Grammatical Hierarchy & Sentence Structure

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15 Coordination

At diploma mills throughout the states you can buy a bachelor’s degree for about $ 1,500, a master’s degree for $1,600, or a doctorate for $1,700. To make the series move slowly and seem lengthy and drawn-out( ), we can repeat the coodinator all through the series, eliminating the commas, eg: Raising vegetables presents endless opportunities for weeding and thinning and hoeing and watering.
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
4) Symmetrical organizatin of coodinate constructions
In a series of four or more than four coodinated items, there are even more options than just repeating or eliminating coodinators. Instead of listing the items one after another, we can regroup them in pairs so that the series is made more balanced and symmetrical. (especially common in formal written language.) Only a few cities are known as ― good baseball towns‖– Cincinati, Detrit, chicago, Boston, Los Angeles, and New York. → Only a few cities are known as ― good baseball towns‖– Cincinati and Detrit, chicago and Boston, Los Angeles and New York.

英语语法名词解释精华汇总

英语语法名词解释精华汇总(总1页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--重要概念morpheme:A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed “morph” which realizes the morpheme.parsing：Breaking a sentence into smaller components for analysis and then grouping them into various classes in a systematic way.complex sentenceThe complex sentence is a sentence that contains more than one clause that are joined together by subordinating one to another．Alternative questions: Those questions that suggest two (or more) alternatives and usually imply that one of them could be true.How-exclamations:Exclamations that are led by the adverb ‘how’. It highlights the adjective, adverb, or verb in exclamations. .Collective noun: These are generally countable nouns, but even in the singular they refer to groups of people, animals or things, such as family, class, team, government, committee, etc.Proper noun: Proper nouns are nouns referring to specific person, place or thing,such as Smith, Mark (persons), Washington D.C., London (places), NATO, United Nations (things)Mass noun: Those that can not take plural are mass nouns, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc. Unit noun: It is also called "partitive", is a very special class of words that is used to specify the quantities measures and shapes of the modified noun such as: piece, batch, bunch, item, etc.Foreign plurals：They are words borrowed from some other languages which still take their original forms of plural，Most often，they are from-Latin，French，Greek：alumna--alumnae，index--indices，plateau--plateaux，analysis—analyses，etc．singular invariables:They are proper nouns like country names, personal names and mass nouns like those denoting sciences, subjects, diseases, and games. For example: the United States，the United Nations，Black，Jones，classics，physics，bronchitis，bowls，et。

grammarhierarchy

OverviewGrammar is no doubt very critical in learning a language. However, it is not only about a set of rules,but I would rather say, is governed by a set of rules. Grammar is systematic, organized and dynamic at the same time. As language is a living fluid entity that changes in response to changes in society, grammar is not absolute and fixed. Be ware of the different styles of language, regional differences and changing nature of grammar when we start to study it.Before digging into the complicated structure of grammar, first have an overview of what is required of us English majors to learn for grammar, what is grammar, how it is structured and make clear some most commonly refered concepts and terms appearing afterwards.Grammar HierarchyGrammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English languages is organized in to five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents—the morphemes.1. Morphemes(词素)The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes (自由词素) and bound morphemes (粘附词素).Free morphemes: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech.本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词素Examples: boy girl deskkind give takeBound morphemes: bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an inflectional(曲折变化的) or derivational(派生的) affix.本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，必须粘附在自由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素。

福建农林大学：英语语法教学大纲

英语语法教学大纲※<前言>一、简要说明英语语法通过分析与综合、归纳与演绎来探讨英语语言的规律性，通过对词法，句法两大类的讲授及大量的实践，使学生进一步掌握语法基本理论知识，提高语言表达的准确性。

同时，通过对英语语言现象的简明概括，使学生对英语语法不仅有感性认识，而且上升到理性认识，从而能够举一反三，恰当地使用语法结构和提高交际能力。

适用专业及层次：英语本科开课学期：第二学期学时：50学分： 3课程类型：专业基础课（必修）二、课程性质、地位和任务《英语语法》属高校英语专业的一门必修课程，它将有利于语言和文学教学，有助于语言及翻译研究。

本课程的目的是为了高校英语专业学生系统地认识英语从词到句乃至语篇的构造，提高使用英语的规范性，学会用英语准确地、有效地传递信息和表达思想，同时系统地了解英语语法的发展，为进一步地学习及研究英语语言奠定基础。

三、教学基本要求和方法1、教学基本要求：通过语法的介绍，加强理论与实践相结合，使学生掌握和解释各种语言现象；灵活准确地运用各种语法知识，提高学生的交际能力和语言表达的准确性。

2、教学基本方法：（1）以启发式教学方法、课堂讲授为主，课堂讨论为辅。

（2）因材施教，有取有舍。

有些章节精讲，部分章节大体涉猎或由学生自学，教师课后进行辅导，答疑。

（3）理论与实践相结合，严格要求学生做课后习题，并辅以精选练习。

四、授课教材及主要参考书目授课教材：本课程使用教材是由陈敦金教授主编的、总结了当代最新英语语法研究成果的《新编英语语法综合教程》，该教材已在许多院校广泛使用，师生反应较好。

该书吸收了当代英语语法的前沿理论与术语,不光涉及到词和句的规则,而且涉及到主义和语用的规则。

对句子成分、词类和时体的分类采用了最新方法，语法术语采用了最新提法，并且内容丰富翔实，论述清晰透彻，例句规范准确。

主要参考书目：1．《新编英语语法综合教程练习册》陈敦金主编，复旦大学出版社，2004。

Grammaticalization语法化

当今国外研究语法化的认知语言学家主要有: Langacker, Lakoff, Taylor, Heine, Hopper, Traugott, Ungerer&Schimid, Sweetster, Dirven & Verspoor等.他们对语法化表示出浓厚的兴趣, 且将其研究范围从 “实词虚化” 扩大到句法和章法,甚至将从典型概念结构所产生出的句法结构的论述也囊括其内,强调了语法化与隐喻, 象似性, 主观化(subjectification)等现象密切相关,与人类的认知机制密不可分,以其通过语法化将语言的历时研究与共时研究结合起来,寻找语言产生和发展的理据性,揭示语言演变与人类认知之间的动因规律.

而第三层次的研究则是广义上的语法化，涉及到认知语言学研究的中心内容之一，语言结构如何体现出典型的概念结构或事体结构等。典型的概念结构或事体结构等如何被显性化为语法构造，人们在体验的基础上形成了许多概念基型，在其上有形成了几个“典型事件模型”，语言中的语法构造和基本句型就是在这个基础上形成的。这也是一种广义的语法化现象。

法国语言学家Meillet (梅莱) 于1912年在其论文 “语法形式的演化” 中首先提出 “语法化”这一术语, 认为语法化主要研究自主词转化为起语法作用的成分 (the transition of autonomous words into the role of grammatical elements, 参见Ungerer & Schmid, 1996: 255) 他们都认为通过语法化过程的研究, 可以从历时的角度寻找语言形式和功能演变的动因,进一步揭示人类的认知与语言发展之间的象似性现象, 以进一步证明语言不是一个自治的系统, 并将语言的历时研究和共时研究紧密结合起来,从更深层次上对语言作出认知解释.

[英语考试]L1 Grammatical Hierarchy -- Morphemes

part of the word that carries the
fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and
has to combine with other morphemes to
Lecture 1
Grammatical Hierarchy
1
What is grammar?
2
1. The sun evaporates water. 2. Water is evaporated. 3. Water evaporates.
4. Someone dropped a pen. 5. A pen was dropped. 6. A pen dropped.
– instead, they have attached meaning (unkind, hope-ful) or grammatical meaning (cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed).
19
• Types of bound morphemes
– Bound roots(粘着词根): A bound root is that
18
• Bound Morphemes(粘着词素)
– Morphemes which cannot occur as separate
words are bound.
– They are bound to other morphemes to form words.
– Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning;

第1周英语语法 Grammatical Hierarchy

•
all the college
students
Noun as the Head
Noun as the Pre-Modifier Determiner Determiner
Prepositional Phrase
• His new book on phonology Post-Modifier • Milton lived in the 17th century. • The author’s new novel that will soon come out
A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes.
Sentence
Clause
Noun Phrase
Verb Phrase
Prepositional Phrase
In terms of grammatical form
Simple Verb Phrase:
Introduction
Grammatical Hierarchy
Definition of GRAMMAR
GRAMMAR: • the structural system of a language. • the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics)
Word Class of Phrase :
Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Adjective Phrase Adverb Phrase Prepositional Phrase

Grammatical Hierarchy 语法层次

• Predicate verb谓语动词
auxiliary verb/ helper verb助动词
action verb linking verb
predicative
All the men
have done their best.
Mr. Carter
will investigate further.
Jennie’s paintings were judged inferior to Wanda’s.
Smoking cigarettes causes trouble in the lungs.
Discussion
1) What is grammar? 2)Do we need to study grammar to learn a language?
Can you understand?
• He can no more drive than I. • My boss very cute love so good like dog, be a the face.
• Subjects are nouns and other forms that can function as nouns, such as pronouns, clauses, infinitives(不定式) and gerunds（动名词）.
• It is the topic about which the speaker or writer is speaking or writing.
Grammatical Hierarchy 语法层次
Morphemes(词素)
Words
Phrases
Clauses

章振邦英语语法教程--Lecture 1 Grammatical Hierarchy

Lecture 1 Grammatical HierarchyHierarchy is one of the basic properties of a language. On the grammatical level, the structure of the English language can be divided into five ranks: morpheme, word, phrase, clause, and sentence, while on the textual level, into three ranks: sentence, sentence group, and text. Sentence is the highest rank in grammatical hierarchy, and the lowest rank on the textual level. The following is a brief description of the grammatical hierarchy of the English language.1.1 MorphemesA morpheme is the smallest meaning-carrying grammatical unit. It falls into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.1) Free morphemesA free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech. Chair, boy, desk, and cruelare free morphemes. A free morpheme can be the root of a derivative, such as kindly, friendliness.2) Bound morphemesBound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an affix or a combining form.The affix can be divided into two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes include: plural –s/-es, possessive –’s, third person singular-s/-es, past –ed, participle –ing, participle –ed, comparative –er, and superlative –est. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes, such as anti-war, co-exist, movement, and careless. The use of an inflectional affix does not change the identity of a word, but that of a derivational affix usually results in a new lexeme.Bound morphemes can also be combining forms, which can act as bound root to form primitive derivatives, such as receive, conceive, and perceive. They can also be used together with other combining forms or words to form compound words or neo-classical compounds, such as minibus, miniskirt, biology, telescope, and electrocardiogram.1.2 WordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways:1) Simple words, derivatives & compoundsWords that are composed of one morpheme only are called simple words. art, joy, kind, up, down, hand, foot and able, for example, are simple words.Words that are formed by adding an affix to an existing word are called derivatives. For example, interference, unhelpful, driver, management, unfair, disloyal, and nonviolent are derivatives.A word formed by combining two or more bases is called a compound. For example, whichever, snowfall, downfall, bookcase, home-made, tax-free and babysitting.2) Closed-class words & open-class wordsIn terms of syntactic function, words can be classified into closed-class words and open-class words. Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are “closed” or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional numbers. In English, function words such as auxiliaries, conjunctions and prepositions are closed-class words.Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs form open-class words.1.3 PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or morethan one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1) The noun phraseThe noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is :(determiner+) (premodifier+) noun (+ postmodifier)a pretty little girl standing at the doorall the wooden cottages that have survived the earthquake2) The verb phraseThe verb phrase which is a phrase with a main verb as its head can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”. A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+modifier). For example:He works hard.He has been working on the project for two weeks.In the first example, “works” is a simple verb phrase; and in the second example, “has been working” is a complex verb phrase.In terms of grammatical form, a verb phrase can be finite or non-finite. A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb that bears tense distinction. A non-finite verb phrase is a phrase initiated by a non-finite form, that is, a verb that does not change its form according to tense or subject.3) The adjective phraseThe adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:(modifier+) adjective (+postmodifier/complementation)The course is not very difficult.You are not careful enough.The weather is too hot to be enjoyable.4) The adverb phraseThe adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:(modifier+) adverb (+postmodifier)Be a man. Don’t act so slowly.She spoke very clearly indeed.He lives very far from the station.5) The prepositional phraseThe prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is:(modifier+) preposition + complementation That story is based on an incident in his own life.Food had been scarce since before the war.He has been working in the lab all through the night.I could hear their footsteps directly above my head.1.4 ClausesThe clause is composed of one or morethan one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1) Independent and dependent clausesIn terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause, which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.He knows everything about it. (independent)I am sure he knows everything about it. (dependent)2) Simple and complex clausesWhen a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or otherclauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.It was not true. (simple)What he said was not true. (complex) 3) Main and subordinate clausesIn a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that is embedded in a large clause, either as a clause element or as part of a phrase which realizes a clause element, is a subordinate clause, e.g.:She wouldn’t believe it (m ain) though it was true (subordinate).If winter comes(subordinate), can Spring be far behind (main)?4) Finite, non-finite and verbless clausesA clause can be finite or non-finite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is one with a non-finite verb as its predicator. For example:He barely ate or slept that night. (finite clause)He began paging through old newspapers, hoping to find some valuable information. (non-finite clause)When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is a “subject + predicate” construction with the verb element omitted, e.g.:When in Rome, do as the Romans do.1.5 SentencesThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.1) Full and minor sentencesA full sentence is a sentence with anexpressed subject and predicate. It is mostly used in formal speech and writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which, in some specific contexts and situations, can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. Minor sentences, which are extensively used in informal discourse, can also be used to emphasize an idea, add force to an emotion or help build up to a climax at the beginning or the end of a paragraph. For example:Charlie Chaplin was the great comedian of silent films. (full)Where does Joan begin a mystery story? On the last page. Always. (minor)2) Simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentencesA simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. An independent clause that comprises one or more dependent clausesas its element(s) makes a complex sentence. Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence. For example: The bull charged straight at the man. (simple)She is a funny girl, yet you can’t help liking her. (compound)How it all happened is a mystery to me. (complex)As I had limited time, I didn’t read the last chapter, yet I still enjoy the book. (compound-complex)。

目录怎么写

目录（Table of Contents）目录页由论文的章节、附录等的序号、标题和页码组成（不包括原创性声明），另页编排在摘要的后面。

用英文撰写的论文的章（一级标题）的序号应用英文数字或者罗马数字，如Chapter Three或者Chapter III。

如果正文中二级标题（节）及二级以下标题用阿拉伯数字编排序号，如3.1、3.2.2等，则目录页应列出这些标题、序号、页码。

章节的标题均必须与正文中的标题相一致。

目次间的行距为1.5行，但同一目次换行时应为单倍行距。

每一章序号和标题的字体用Arial黑体12 pt，其余的序号和标题用Times New Roman 12 pt。

章节必须逐级缩进，页码必须右对齐。

为了保证目次页与正文中的章、节、附录等的序号、标题和页码完全一致，目次页应该用Microsoft Word选项单中“插入\引用\索引和目录\目录”的命令设置格式，而不宜用手工打出。

请按以下目录样本编制目录CONTENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (ii)ABSTRACT (iii)摘要 (iv)Chapter One INTRODUCTION (1)Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW (10)Chapter Eight CONCLUSION (180)8.1 Major Findings (180)8.1.1 Effects of input frequency (180)8.1.2 Effects of output frequency (181)8.1.3 Delayed effects (182)8.2 Implications (184)WORKS CITED (185)目录页例Chapter Five CONCLUSION (180)5.1 Major Findings (180)5.1.1 Effects of input frequency (180)5.1.2 Effects of output frequency (181)5.1.3 Delayed effects (182)5.2 Implications (184)注意：1. 目次页应该用Microsoft Word选项单中“插入\引用\索引和目录\目录”的命令设置格式，而不宜用手工打出。

英语语法层次

Chapter two Introduction-Grammatical Hierarchy语言（Language）是社会交际的工具，是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系。

语法（Grammar）是语言的组织规律Grammar is the structural system of a language.，它赋予语言以结构系统，而词汇（vocabulary）则是语言的建筑材料，它通过语法而赋予语言以意义内容。

The grammar of English is organized into five ranks:1.the sentence（句子）, the clause（分句）, the phrase（词组）, the word（词）and the morpheme（词素）.英语的语法结构具有层次性，分为五个不同的层次。

2. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower unit.每一层由一个或一个以上的低层次的语法结构组成。

3.A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes.句子能够一层一层地切分到它的最小组成单位----词素。

●词素MorphemeThe morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech.词素是最小的语法单位，也是最小的语义单位。

Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes (自由词素) and bound morphemes (粘附词素).1、Free morphemes(自由词素): a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simpleword.自由词素指本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词素。

3. Grammatical Hierarchy

+(postmodifier/complementation) AdvP: (premodifier)+ head adverb + (postmodifier) PP: (modifier) + head preposition+
complementation
Identify the category of the italicized phrase and their heads
True of false?
➢ A phrase is composed of a head and other elements;
the class or category of the head word determines the
class of the phrase and the way in which the words are
A diagram of grammatical hierarchy
sentence clause
phrase
NP
VP
word
D
N
Aux Adv
MV P
morpheme These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improv-ing in
PP
D
N
their writ-i ng
fireplace. PP ➢ The weather is too hot to be enjoyable. AdjP
More unconventional PPs
So when we saw how popular Obama was around the world, including in China, we became hopeful that the best aspects of our democracy would also regain international currency.

新编英语语法教程主要章节语法术语

《新编英语语法教程》主要章节语法术语Introduction:Grammatical Hierarchy(导论—语法层次)1.Morpheme词素Free morpheme自由词素Bound morpheme粘附词素Allomorph词素变体2.Parts of speech(word class)Simple words简单词Derivatives派生词Compounds复合词*(1)Classification in terms of word formationWords词NounOpen-class words(content words)开放词类（实义词）Closed-class words(function words)封闭词类（功能词）V erb Adjective AdverbPreposition Pr onoun Determiner Conjunction AuxiliaryIntermediate class (中间词类)Numerals Interjection3.Phrases词组4.Clause分句5.Sentence句子*(2)Classification in terms of grammatical functionN oun phraseV erb phraseAdjective phraseAdverb phrasePreposition phraseConjunction（1）Independent clause&Subordinate clause独立分句和从属分句（2）Simple clause&Complex clause(*complex sentence)简单分句和复杂分句（*复杂句）（3）Main clause&Subordinate clause主句和从句（4）Finite clause，non-finite clause and V erbless clause限定分句、非限定分句、无动词分句(1)Full sentence&Minor sentence完全句和不完全句(2)Simple sentence,Co mpou n d sentence,Complex sentence&C o mpo u n dcomplex sentence简单句、并列句、复杂句、并列复杂句(3)Declarative sentence,imperative sentence,interrogative sentence,Lecture1Sentence Structure（L1）Sentence elements:S(subject)V(predicate verb)O(object)C(complement)A(Adverbial)主语谓语动词宾语补足语状语1.Two ways of sentence analysis1)SVOSentenceClauseNP VP NPSubject Predicate verb ObjectAll the man have done their best.Sentence=Subject+Predicate(Predicate V erb+Object,Complement,Adverbial,etc.)●句子由主语和谓语构成，进一步把谓语剖析为谓语动词、宾语、补语、状语等。

English grammar

A grammatical Hierarchy
1. 2. 3. 4. More examples I signed the paper to get the license. It is forbidden to smoke in this room. The discussion completed, the chairman made a speech for 30mins. ----- nominative absolute construction(独立主格结构) Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement.
A grammatical Hierarchy
Morphemes : free & bound
(simple work) ( affixation: ‘s –ed, ness)
Words: classification Phrases: a group of words with a head Clauses: phrases logically constructed Sentences: highest rank
Objective Complement
e.g. She considered him a genius.
Clause Structure
The soup smells wonderful. She seemed unhappy. He is not in a good health. I made him happy. They appointed him the manager.
Simple Clause Structure -complements

英语修辞学考试复习重点

Rhetorical options1、What is rhetoric Definitions of rhetoricthe art or science of communication in words; this art or science practiced or taught as a formal discipline; esp. the doctrine formulated by Aristotle and taught throughout the Middle ages; overornate or ostentatious language. Longman Modern English Dictionary2、What’s the purpose of rhetoric 两种说法①The prevailing view about the purpose of rhetoric is to express oneself well and to communicate effectively in order to secure a desired result by employing rhetorical means efficiently.②“to enlighten the understanding ; to please the imagination; to move the passion ;or to influence the will.” “促进理解、引起想象、调动感情、或者说影响人们的意志” 18世纪苏格兰修辞学家George Campbell3、What is discussed in rhetoric contents of rhetoricalRhetoric is composed of theoretical rhetoric and practical rhetoric. Theoretical rhetoric deals with the theoretical problem of rhetoric; while practical rhetoric helps us improve our ability to use the English language effectively.rhetoric covers all the elements of oral and written things;including structure; diction. Rhythm; tone; style; and anything related to the effective use of language.4、The Highest Principles of Rhetoricthe highest principle of rhetoric is to adapt to specific situation; that is; “adaptability” or “appropriateness”. Sentencesyntactic device1、What is sentenceA sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought. Generally; an effective sentence must possess five essential qualities: correctness; clearness; unity; coherence and emphasis.正确、清楚、统一、连贯、强调2、句子的组成A sentence must contain a subject and a verb although one may be implied.①words②correct grammar③meaning3、句子的分类Sentences may be classified according to Grammar or Rhetoric as to meaning and as to form:Grammatical Classification of SentencesI. As to meaning: II. As to Form:1. Declarative Sentence 1. Simple Sentence2. Interrogative Sentence 2. Compound Sentence并列3. Imperative Sentence 3. Complex Sentence 复合4. Exclamatory Sentence 4. Compound –Complex SentenceRhetorical Classification of SentencesIII. As to Arrangement1. Periodic Sentence 圆周句left-branching sentence2. Loose Sentence松散句right-branching sentence3. Balanced Sentence4、The short and long sentence①Short sentences; on the whole; are characterized by their brevity; quick tempo and force. The short sentence is relatively simple in form; clear in grammatical relation; and terse and forceful in style.②Long sentence is relatively complex in form; fully expressive in capacity; and often used in formal style to show one’s complicated mentality or various kinds of relationship of different things.5、the simple;compound and complex sentence①A Simple sentence has only one clause to make a statement; and so it is good for directness and clearness.②The Compound Sentence consists of two or more independent clauses which are of equal status; that is; the clauses are paratactic parallel; coordinate in relationship.③The complex sentence makes clear the logical relationship between events or ideas through subordination. Subordinate clauses are named according to their functions.Left-branching sentenceperiodic sentence：6、the branching sentencesRight-branching sentenceloose sentence：Left-branching sentenceperiodic sentence：the periodic sentence has its main idea at the end of the sentence.supportive or qualifying information are placed before the main clause or assertion.Right-branching sentenceloose sentence：in a loose sentence; the main idea is put at the beginning of the sentence;and supportive or qualifying information comes from it.7、Balanced sentence：When a sentence contains tow parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning;it is balanced sentence.The main ideas are often presented in parallel phrases orclauses.⑴Parallelism排比：the main function of parallelism is to add clarity and coherence to what one wishes to communicate..⑵Antithesis对比：antithesis is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words or ideas in balanced structural forms to achieve force and emphasis..⑶Chiasmus回文 and antimetabole交叉：chiasmus is a device that consists of two balanced statements; the second of which reverses the order of the words in the first;with or without a repetition of words..For example：①we eat for live;not live for eat..here the key words in the first statement are repeated;and reversed in order in the second..This is called antimetabole..②he was an angle on the surface;but at heart a knave..here there is no repetition of words;but the position of the nouns and adverbials are reversed. This is called chiasmus.⑷climax渐进：it is extremely effective in stirring up feelings and emotions;or in driving home a point..⑸anti-climax or bathos突降或渐降：is a device that involves stating one‘s thoughts in a descending order of significance or intensity;from strong to weak;from weight to light or frivolous..It is often used to ridicule or satirize..9、syntactic schemes of inversion句子的倒装：分为grammatical inversion语法倒装和rhetorical inversion修辞倒装；一个倒装句能倒回到正常的顺序是修辞倒装;不能倒回的是语法倒装..The inversion is not a factor of correctness; but effectiveness of that sentence.Function of emphasis; vividness; balance; close connection and compactness and rhyming verse..10、the function of sentence：The four basic sentence functions in the world's languages include the declarative; interrogative; exclamative; and the imperative.Lexical deviceword 词1、the meaning of word：两种Associative meaning and conceptual meaning..或者七种conceptual meaning;connotative meaning;social meaning;effective meaning;reflective meaning;collocating meaning;thematic meaning..2、词的分类①three layers of words：The learned; the common and the colloquial.②Four types of vocabulary：Reading vocabulary;listening vocabulary;writing vocabulary;speaking vocabulary..③short words and long words; common words or learned words; formal; informal or colloquial words; general or specific words; concrete or abstract words; referential or emotive words意义词或情感词. 3、the principle of choice of words：words for clearnesswords for accuracywords for effectiveness4、lexical repetition⑴syntactic anaphorarepetition of beginning words首语重复5、rhetorical question设问Phonetic device语音学1、修辞格Alliteration头韵Assonance类韵Homeoteleuton同韵脚Onomatopoeia拟声2、rhythm 的组成：the rhythm of English prose involves prosodic features such as stress;pitchtone;volumeloudness;pause and tempo;apart from the usual intonation patterns..Figures of speech修辞格1、what is figures of speech修辞学的定义Figure of speech is an “Ancient term for any form of expression in which the normal use of language is manipulated; stressed; or altered for rhetorical effect” P.H. Matthews.2、functions of figure of speech四大功能Figures of speech are devices to make our language figurative; they lend force to an idea; heighten effect of expression; or create suggestive imagery..3、Figures of speech大体分为三类：音韵修辞格phonological rhetorical devices词义修辞格semantic rhetorical devices句法修辞格syntactical rhetorical devices音韵修辞格phonological rhetorical devices 是利用词语的语音特点创造出来的修辞手法..它主要包括onomatopoeia; alliteration; homeoteleuton谐缀格; assonance and consonance.词义修辞格semantic rhetorical devices 词义修辞格主要借助语义的联想和语言的变化等特点创造出来的修辞手法..它们主要包括 simile; metaphor; allusion; metonymy; transferred epithet; personification; hyperbole; irony; euphemism; pun; oxymoron; zeugma; contrast 等..句法修辞格syntactical rhetorical devices 句子结构上的修辞格主要是指通过句子结构的均衡布局或是突出重点创造出来的修辞手法..这类辞格主要包括repetition; rhetorical question; antithesis; apostrophe 等..它们与汉语中的反复、设问、对偶、倒装基本相同 ..另外一种分类;分为相似修辞格4种simile;metaphor;analogy;personification..相反修辞格opposition和相关修辞格association..There are many kinds of figure of speech and they can be divided into many groups; such as :figures of similarity; figures of relationship; figures of opposition; figures of emphasis; figures of sound and so on.Simile明喻：A simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common..Words like as;so;like..组成要素：comparing words;subject;reference;ground..功能：simile have three main uses：descriptive;illustrative and illuminative..例子：her locks were yellow as gold..Metaphor暗喻：a metaphor makes an implied comparison between two unlike elements..功能：three main uses：descriptive;illustrative and illuminative..例子：jim was a fox..Analogy类比： a comparison of two things based on their being alikein some way..Analogy is chiefly used for the purpose of persuasion or for the explanation or exposition of an idea..只有三种形式：①A is to B as C is to D②A is to B what C is to D③just as A and B so C and DPersonification拟人：is a figure of speech that gives human form or feelings to animal;or life and personal attributesMetonymy借代Synecdoche提喻Antonomasia换称Syllepsis一语双叙Zeugma轭式搭配Paradox反论Oxymoron矛盾修饰法Hyperbole夸张Understatement低调陈述Euphemism委婉Irony反讽：irony is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant;the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense..Innuendo暗讽：a mild form of irony;hinting in a rather roundabout way at something disparaging or uncomplimentary to the person orsubject mentioned..Sarcasm反语：sarcasm is an intensity form of irony;it attacks in a taunting and bitter manner; and its aim is to disparage;ridicule and wound the feeling of the subject attacked..Transferred epithet转移修饰法Punning双关Allusion典故：An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to; or representation of; a place; event; literary work; myth; or work of art; either directly or by implication.功能： It is often employed to reinforce the emotion or the ideas of one’s own work with the emotion or ideas of another work.例子：Goldilocks and the Three Bears:金凤花和三只小熊 Goldilocks now stands for anything that is “just right” for any situation. Until recently; financial markets appeared to be betting that the Goldilocks economy—neither too hot; nor too cold—was safe from the bears. The rattled markets are a reminder that sooner or later growth will slow or inflation will rise. 一直以来;金融机构似乎都笃信于经济既没过热或过冷;远离熊市;直到市场最近的恐慌才再一次提醒了人们;经济的增长迟早会减速;通胀迟早会出现.。

西方语言学流派第五章

• Representatives:
Zellig Harris Charles Hockett Kenneth Pike 哈里斯霍凯特派克
Zellig Harris Z.S.哈里斯
•
Methods in Structural Linguistics结构语言学的方法
该书的出版被认为是新时期开始的标志。表明美国结构主义方法达到了精密的程度。 • 哈里斯被认为是美国新语言学的代言人.他把语言精密分析的手段和高度形式化提到了一个空前的高度。哈里斯有别于同时代学者的又一特点是非常重视句法分析。真正把句法作为语言结构分析的基本单位,则始于哈里斯。 • Centre on the methods of analyzing linguistic structure, including distributional structure and discourse analysis. His famous “discovery procedure” approach to linguistics, is characterized by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalization
• ” morphemic segments ”(语素音位), are the units which combine both sound and grammar, and phonemic sequences equivalent to minimal grammatical units , which should be independent and has similar distributional relations with other independent phonemic sequences

chapter2 The Parts of a Sentences

Let’s Practice!
Three monkeys played in the tree.
WHO? Three monkeys SUBJECT
WHAT DID THEY DO? PREDICATE played in the tree.
Can you find the subject in each sentence below? 1. My little brother broke his finger. 2. His Uncle Bob asked for directions. 3. Those soldiers carried guns. 4. Our babysitter arrived late.
For example: Jane likes swimming very much. The sentence is about ―Jane‖, and ―likes swimming very much‖ tells us something about Jane. The furniture is expensive.
1. Subject and predicate
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. Subject —— what (or whom) the sentence is about Predicate —— tells something about the subject. (p34)
Unit 2
The Parts of a Sentence
Grammatical hierarchy:
sentence clause phrase word morpheme

english grammar(introduction)

English GrammarIntroduction: Grammatical HierarchyGrammar is the structural system of a language. It includes the organizing rules of a language, which can be used to describe and analyze what most of the native speakers say. Grammar also refers to the scientific study of the change of words and the structure of sentences. It includes morphology and syntax. The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than one phrase; the phrase, one or more than one word; and the word, one or more than one morpheme. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit while the morpheme is the minimum or lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituent---the morphemes.0.1MorphemeThe morpheme is the minimum of smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morpheme fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.1.free morpheme: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word.2.bound morpheme:bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but meanings are not complete in themselves unless they are attached to some other forms. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself.0.2W ordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways---word formation and grammatical function.1.classification in terms of word formationIn terms of word formation, words can be divided into simple words, derivatives and compounds. A simple word is also called a morpheme word. It is equal to a free morpheme.A derivative is composed of a root and a derivational affix. The root is the basis of a derivative.A compound word is composed of two or more than two free morphemes including compound noun (sidewalk, snowman, classroom), compound adjective (dogtired, lightgreen, bloodthirsty), compound verb (sightsee, nickname, spotlight), compoundadverb (therefore, whatever, moreover), compound pronoun (something, whatever, another), compound conjunction (whenever, wherever, whereas), and compound preposition (inside, upon, alongside) etc.2.classification in terms of grammatical functionIn terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two groups: notional words and form words.0.3PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1.the noun phraseThe noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner +) (pre-modifier +) noun (+ modifier), e.g.,all my college classmates; her new book on grammar2.the verb phraseThe verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”, such as: He arrived last night. / They fully appreciate our problems.A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+ modifier), such as:It is getting dark. / She might have been studying in the classroom.3.the adjective phraseThe adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:(modifier +) adjective (+ post-modifier / complementation), e.g.,good / pretty easy / carefully enough / too hot to be eaten4.the adverb phraseThe adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:(modifier +) adverb (+ post-modifier), e.g.,clearly / so fast / very good indeed5.the prepositional phraseThe prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is:(modifier +) preposition + complementation, e.g.,on your desk / directly above my head0.4ClausesThe clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1.independent and dependent clausesIn terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.He learns French well. (independent clause)We know he learns French well. (dependent clause)2.simple and complex clausesWhen a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.You are right. (simple clause) / I believe that you are right. (complex clause)3.main and subordinate clausesIn a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.I believe that |what you have said| is true.|subordinate clause || main clause || subordinate clause || main clause |4.finite and non-finite clausesA clause can be finite and non-finite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb clause as its predicator.He went there last night. (finite clause)He went there to get the license. (non-finite clause)5.verbless clausesWhen a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verblessclause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.Hungry and cold, they got home.Weather permitting, we shall go boating.0.5SentencesThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined asa grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.1.full and minor sentencesA full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.A: When did he arrive? (full sentence)B: Last night. (minor sentence)No smoking! (minor sentence)Fire! (minor sentence)2.simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentencesA simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s). This makes a complex sentence. Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes. (simple sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes but he likes playing outside. (compound sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes so long as he keeps quiet. (complex sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes so long as he keeps quiet but he likes playing outside. (compound-complex sentence)。

英语语法Grammatical-Hierarchy

Lecture 1
Grammatical Hierarchy
Definition of GRAMMAR
• GRAMMAR:
• the structural system of a language.
• the branch of linguistics that deals
with syntax and morphology (and
dogs houses
/z/
/iz/
irirrational irregular irrelevant
0.2 Words
is composed of one or more morpheme.
Two categories: 1) Free Morphemes 2) Bound Morphemes. *3) Allomorphs
1) Free Morphemes
1. Definition: has a complete meaning can stand by itself as a Simple Word can sometimes act as a complete
sometimes also deals with
semantics)
Linguistics
Syntax
Grammar
Morphology
Semantics
Grammatical Hierarchy: Five Ranks
• The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks:
Examples:
In Orthography:
in-
im-

01_grammatical hierachy

1.3 Phrases 词组

The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Head/ headword determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized. 中心词决定词组的词类和内部结合方式 Noun phrase Verb phrase Adjective phrase Adverb phrase Preposition phrase
1.2 Words 词

A word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Classification in terms of word-formation 根据词法分类 Simple word 简单词 / morpheme word 单词素词 e.g. in, near, take, make, get, down, far Derivative 派生词 e.g. unfold, counterattack, supermarket, international, enable e.g. worker, diversity, modernize, foolish, idealism, childhood Compound 复合词 e.g. handbook, mass-produce, world-famous, nevertheless, moreover, whoever, outside Classification … grammatical functions 根据语法功能分类
Clause classification