自考英语词汇学部分章节重点归纳EnglishLexicologyword精品

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英语词汇学自考重点

各章重点内容串讲：Introduction1.Lexicology（名词解释题）（1）Definition: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words（WNWD）.本句翻译：词汇学是语言学的一个分支，它主要是研究词汇的来源以及意义（词汇学的定义）。

（2）Domain: English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.本句翻译：它研究的是英语词汇的形态结构，同时它还研究英语词汇的语义结构、英语词汇的发展历史和英语词汇的形成与用法。

2.Methods of Study（单选题/名词解释题）（1）Two approachesThere are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.synchronic 共时法diachronic 历时法（2）Definition: A, synchronicFrom a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time.However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning.1.word（名词解释）（1）a minimal free form of a language1）Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free form of a language（词是语言中的最小的自由形式）2）that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.（词有固定的读音，固定的意义，固定的句法功能。

《英语词汇学》知识点归纳.doc

English Lexicology( 英语词汇学)Lexicology （词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology ：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures ofEnglish words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to ：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology( 形态学), semantics( 语义学), etymology( 词源学),stylistics （文体论）and lexicography( 词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology ：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students ofEnglish.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciouslyincrease their word power. The information of the historical development and theprinciples of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning andenable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding andtheir sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enablethem use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionarieswill improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord （词的界说） : A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning （声响与含义） : almost arbitrary, “ no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself ”Sound and form （读音和办法） :不共同的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some ofthe difference were creates by the early scribes （4）the borrowings is an importantchannel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary （词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words ：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock （根本词汇） : is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a smallpercentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock( 基本词汇的特征) :1)All-National character （全民通用性most important ）2)Stability （相对稳定性）3)Productivity （多产性）4)Polysemy （多义性）5)Collocability （可搭配性）没有上述特征的words: (1)Terminology( 术语) (2)Jargon （行话）(3)slang （俚语）(4)Argot （暗语）（5）Dialectal words( 方言) (6) Archaisms （古语）(7) Neologisms （新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have takenon new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words 实词( cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently ) andfunctional words/empty words 虚词( on, of, and, be, but )Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words （本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are wordsbrought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basicword-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words （外来语词）: words taken over from foreignlanguages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens( 同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens （非同化词/ 外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH) 磕头)3) translation loans( 译借词): 按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans （借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family( 印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages （8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group （波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group （印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group （亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group （阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group （古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group （意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group （凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group （日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words comealmost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost withjust a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to thepresent analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development( 词汇的发展模式):1)creation 创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namelytoots,affixes and other elements.( 最重要方式)2)semantic change 旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but createmany more new useages of the words.3) borrowing 借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabularythough quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme( 词素) :the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph( 词素变体) : is a different variant form of a morpheme ，differ in phonologicaland spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme( 词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes （自在词素） : have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself.(independent).（2）Bound Morpheme( 粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root( 粘附词根) (2)Affix( 词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes ( 屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicategrammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes( 派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:Anadjective suffix （描述词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , theresult will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root （自在词根）Morpheme( 词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem （词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss ofidentity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word withinflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II( 构词法)1.Affixation 词缀法（Derivation 派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation( 前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes( 否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes （逆反前缀）: un-,de- ，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis （贬义前缀）：mis- ，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size( 程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect.overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude （倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes （方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order （时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes （数字前缀）:uni- ，mono-, bi- ，di-, tri-,multi- ，poly- ，semi- ，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes （混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation （后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding 复合法（also called composition ）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid 连写(airmail) ，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds （复合词的办法）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion 转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to anotherclass. （功用转化，又名零派生 .functional shift/zero-derivation ）4.Blending 拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula +translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping 截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using whatremains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种办法：1).Front clippings 删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy 首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names ofsocial and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism （首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym （首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters butpronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation （逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It?s the method ofcreating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name( 专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens( 人名) -- watt （瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning( “意”义”的意义)Reference (所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitraryand conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.Concept （概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition( 认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（含义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ,The sense of an expressionis its place in a system of semantic relat ionships with other expressions in the language.?Motivation (理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and itsmeaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, forthese words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds ofthe words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of manyare the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt . 破例： black market,ect.3)Semantic motivation （词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense andfigurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of theword. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning( 词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning （语法含义） :indicates the grammatical concept or relationships(becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇含义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components 内容: Conceptual meaning( 概念意义) and associativemeaning( 关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning( 概念意义): also known as denotative meaning( 外延意义) is themeaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning( 关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to theconceptual meaning.[4types:（1） Connotative （内在意义）： the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.( 例如“母亲”经常与“爱”关“心”温“柔”联系起来)（2） Stylistic （文体含义）： many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker?s attitude towards the person or thingin question. 这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4） Collocative （调配含义）： is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义联系和语义场）Polysemy （多义联系）Two approached to polysemy （多义联系的两种研讨办法） :1.diachronic approach( 历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumedto be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and sameword. First meaning is theprimary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach ( 共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistenceof various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. 根本含义是central meaning , 非必须含义是 derived meaning.Two processes of development （词义的两种开展类型） :1. radiation （辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g:face, neck)2. concatenation （连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign ofconnection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had atthe beginning.(e.g:treacle)3. In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one likechains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no directconnection in between.4. They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the twoprocesses work together, complementing each other.Homonymy （同形同音异义联系） :words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms( 同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms （彻底同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs （同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.( 最多最常见)3）Homophones （同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms ( 同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening( 缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes （同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen toshare the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology( 词源)：Homonymys are from differentsources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness( 语义关联): The variousmeanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meaningsof different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, apolysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms( 同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identicalin sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns fordesired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have thesame or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy( 同义词的类别) :(1) Absolute synonyms （完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexicalmeaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms arerestricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2) relative synonyms （相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of agiven quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms( 同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing （借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart,wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort offact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions （与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand,decide- make up one?s mind, finish -get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one ahand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1) difference in denotation 外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2) difference in connotation 内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylisticappropriateness. ( 借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger,bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough,save-expect, mere-lake )(3) difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentencepatterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can bedefined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness ofmeaning. 特色：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms arenon-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very ”to qua(liefy.gt:hseimng.le/married)2)contrary terms （对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scalerunning between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The twoopposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms （关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites. （parent/child,husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give ）Some of the characteristics of antonyms( 反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition( 语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion （语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms ，differing in degree of intensity, so each has itsown corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms （反义词的运用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake ofcontrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe 敌友，weal and woe 哀乐)3）To form antithesis( 对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together.(proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy (上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Forexample, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate ( 上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which areconcrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinateswhich convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field( 语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of,fruits?)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in differentlanguage.e.g.(aunt in English, may means 父亲的姐姐“，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子”inChinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning 词义的演化Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constantchanges both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable thanthe form.Types of Changes ( 词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization( 词义的扩大) : is the name given to the widening ofmeaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now becomegeneralized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal,bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization( 词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It isa process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in itsapplication and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage,liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into aproper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration( 词义的升华) :refers to the process by which words rise fromhumble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel,knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration( 词义的降格) :A process whereby words of good origin fallinto ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory （贬损的）sense.[boor,churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer( 词义的转移) : Words which were used to designate 指明one thing but laterchanged to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change( 词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors( 词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason( 历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects,institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason( 阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexicalmeaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason( 心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemisticuse of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despisedoccupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors （言语内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internalfactors with in the language system.1)shorting 缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing 借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy 类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a givenword. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context （语境的品种）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation （非言语语境）：In a broad sense,context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place,and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context (语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers tothe words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a wholechapter and even the entire book. 分为两类：1) Lexical context （词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word inquestion. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context （语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a wordmay be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context( 语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity( 消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity怎么消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little 2.Indication of referents( 限定所指)怎么限制所指？——①with clear context ②with ad equate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning ( 提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy （上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms （习语的界说） : are expressions that are not readily understandable from theirliteral meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗话） , Catchphrases （标语） ,slang expressions （俚语） ,proverbs （谚语） ,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms （英语习语的特色）1.Semantic unity （语意的全体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individualidentity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literalmeaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability( 结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extentun changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity. 习语性表达习气Classification of Idioms （英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant 累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature 描述词性习语（as poor as a church mouse ）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into ）4 .idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves ）Use of idioms （习语的运用）1.Stylistic features （文体颜色）：1） colloquialisms （俗话）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions （书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned （指使） different meanings.2.Rhetorical features( 修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration 头韵法（2）rhyme 尾韵法2）lexical manipulation （词法处理）（1）reiteration （duplication of synonyms ）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech （修辞格）（1）simile 明喻（2）metaphor 暗喻（3）metonymy 换喻/ 以名词代动作：live by one?s pen（4）synecdoche 提喻/以部分代整体：earn one?s bread（5）Personification 拟人法（6）Euphemism 委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸大： a world of troubleVariations of idioms( 习语的变异形式) ：1.addition 添加2.deletion 删去3.replacement 替换4.position-shifting 方位搬运5.dismembering 分化Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary : presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as totheir spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, theiretymology （语源）.Types of dictionaries( 词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries （单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword orentries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries （语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in thelanguage (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymologyetc.) 可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia ( 百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se （本身）but providesencyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, orusages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia(<Chamber?s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries( 大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word ——its origin, meaning, pronunciation,cognates( 同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization,。

自考本科《英语词汇学》复习资料

What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are
1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）
2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French， Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）
2）. Content word （notional word） – denote clear notions.
Functional word （empty word， form word） – do not have notions of their own， express the relation between notions， words and sentences.
e.g. foot – football， footage， footpath， footer
4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.
e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another
b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling
c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500
d）. Borrowing of foreign language

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第四章

第四章 The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. Not all the words that are produced by applying the rules are acceptable. Rules only provide a constant set of models from which new words are created from day to day. Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes. affixation 30%-40% compounding 28%-30% conversion 26% shortening 8%-10% （clipping and acronymy） blending and others 1%-5% 1. Affixation （Derivation） —— the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems.（derivative派⽣词） According to their position， affixation falls into： prefixation and suffixation. 1）. Prefixation —— the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning. 1. Negative prefixes – a- （abnormal）， dis- （disobey）， in- （il-， ir-， im-）（injustice）， non- （non-smoker）， un- （unwilling） un- are the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis- with adj. 2. Reversative prefixes – de- （decentralize）， dis- （disunite）， un- （unwrap） 3. Pejorative prefixes – mal- （maltreat）， mis- （mistrust）， pseudo- （pseudo-science） 4. Prefixes of degree or size – arch- （archbishop）， extra-（extra-strong）， hyper-（hyperactive）， macro-（macrocosm）， micro- （microcomputer）， mini- （mini-election）， out- （outlive）， over- （overweigh）， sub-（subheading）， super- （superfreeze）， sur- （surtax）， ultra- （ultra-conservative）， under-（underdeveloped） 5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude – anti- （anti-nuclear）， contra- （contraflow）， counter-， pro-（pro-student） 6. Locative prefixes – extra- （extraordinary）， fore- （forehead）， inter- （inter-city）， intra- （intra-party），tele-， trans- 7. Prefixes of time and order – ex- （ex-wife）， fore- （foretell）， pre-， re- （reconsider） 8. Number Prefixes – bi-， multi- （poly-）（multi-purpose）， semi- （hemi-）， tri- （tricycle）， uni-（mono-）（uniform） 9. Miscellaneous prefixes – auto-， neo- （neo-Nazi）， pan- （pan-European）， vice- 2）. Suffixation ——Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems （the word class）. Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis. Noun suffixes Denominal nouns （名词+suffix ——名词） a. Concrete —— -eer （engineer）， -er （teenager）， -ess （hostess）， -ette （cigarette）， -let （booklet） b. Abstract —— -age （wastage）， -dom （处于…状态）（officialdom）， -ery （slavery）， -ery （-ry）， -hood （childhood）， -ing （farming）， - ism（…主义）（terrorism）， -ship（状态）（sportsmanship） Deverbal nouns （动词+suffix——名词） a. Denoting people —— -ant （assistant）， -ee （trainee）， -ent （respondent）， -er（-or） b. Denoting action， result， process， state， ect. —— -age （linkage）， -al （dismissal）， -ance （attendance）， -ation（-ition， -tion， -sion， -ion）， -ence （existence）， -ing （savings）， -ment （statement） De-adjective nouns （形容词+suffix——名词） —— -ity （popularity）， -ness （happiness） Nouns and adjectives suffixes —— -ese （Chinese）， -an （Australian）， -ist （主义）（socialist） Adjective suffixes Denominal suffixes —— -ed （wooded）， -ful （successful）， -ish （foolish）， -less （priceless）， -like （lady-like）， -ly （friendly）， -y （smoky） -al（-ial， -ical）（cultural， residential）， -esque （picturesque）， -ic （economic）， -ous（-eous， -ious）（coutageous） -ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases， but differ in meaning. Historic （important in history） historical （of history） Classic （great， memorable） classical （of Latin or Greek） Comic （of comedy） comical （funny） Economic （in the economy） economical （money-saving） Electric （powered by electricity） electrical （of electricity） Deverbal suffixes —— -able （-ible）（washable）， -ive（-ative， -sive）（active， decisive） Adverb suffixes —— -ly （calmly）， -ward（s）（homewards）， -wise （clockwise） Verb suffixes —— -ate（originate）， -en （darken）， -（i）fy （beautify）， -ize （ise）（modernize） Nik most of them are considered slang. 2. Compounding （Composition）——Compounding is a process of word-formation by joining two or more stems. Compounds- a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. 三种形式solid， hyphenated， open 1）. Characteristics （differ from free phrases） Phonetic features Compound （not absolute） Free phrase Stress on the first element Stress on the second element Semantic features Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. A lot of compounds are transparent and the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds. Grammatical features A compound plays a single grammatical role in a sentence. In adjective-noun compounds， the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes. Compound Free phrase fine art finer art Formation Most compounds consist of 2 stems， but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationship within the words is considered complex. Noun compounds Adjective compounds Verb compounds （through conversion and back formation） Back formed verb compounds are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes， -er， -ing，-ion， -etc. 3.Conversion （zero-derivation， functional shift） ——Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs. A change of grammatical function The different range of meaning Conversion to noun Verb to noun-almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns. 1. State （of mind or sensation） 2. Event or activity 3. Result of the action 4. Doer of the action 5. Tool or instrument 6. Place of the action Adjective to noun （full conversion， partial conversion） 1. Words fully converted-a noun converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an identical article or –e（s）. 2. Words partially converted – do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. They retain some of the adjective features. Words of this class generally refer to a group of the kind. 3. Miscellaneous conversion Conversion to verbs 1. Noun to verb-verbs of this kind are all transitive. 2. Adjective to verb 3. Miscellaneous conversion 4.Blending—is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Head + tail autocide / motel/ slurb / cremains / chunnel Head + head comsat / telex / Amerind / sitcom / FORTRAM Head + word medicare / Eurasia / telequiz / atuocamp Word + tail lunarnaut / bookmobile / workfare / tourmobile The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns， very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer. 5.Clipping – shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the origin and using what remains instead. People tend to ve economical in writing and speech to keep up the tempo of new life style. Front clipping Quake （earthquake） / Copter（helicopter）/ scope （telescope）/ phone （telephone） Back clipping Dorm（dormitory） / momo（）/stereo（）/gent（）/fan（）/disco（） Front and back clipping Phrase clipping Pub（）/pop（）/zoo（）/perm（） 6.Acronymy – joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. It’s one of the word formations of acronymy. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund. Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. . It’s one of the word formations of acronymy. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 7.Back-formation—— is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. 8.Words from proper names modern English has a large number of words which come from proper nouns. They include 1. Names of people Words of this group are from names of scientists， investors， etc. these terms are used as measurements. Some words are from characters in mythology. Some are from historical figures. Some words are from characters in literary books. s of places Many words denoting products， objects or materials come from the names of places where they were first produced. s of books 4.Tradenames When proper nouns are communized， many of them have lost their original identity. They can be converted to other classes. These words can also take suffixes. Words that are communized from proper nouns have rich culture associations and thus stylistically vivid， impressive and though-provoking.。

英语词汇学自考重点

自考英语词汇学翻译精华整理

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of Englishwords and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formationand usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。

2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学)Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound andmeaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit ofmeaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。

2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the词语是一个符号，sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”代表着世界上其他的事物。

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第一章1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animalsaction，size，domain，statenumerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – pastelectricity，machine，car，plane —— now3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to anotherto remove5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and otherse.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——1. terminology – technical termsphotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuadercant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizens – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，porkcup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noirlong time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchuptea4. Semantic loans – their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dumpnew sassydream old joy and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky。

自考英语词汇学部分章节重点归纳English Lexicology

《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义)Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world.Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n. 认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)Motivation(词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning.Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises.Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.很多合成词和派生词都是这类，Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.(由字面义派生出来的引申义)Etymological motivation(词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word.Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships.Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning(外延意义), is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally know as connotations.Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.(appreciative or pejorative).Collocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.Stylistic meaning and affective meaning are revealed by means of collocations.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field(语义关系和语义场)6.1 Polysemy（多义关系）1．多义关系的形成：Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all nature language that a word has more than one sense.An overwhelming majority of words are polysemous. When a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. But in the course of development, the same symbol must be used to express more meanings. The result is polysemy.2.Two approaches to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):diachronic approach(历时角度)and synchronic approach(共时角度).3.Two process of development(词义发展的两种模式)1）Radiation (辐射型) is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another. But can all be traced back to the centre meaning .2)Concatenation(连锁型), meaning ‘linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive adj. 连续的；继承的；依次的；接替的shi fts.6.2 Homonymy（同形spelling同音sound异义meaning关系）6.2.1Types of homonyms1.Perfect homonyms(完全同形同音异义词)are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2.Homographs(同形词) are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning .3.Homophones(同音词)are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms1. Change in sound and spelling.2. Borrowing.3. Shortening.6.2.3 Differentiation of homonyms and polysemants(同形同异义词与多义词的区别)6.2.4 Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)6.3 Synonymy(同义关系)—2类型+4来源+3区分1.Definition of synonyms(同义词的定义):words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.2.同义词的2个分类1)absolute synonyms(完全同义词) also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, embrace different shades of meanings or different degree of a given quality.3.同义词的4个来源1) Borrowing. (外来词)2) Dialects and regional English.（方言和区域性的英语）3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words. (词的引申义和委婉语用法)4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions. (与习惯表达巧合一致)4.同义词的辨析（3个区分）1)difference in denotation.(外延意义)2)difference in connotation.(the stylistic and emotive colouring of words)(内涵意义)3)difference in application.应用上（difference in usage. different collocations）6.4 Antonymy反义关系—semantic opposition（语义相反关系）1.反义词的分类：矛盾反义词、对立反义词和关系反义词1) Contradictory terms (exclusive and non-gradable)--oppositeness2) Contrary terms. (a scale between two poles or extremes, gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.)—semantic relativity3) Relative terms.(interdependent相互依存)—relational opposites2.三类反义词的特点和区别Some of the characteristics of antonyms1)Antonyms are classified on the basic of semantic opposition.(adj. v. n.)there are more synonyms thanantonyms.2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.3)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked termsrespectively.4)Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own correspondingopposite. Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite.3.使用：解释词义。

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第一章以下是我整理的英语词汇学的资料。

我在考的时候主要就是靠这个东东。

希望对还没有过的人有所帮助。

大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。

其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。

区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。

第一章1. Word ——A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. V ocabulary —— V ocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animalsaction，size，domain，statenumerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability –they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – pastelectricity，machine，car，plane —— now3. productivity –they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to anotherto remove5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and otherse.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——1. terminology – technical termsphotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuadercant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizens – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，porkcup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noirlong time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchuptea4. Semantic loans – their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dumpnew sassydream old joy and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第二章第二章Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）Balto –Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic GermanicPrussian Persian Portuguese NorwegianLithuanian Hindi Spanish IcelandiePolish Italian DanishBulgarian Roumanian SwedishSlovenian French EnglishRussian GermanAlbanian Armenian Celtic HellenicIrish GreekBretonScottish2. History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions.The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxondominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English.At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected languagecomplex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflectionsleveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage.The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words1.The rapid development of modern science and technology2.Social，economic and political changes3.The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（particularly in earlier time）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第三章第三章1. Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallestfunctional unit in the composition of words.）2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words – morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6. Bound Morphemes —— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7. Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of “say or speak” as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning “tell beforehand”。

《英语词汇学》知识点归纳

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over theyears（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）theborrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4) Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existingmaterials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识), reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha. 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative （4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands atthe centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.(e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a wordmove gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are wordswhich are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees ofa given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylisticappropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake ) (3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relationalopposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation,capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary>（2）Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000]。

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第一章1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. Vocabulary ——Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，byorigin1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1. all national character （most important）–natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animalsaction，size，domain，statenumerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – pastelectricity，machine，car，plane —— now3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4. polysemy –often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to anotherto remove5. collocability –quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and otherse.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——1. terminology – technical termsphotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold himback，hold him in，paranoid3. slang ——substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuadercant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）–words taken over from foreign language. 80%According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizens –words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，porkcup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noirlong time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchuptea4. Semantic loans –their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dumpnew sassydream old joy and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky。

自考词汇学9-10

Content of dictionary spelling, pronunciation, definition, usage, grammar, notes, etymological information, supplementary matter
10.3 Three good dictionaries Longman朗文 Longman朗文 :
clear grammar codes, usage notes, language notes revised and updated
Collins 柯林斯：
definition, extra column, usage examples
C-E汉英：
large number of entries, revised, alphabetical order, English equivalents
英语词汇学 English Lexicology
Chapter 9--10 9--10
Chapter 9 English Idioms
Definition: Definition: Expressions not understandable from literal meanings of individual elements Colloquialism, catchphrase, slang, proverb
9.1 Characterisitcs
1) Semantic unity:
no individual identity: meaning, part of speech function as one word illogical relationship of the meaning between each word and idiom 2) Structural stability: unchangeable constituents,word order, grammar.

自学考试专升本英语词汇学资料精华

英语词汇学Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origing and meaning of words(WNWD). English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morephological structures of english words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formatain and usages Empty words---As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well asbetween sentences, they are known as form words.1Borrowed words which still sound foreign and look foreign are aliens2there is no intrinsic relationship between sound and meaning as the connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.3denizens are borrowing that have become naturalized or as similated in English.4Archaisms are words no longer in common use or obsolete in use.5Content words are changing all the time wheras functional words are stable functional words enjoy a higher frequency in use than content words.6A word whose meaning was borrowed from another language is called semantic loanOld English was a language of full endings,middle English was one of leveled endings.Although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expansion,yet more words are created by means of word-formation.There are three main sources of new words:the rapid development of modern science and technology;social,economic and political changes;the influence of other cultures and languages.The language used between 450and 1150in called Old English , which has a vocablary of 50,000-60,000. Middle english refers to the language spoken from 1150 to 1500, followed by the mordern english period, subdivided as early modern english 1500—1700 and late mordern (1700-up to now).Morphemes---it seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning.Affixation----Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Tish proccess is also known as derivation.for new words created in this way are derived from old forms.the words formed in this way are called derivtives. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses:prefixatio n and suffixation.Yacht(Dutch)游艇taboo(Polynesion)禁忌cotton(Araic)棉花chocolate(Mexican) 巧克力coolie(Hindi)苦力czar(russian)沙皇kimono(Japanese)和服boomerang(Australian native)回飞器chili(mexican)干辣椒shampoo(hindi)香波wonton(chinese)混沌tatami(Japanese)草垫wok(Chinese)锅sauerkraut(German)泡菜Context is used in different senses. In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears.The definition of a word comprises the following points:1 a minimal free form of a language 2 a sound unity 3a unit of meaning 4a form that can say that can function alone in a sentence.1a minimal meaningful unit of a language (morphemes)2one of the variants that realize a morpheme(allomorph)3a morpheme that occures with at least one other morpheme(bound morpheme)4a morpheme that can stand alone(free morpheme)5 a morpheme attached to a stem or root(affix)6an affix that indicatesgrammatical relationships(inflectional affix)7an affix that forms new words with a stem or root(derivational affix) individualistic8What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes(root)9a form to which affixes of any kind can be added(stem)Individualistic individualist(stem) individual(stem) dividual(stem) dividu(root,stem)Undesirables undesirable(stem) desirable(stem) desire(root,stem) Figures of speech 修辞格simile明喻As mute as a fishmetaphor暗语animals are used to refer to people.metonymy转义this refers to idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of anotherassociated.synecdoche借代fall in to good handspersonification拟人the pot calls the cattle blackeuphemism:the call of nature。

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第一章

以下是我整理的英语词汇学的资料。

我在考的时候主要就是靠这个东东。

希望对还没有过的⼈有所帮助。

⼤家请注意：笔记中⼤多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该⼀字不漏的背下来。

其实不少简答题也就是⼏个定义的汇总，再加上个例⼦就可以拿满分了。

区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各⾃的定义。

第⼀章 1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German， ’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right， rite and write， though denoting different things， yet have the same sound. 3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect， a given book， a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.Classification of Words—by use frequency， by notion， by origin 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action， size， domain， state numerals， pronouns， prep. ，conj. 2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life， they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. e.g. arrow， bow， chariot， knight – past electricity， machine， car， plane —— now 3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words， they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot – football， footage， footpath， footer 4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove 5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions， idiomatic usages， proverbial saying and others e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary —— 1. terminology – technical terms photoscanning， hepatitis， indigestion， penicillin， algebra， trigonometry， calculus 2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions. Bottom line， ballpark figures， bargaining chips， hold him back， hold him in， paranoid 3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread， grass and pot， beaver， smoky， bear， catch， holler， Roger， X-rays， Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage. 4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups can-opener， dip， persuader cant， jargon ， argot are associated with， or most available to， specific groups of the population. 5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialect beauty， chook， cocky， station， auld， build， coo， hame， lough， bog 6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems， legal document and religious writing or speech. 7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics， futurology， AIDS， internet， E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse， monitor 2）. Content word （notional word） – denote clear notions. Functional word （empty word， form word） – do not have notions of their own， express the relation between notions， words and sentences. a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous. Functional words are in a small number. b. Content words are growing. Functional words remain stable. c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words. 3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words， 50，000-60，000 What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are 1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ） 2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French， Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%） Borrowed words （loan words， borrowing） – words taken over from foreign language. 80% According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing， we can bring the loan words under 4 classes. 1.Denizens – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language. e.g. port from portus（L） shift， change， shirt， pork cup from cuppa（L） 2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spelling e.g. décor（F） blitzkreeg（G） emir， intermez， rowtow， bazaar， rajar， status quo 3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken fromanother language. 1）. Word translated according to the meaning e.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L） black humor from humor noir long time no see， surplus value， master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sound e.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ） lama from lama（Tib） ketchup tea 4. Semantic loans – their meaning are borrowed from another language e.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent， sassy， cheeky。

自考英语词汇学部分章节重点归纳English Lexicology教程文件

自考英语词汇学部分章节重点归纳E n g l i s hL e x i c o l o g y《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义)Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world.Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n. 认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)Motivation(词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning.Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.很多合成词和派生词都是这类，Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.(由字面义派生出来的引申义)Etymological motivation(词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word.Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships.Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning(外延意义), is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally know as connotations.Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing inquestion.(appreciative or pejorative).Collocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.Stylistic meaning and affective meaning are revealed by means of collocations.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field(语义关系和语义场)6.1 Polysemy（多义关系）1．多义关系的形成：Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all nature language that a word has more than one sense.An overwhelming majority of words are polysemous. When a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. But in the course of development, the same symbol must be used to express more meanings. The result is polysemy.2.Two approaches to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):diachronic approach(历时角度)and synchronic approach(共时角度).3.Two process of development(词义发展的两种模式)1）Radiation (辐射型) is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another. But can all be traced back to the centre meaning .2)Concatenation(连锁型), meaning ‘linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive adj. 连续的；继承的；依次的；接替的 shifts.6.2 Homonymy（同形spelling同音sound异义meaning关系）6.2.1Types of homonyms1.Perfect homonyms(完全同形同音异义词)are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2.Homographs(同形词) are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning .3.Homophones(同音词)are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms1. Change in sound and spelling.2. Borrowing.3. Shortening.6.2.3 Differentiation of homonyms and polysemants(同形同异义词与多义词的区别)6.2.4 Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)6.3 Synonymy(同义关系)—2类型+4来源+3区分1.Definition of synonyms(同义词的定义):words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.2.同义词的2个分类1)absolute synonyms(完全同义词) also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, embrace different shades of meanings or different degree of a given quality.3.同义词的4个来源1) Borrowing. (外来词)2) Dialects and regional English.（方言和区域性的英语）3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words. (词的引申义和委婉语用法)4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions. (与习惯表达巧合一致)4.同义词的辨析（3个区分）1)difference in denotation.(外延意义)2)difference in connotation.(the stylistic and emotive colouring of words)(内涵意义)3)difference in application.应用上（difference in usage. different collocations）6.4 Antonymy反义关系—semantic opposition（语义相反关系）1.反义词的分类：矛盾反义词、对立反义词和关系反义词1) Contradictory terms (exclusive and non-gradable)--oppositeness2) Contrary terms. (a scale between two poles or extremes, gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.)—semantic relativity3) Relative terms.(interdependent相互依存)—relational opposites2.三类反义词的特点和区别Some of the characteristics of antonyms1)Antonyms are classified on the basic of semantic opposition.(adj. v. n.)there aremore synonyms than antonyms.2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.3)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked andunmarked terms respectively.4)Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each hasits own corresponding opposite. Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite.3.使用：解释词义。

自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第二章

第⼆章 Indo-European language family （Europe， the Near East， India） Balto –Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic Germanic Prussian Persian Portuguese Norwegian Lithuanian Hindi Spanish Icelandie Polish Italian Danish Bulgarian Roumanian Swedish Slovenian French English Russian German Albanian Armenian Celtic Hellenic Irish Greek Breton Scottish 2. History （时间，历史事件，特征） 1） Old English （450-1150） totally 50，000-60，000 words The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts， the language was Celtic. The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles， Saxons and Jutes and their language， Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century， the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words. In the 9th century， many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English， our daily life and speech. 特点： highly inflected language complex endings or vowel changes （full ending） 2） Middle English （1150-1500） English， Latin， French Until 1066， although there were borrowings from Latin， the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English. By the end of the 13th century， English gradually come back into public areas. Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today. As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English. 特点： fewer inflections leveled ending 3） Modern English （1500-up to now） early modern English （1500-1700） late modern English（1700-up to now） The Renaissance， Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage. The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization， British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe， thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world. After World War II， many new words have been created to express new ideas， inventions and scientific achievements. More words are created by means of word-formation. thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions， and scientific achievements. more words are created by means of word-formation. in modern English， word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language. science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% . mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use. 特点： ending are almost lost. 3. Three main sources new words 1.The rapid development of modern science and technology 2.Social， economic and political changes 3.The influence of other cultures and languages 4. Three modes of vocabulary development 1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials， namely roots， affixes and other elements.（This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.） 2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need. 3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（particularly in earlier time） 4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete） French 30%， Latin 8%， Japanese Italian 7%， Spanish 6%， German Greek 5%， Russian Yiddish 4%。

自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents，their semantic structures，relations，historical development, formation and usages。

英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构，其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。

2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics（语义学），etymology（词源学)，stylistics（文体论) and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1—-Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词的定义)：A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function。

(1）a minimal free form of a language （2）a sound unity （3）a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。

2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）：almost arbitrary，“no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3。

English lexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解

English lexicology英语词汇学Chapter1 basic concepts of words and vocabularyClassification of wordsChapter2 the development of the english vocabularyModes of vocabulary development 1150Chapter 3 word formationMorphemes , allomorphsChapter 4 word formation21.Affixation, prefixation suffixation ,pounding (characteristics formation )3.Conversion , blending , clipping , acronymy4.Initialisms , acronyms5.Back-formation , words from proper namesChapter5 word meaning1.The meanings of ‘meaning’2.Reference ,concept ,sense3.Motivation(onomatopoeic,morphological ,semantic , etymological)4.Types of meaning < grammatical , lexical , conceptual , associative> Chapter 6 sense relations and semantic fieldPolysemy , homonymy , synonymy , antonymyChapter 7 changes in word meaningExtension , narrowing , elevation , degradationChapter 8 meaning and context1.Types of context (extra-linguistic, linguistic)2.Role of contexta.elimination of ambiguityb.indication of referencec.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningChapter9 english idioms1.Classification of idioms(nominal , adjectival , verbal , adverbial )2.sentence and useChapter 10 english DictionariesTypes of dictionary , three good Dictionarya.Longman dictionary of contemporaryb.Collins COBUILD english Dictionaryc. A Chinese-english DictionaryUnit 1Methods of study ,there are generally two approaches to the study of words ,namely synchronic and diachronicAims and significance of the courseLanguage study involves the study of speech sounds ,grammar and vocabulary .vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult .Willkins asserts ‘without grammar very little can beconveyed ,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ A good knowledge of morphological structure of english words and rules of word-formation will help learners develope their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary .The term vocabulary is used in different senses1.It can refers to the total number of the words in a language2.It can stands for all the words used in a particular historical period3.Also used to all the words of a given dialectClassification of wordsWords may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency ,into content words and function words by notion ,and into native words and borrowed words by originBasic word stock have characteristics1.All national character2.Stability3.Productivity4.Polysemy5.Collocability6 Neutral in style7 Frequent in useWords void (lack)of the stated characters ,do not belong to the common core of the language ,they include the following:Terminology 术语，专有名词JargonSlang 俚语，黑话ArgotDialectal wordsArchaismsNeologismsContent words(=notional words) and function words (=empty words) Native words and borrowed wordsApart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock ,in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features Neutral in styleFrequent in useBorrowing words :words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words and loan words or borrowings in simple terms Loan words under four classesDenizens 同化词Aliens 异化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic-loans 借意词The Indo-European language familyWhich can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar ,theIndo-Europe is one of them .it is thought to be a highly inflected language They accordingly fall into eight principle groups ,which can be grouped into an Eastern set : Balto-slavic, Indo-Iranian, American and Albanian; a Western set; Celtic , Italic, Hellenic,GermanicA historical overview of the english vocabularyThe first people known to inhabit the land were CeltsThe second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions450- < old > -1150-（Middle）-1500- <modern>-NOWModes of vocabulary developmentWe can concluded that modern english vocabulary develops through three channels < > creation , semantic change , borrowing Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely roots ,affixes and other elementsSemantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new needBorrowing has palyed a vital role in the development ofvocabulary ,particularly in earlier timesMorphemes :minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes,in other words ,the morphemes is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words ’Chapter 5Word meaningWords are but symbols , many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference .1.reference is the relationship between language and the word .The reference a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary <随意的>and conventional <传统的>2.Concept<概念>=notionIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of ‘concept ’meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical3.Sense :generally speaking ,the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’ . ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation <理据>Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic motivation 拟声的理据<ha ha>Morphological motivation 形态的理据<one can figure out>Semantic motivation 语义<联想>的理据<mouth of river>Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a wordEtymological motivation 词源的理据The meaning if many words often related directly to their origins, Types of meaninga.Grammatical meaning an Lexical meaning语法和词汇意义b.Conceptual meaning and associative meaning 概念和联想意义Chapter 6The subjects that have long held the interest and attention ofsemanticists are ,polysemy 多义的, homonymy , synonymy ,antonymy , and hyponymyTwo approaches to polysemyDiachronic approach and synchronic approachThe meanings were acquired by extension ,narrowing ,analogy ,transfer The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation Homonymy <different meaning but same sound and spelling>Based on the degree of similarity ,homonyms fall into threeclasses:perfect homonyms ,homographs and homophones1.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different meaning .Bank n. The edge of the river ,lakeBank n . An establishment for money businessBear n. A large heavy animalBear v. To put up withDate n. A kind of fruitDate n. A boy or a girl friend2.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaningBow n. Bending the head as a greetingBow n. The device used for shooting arrowsSow v. To scatter seedsSow n. Female adult pig3.Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaningDear n. A loved personDeer n.a kind of animalRight a. correctWrite v.to put down on paper with a penRite n. Ceremonial procedureSon n. A male child of someoneSun n. The heavenly body from which the earth gets warmth and light Of three types ,homophones constitute the largest number and are most commonOrigins of homonymsChange in sound and spellingBorrowingShortingAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling ,particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns<双关>for desired effect of ,say, humor,sarcasm or ridicule<嘲弄>On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey <折磨>on you So-called pious<虔诚的>gentleman and ladies 善男信女The sardonic tone is unmistakable 讽刺的语气是不言而喻的SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of vocabulary of natural languagesTypes of synonyms1. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning ,including conceptual and associative meanings2. Relative synonymy also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of given quality.For example .to change a thing is to put another thing in its place ;to altera thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times .’A man change his habits ,alters his conduct ,and varies his manner of speaking’Look at stagger /reel/totter.stagger implies unsteady movement characters by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course . Stagger under a heavy load ;reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling .Silent沉默的，无言的，寂静的/ tacit , shine闪耀，发光/ glitter华丽夺目，炫耀/sparkle闪耀，活跃，焕发活力和才智/glare强光，瞪眼，炫耀, different/ various, idle空闲的，懒惰的，无意义的/lazy/indolent , strange奇怪的/odd 古怪的/ queer,古怪的，可疑的large / huge庞大的/tremendous极大的，巨大的，惊人的，极好的/colossal Sources of synonyms1.BorrowingAs a result of the borrowing ,words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other language2.Dialects and regional english3.Figurative an euphemistic4.Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsDiscrimination of synonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation , connotation ,and application1.Difference in denotation .‘I did not comprehend his arguments ,although i understood the language , and all the sentences’A lump of sugar一块糖, a slice of meat一片肉, a chunk of wood , a sheet of paper A cake of soapTypes of antonyms1.Contradictory termsThe assertion of one is the denial of the otherAnother distinctive feature of this category <类型>is that such antonyms are non-gradable2.Contrary terms3.Relative termsHolds water <站得住脚的>Characters of antonyms1.Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms2.A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3.Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion .pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively4.Contrary terms are gradable antonymsDestitute / opulent dull / livelyHyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is the meaning of more specific word word is included in that of another more general word .For instance ,tulip and rose are hyponyms of flowerSuperordinate termsHammer , saw , screwdriver ,spanner, plaice, cod , herring ,sole Semantic field <领域>The massive word store of a language like english an be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas.An integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense 语义相互关联It is general belief that.....Personal address system 个人称呼KinshipTypes of changesWord-meaning changes by modes ofExtension< 扩展>,narrowing<缩小> ,degradation< 降格>,elevation< 升格>,and transferCauses of changes: it is in response to some needExtra-linguistic factors1.Historical reason2.Class reason3.Psychological 心理学的，精神上的reasonThe role of context <语境>1.Elimination of ambiguity <消除歧义>2.Indication of referents <限定所指>3.Provision of clues for inferring word -meaning <为猜测词义提供线索>①Definition②Explanation③Example④Synonymy⑤Antonymy⑥Hyponymy⑦Relevant details⑧Word structureChapter 9Idioms consists of set phrases and short sentences ,which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas .therefore, idioms are colorful ,forcible and thought-provoking.For example ,fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with ( tolerate)In a board sense ,idioms may included colloquialisms ,slang experience, proverbs .Character of Idioms1.Semantic unityBeing phases or sentences ,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity. Idiom have their respective literal meanings .for instance, till the cows come homeKeep in mind <remember> take off <imitate模仿>to no avail <useless> like a breeze <easily>2.Structural stability 结构稳定First the constituents of idioms cannot be replacedLip service <support only in words ,not in fact > is not to be changed into mouth service . Kick the bucket <die> bury the hatchet <come to friendly or peaceful terms>Secondly ,the word order cannot be inverted or changed ,for example ,by twos and threes and tit for tat are not to be turned into by threes and twos and tat for titThe lion share is ....最大的，份额Thirdly,the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added too . Not even an articleFinally many idioms are grammatically unanalysable for exampel ,diamond cut diamond <two parties are equally matched > Sure as eggs is eggs <quite certainly>It should be pointed out that the idiomaticity of idioms is gradableand may best be thought in terms of a scaleHis promotion stepped up <improve or enhance>The boy playing in the river in the raw <naked>Turn over a new leaf <begin a new life>, as cool as a cucumber泰然自若draw the certain <end or conceal>Idioms nominal in natureIdioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentencesWhite elephant<a+n>something useless and unwanted but big and costly 华而不实的东西Pink elephantThe Elephant in the roomBrain trust <n+n>智囊团An appel of discord <n+prep+n>祸根Jack of all trades<n+prep+det+n>万事通，三脚猫Fly in the ointment<n+prep+n>something that spoils the perfection of somethingFlesh and blood 亲情Idioms adjective in natureCut and dried <a+a>already settled and unlikely to be changedAs poor as a church mouse<as+a+as+n>having ,orearning ,barely enough money for one’s needsWide of the mark <not at all suitable ,correct>Beyond the pale <beyond the limit of proper behaviour> Up in the air <uncertain>Idioms verbal in natureThis is the largest group of all .subdivided into phrasal verbs短语动词and other verb phrases动词短语Look into <investigate>调查，研究go on <continue>Put off <discourage ...from ; cause....to ;dislike .Delay .make excuses in order to avoid a duty>Turn on 兴趣盎然get away with <get something wrong without being punished>Put down to 把.....归因于Mak it 赶上了follow one’s nose 朝相同地方走Fall flat <fail completely in its intended or expected effect> Give sb the bag 炒鱿鱼Sing a different tune <change one’s opinion or attitude> Call it a day <decide or agree to stop either temporary or for good>Chop and change 变化无常Swim against the stream 不随波逐流Come back to earth 脚踏实地Make ends meet 收支平衡Keep the pot boiling 量入为出，维持生计Let the dog see the rabbit 好狗不挡道Bite the hand that feeds one恩将仇报Tooth and nail 全力以赴Through thick and thin 同舟共济In clover or in the clover 生活安逸Sentence idiomsThey are mainly proverbs and sayings ,including colloquialisms and catchphrase ,as far as sentence types are concerned,they embracedeclarative ,interrogative , imperative, and exclamative sentences. In terms of complexity they can be further divided into simple compound and complex sentenceNever do things by halves 不要半途而废That’s the time of day <exclamative,simple>Let the sleeping dog die 别多管闲事A leopard cannot change its spotsBehind the mountains there are people to be found Upon my word 正如所言，的确Art is long , life is short ,生命短暂，艺术无涯Pepper and salt 花白的头发Bag and baggage 所有家当High and low 高低贵贱Use of idiomsWe need aware of the rhetoric characteristics of idioms such as stylistic , features , rhetoric features and their occasional variationsIn deep water 陷入困境，tide over克服Take the helm 掌权If you run after two hares , you will catch neither 脚踩两只船Have all one’s eggs in one basket 孤注一掷New brooms sweep clean 新官上任三把火Wash one’s dirty linen in public 家丑不可外扬Keep the pot boiling 维持生计Boil down 压缩Jump the bait 上钩了Hit below the belt 玩阴的play fair 公平竞争Come to pass <take place ,happen >Be it that <even though >即使，尽管In the wake of <right after, following>紧接着Give the lie to <all sb a lair >称某人是骗子Of note <notable , well-know>著名的Mishandle, mess up , 搞砸了Variations of idioms1.Replacement2.Addition or deletion3.Position-shifting4.Shortening5.Dismembering。

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