.所 形成的古文献, 史称"羊皮书" .羊皮书最初是书卷型的,后来演变为书本型.公元前 200 年前后,帕加马
成为羊皮纸的生产中心,并使该技术向各地传播.尔后羊皮纸的使用风靡罗马. 羊皮纸没有纸莎草那么笨重,而且可以折叠,成为"羊皮书" .公元 1 世纪,罗马人征服了 地中海沿岸,没有建立起更大的图书馆,却建立了最大的档案管"Tabularium" .罗马的诗人 可以在羊皮上 "发表"自己的作品,就是请专门的抄写手在羊皮上抄写多份并出售,尽管 它在经济上并不合算. 中世纪的欧洲,基督教世界里的修道院开始也使用纸莎草,后来转 到使用高级的羊皮纸,而且往往有精美的插图,抄写《圣经》成为修道士的一种职业;在阿 拉伯世界里,他们则用羊皮纸抄写《古兰经》 .公元 4 世纪前后,由于羊皮纸 坚固,书写清 晰,而逐渐取代纸莎草纸成为制作手抄本的材料. ******************************************************************************* ****************************** ******************************************************************************* ****************************** Idealism Idealism Idealism, the philosophical view that the mind or sp

irit constitutes the fundamental reality, has taken several distinct but related forms. Objective idealism accepts common sense Realism (the view that material objects exist) but rejects Naturalism (according to which the mind and spiritual values have emerged from material things), whereas subjective idealism denies that material objects exist independently of human perception and thus stands opposed to both realism and naturalism. Plato is often considered the first idealist philosopher, chiefly because of his metaphysical doctrine of Forms. Plato considered the universal Idea or Form--for example, redness or goodness--more real than a particular instance of the form--a red object, a good action. According to Plato, the world of changing experience is unreal, and the Idea or Form--which does not change and which can be known only by reason--constitutes true reality. The 18th-century epistemologist George Berkeley was one of the major exponents of idealism. He held that the object of knowledge is an idea and that ideas can exist only in the mind; therefore, objects can exist only as objects of consciousness. Berkeley's dictum esse est percipi ("to be is to be perceived") has clear metaphysical implications. Indeed he called his theory immaterialism and intended it as a refutation of traditional materialism. Immanuel Kant held that it is impossible to gain knowledge of the world by either reason or sense experience alone. Whereas in ordinary idealism the individual subject's awareness is the basic element of reality, in Kant's transcendental idealism the subject in general--not a particular subject, but the universal structure of all subjects--is the basic element of reality. This universal subject, the transcendental self, is the precondition of any knowledge of an objective world. Kant's successor Johann Gottlieb Fichte postulated a creative Ego as the ultimate source of reality, which generates all change and all knowledge. Fichte's theory was elaborated in G. W. F. Hegel's absolute idealism. For Hegel reality is absolute Spirit or Reason, which manifests its development toward total self-consciousness in every aspect of experience from nature to human history. The English Hegelian F. H. Bradley argued that ordinary experience is fragmentary and contradictory and therefore appearance; reality, the Absolute, is a unified totality, which can be known only through a unique and absolute, perhaps mystical, experience. ******************************************************************************* ******************************
******************************************************************************* ****************************** 美国首都的迁移 1789 年,美国联邦政府正式成立,华盛顿当选为首任总统.当国会在纽约召开第一次会议 时,建都选址问题引起激烈争吵,南北两方的议员都想把首都设在本方境内.国会最后达成 妥协, 由总统华盛顿选定南北方的天然分界线——

波托马克河畔作为首都地址, 并聘请参加 过独立战争的法国工程师皮埃尔 朗方主持首都的总体规划和设计. 1799 年,华盛顿总统与世长辞,为了表示对华盛顿总统的敬意,国会决定以他的名字为首 都命名.由于"入选地域"地跨马里兰和弗吉尼亚两州,于是国会请马里兰州再让地 178 平方公里,弗吉尼亚州让地 31 平方公里,组成"华盛顿哥伦比亚特区" . 1800 年,美国首都从费城迁到华盛顿.华盛顿市区的布局以国会大厦为轴心,向西北,东 北,西南,东南四个方向展开.街道的设计独具匠心,南北向的街道按阿拉伯字母的顺序排 列,共 22 条街;东西向的街道按英文字母顺序排列,也有 22 条街.在东西向和南北向街道 之间, 穿插着一些以州的名字或以政治词汇命名的街道, 这些街道分别呈东南一西北走向和 东北一西南走向.街道交汇处和十字街口,形成了许多圆形小广场,广场全部被绿荫花草覆 盖,广场内有历史人物铜像和喷泉.
******************************************************************************* 考古中的 relative dating 和 absolute dating Dating Methods in Archaeology If there is one fundamental issue on which most archaeologists can generally agree, it is the importance of chronology in studying the past. Although one of the most important contributions that archaeology can make is the study of cultures over long time spans, control of the time dimension is crucial in almost all kinds of archaeological research. In studying the archaeological record, the archaeologist needs to differentiate those materials that are contemporary and those that reflect the passage of time. Given the importance of establishing the temporal relationships of archaeological remains, it is not surprising that until the introduction of dating techniques from the physical sciences (e.g., chemistry and nuclear physics), issues of chronology dominated archaeology. Archaeologists can now access a wide variety of techniques to estimate the age of archaeological remains, and can now turn their attention to issues other than chronology. The dating methods used by archaeologists vary considerably in precision and the nature of the material actually dated. Age determinations for archaeological materials may be direct or indirect. Direct dates are derived from the actual artifact, feature or ecofact to determine the age of the material. Indirect dates are based on material associated with the archaeological item of interest. For example, ash in an ancient hearth can be dated by the radiocarbon dating method (discussed below) and other material, such as pottery, stone tools, and fragments of animal bone associated with the hearth, can then be indirectly assigned the same age. This assignment, however, assumes that there is sufficient evidence indicating that both the hearth and the artifacts reflect the same contemporaneous event, thus allowi

ng the extension of the direct date to the other related material.Dates may be relative or absolute in their scale of measurement. Relative dating simply orders
remains into a ranked chronological sequence, where the age of each is relative (i.e., earlier than later than, or contemporary) to the others. The preliminary steps in most archaeological research usually employ relative dating methods to order artifacts, features and sites into temporal sequences. Absolute dating provides a specific calendar age estimate (e.g., 1000 years ago), thus allowing determination of the actual amount of time difference between absolute dates. Although absolute dates provide a calendar age, they vary in their precision, as many have an uncertainty factor attached that indicates a range of time rather than a specific date. Although dating methods are used to determine the age of objects and events, these dates are ordered to establish a chronology that provides a temporal framework in which the archaeological material can be placed. This chronology-building process is the foundation for archaeological studies. In this chapter, we examine some of the major techniques that have been developed to date the archaeological past and material from the archaeological record. ******************************************************************************* 英属北美殖民地的建立(1607--1733) 北美洲原始居民为印第安人.16-18 世纪,正在进行资本原始积累的西欧各国相继入侵北美 洲.法国人建立了新法兰西(包括圣劳伦斯流域下游大潮区,密西西比河流域等处);西班牙 人建立了新西班牙(包括墨西哥和美国西南部的广大地区).1607 年,英国建立了第 1 个殖民 据点-詹姆士城,此后在大西洋沿岸陆续建立了 13 个殖民地.到达殖民地的大多数是西欧贫 苦的劳动人民,也有贵族,地主,资产阶级,以英国人,爱尔兰人,德意志人和荷兰人最多. 移民中有逃避战祸和宗教迫害者,有自愿和非自愿的"契约奴"以及乞丐,罪犯;还有从非 洲被贩运来的黑人. ******************************************************************************* 独立战争 (1774-1783) 英法为争夺海上霸权和掠夺殖民地而进行的七年战争, 以英国胜利告终. 英国在北美接管了 加拿大,控制了密西西比河以东的新法兰西,对北美殖民地全面加强控制,宣告阿巴拉契亚 山脉以西为王室产业,禁止殖民地人民染指;并征收重税,严厉缉私,限制经济活动,严重 损害了殖民地各阶层人民的经济利益.从 1619 年弗吉尼亚建立议会起,各殖民地相继成立 议会,与英国相抗衡,1765 年 9 个殖民地举行抗议印花税大会,掀起反抗怒潮. 18 世纪 70 年代英国进一步执行高压政策,1770 年波士顿惨案发生.1773 年通过了茶税法, 引起波士顿倾茶事件.1774 年颁布了 5 项不可容忍的法令(诸如封闭波士顿港,增派英国驻 军,取消

马萨诸塞自治权,确立英国对殖民地的司法权等),从政治上军事上加紧对殖民地 的控制与镇压.1772-1774 年,各殖民地普遍成立通讯委员会,领导抗英斗争.1774 年 9 月 5 日,除佐治亚外的各殖民地代表在费城召开了第 1 届大陆会议,通过了和英国断绝一切贸 易关系的决议,继而通过"关于殖民地权利和怨恨的宣言" ,向英王呈递请愿书.1775 年 4 月 18 日,在波士顿附近的列克星敦和康科德,殖民地爱国者打响了反抗的枪声,揭开了独 立战争的序幕.5 月,第 2 届大陆会议召开.次年 7 月大陆会议通过独立宣言,宣布 13 个 殖民地脱离英国独立. 独立战争开始时,双方实力悬殊,战争进行了 8 年.到 1781 年 10 月,美,法联军攻下英军 最后据点约克镇,独立战争基本结束.1783 年英美签订巴黎和约.独立战争时期涌现出一 批杰出的政治家,如大陆军的总司令 G.华盛顿, 《独立宣言》的起草人 T.杰斐逊,外交 家 B.富兰克林,文化战士 T.潘恩. 印花税条例 (Stamp Act) 波士顿惨案 (Boston Massacre) 大陆会议 (Continental Congress)
独立战争 (War of lndependence) 独立宣言 (Declaration of Independence) ******************************************************************************* 美国大都市 洛杉矶 洛杉矶是美国第三大都市,位于充满阳光的西海岸.好莱坞是妇孺皆知的电影王国,狄斯耐 乐园更是全球闻名的游乐园地.加州蜜橘堆积如山,而中国城则充满中国传统气氛.洛杉矶 乃是生气蓬勃的美国观光胜地. 好莱坞 Hollywood 曾被誉之为"电影城",最近因为电视盛行,在该处摄制的电影也就相 对减少.不过,哥伦比亚,派拉蒙等著名电影公司仍在继续拍片.好莱坞的主要街道是 SunsetBlvd.与 HollywoodBlvd.街道两旁是电影际与高级的商店,极尽繁华之能事.好莱坞有 一座戏院 Grauman'sChineseTheater,几乎所有著名的影星都印下他(她)们的手印或足印. HollywoodBowl 则因在星光下露天演奏交乡曲而闻名.HollywoodBemetery 是著名影星的墓 地,都值得一游. 环球影城 UniversalCityStudios 是世界上最大的摄影棚,其中有人工瀑布,人工湖,拍 摄电影用的各种道具布景,服装等等.这个摄影棚对外开放,只需购买参观券就能入内亲眼 欣赏电影的情形. 莫维兰蜡像馆 MovielandWaxMuseum 馆中有著名影星的蜡像,和若干著名电影镜头的 模型. 比华利山 BeverlyHills 电影中经常出现的好莱坞西侧的高级住宅区.著名影星,名道演 及富豪在那里都拥有自己的住宅或别墅. 魔积山 MagicMountain 是一个令人紧张刺激的游乐场所, 园地内有 40 多种乘坐的工具, 可以自由搭乘,令人油然产生新奇之感. 迪斯耐乐园 Disneyland 全球闻名的迪斯耐乐园,设在距洛杉矶 40 公里的 Anaheim.迪 斯耐乐园建于 1955 年,乐园占地 150 平方英尺,如欲窥