Berger测试仪培训资料.
勃氏比表面积测定仪安全操作及保养规程
勃氏比表面积测定仪安全操作及保养规程引言勃氏比表面积测定仪是用来测试固体材料比表面积的仪器，广泛用于化学、材料等领域的研究工作，正确的操作和保养方法可以保证仪器的稳定性和长久的使用寿命。
本文将介绍勃氏比表面积测定仪的安全操作和保养规程，帮助用户正确使用和维护该仪器，确保实验工作的安全和精确性。
安全操作规程1. 仪器安装在使用勃氏比表面积测定仪前，需进行仪器安装，并按照使用说明书操作。
涉及到电气操作时，务必要使用带接地线的插头、专业电源线和正确的电源插座。
2. 电源和仪器连接连接电源时，要先接地，注意电源的电压范围，避免因供电电压与规定不符而影响仪器使用。
同时，仪器应该按照说明书连接正常并完整的电线和仪器接口。
3. 安全使用在使用时，必须严格按照操作规程进行，并保持注意力集中，不得离开机器。
仪器运转过程中，应注意观察各个部件是否正常运行，如有异常应及时停机维修，避免出现危险。
在检查或维修勃氏比表面积测定仪时，必须先切断电源，并且禁止未经授权的人员擅自进行操作。
仪器有限的部件如电源线、电线等，发现问题需及时更换。
5. 废弃勃氏比表面积测定仪当仪器不能正常使用或需要报废时，必须先切断电源，并根据废弃仪器的特性进行分类、包装、标识和专门处理。
保养规程1. 周期性检查在使用勃氏比表面积测定仪后，应对仪器进行周期性的检查，包括特性参数的检查，如精度和重复性，各部件的运转状态等等。
在检查时，应注意降低对环境和仪器的干扰。
2. 清洁在日常使用中，应定期清洗仪器的表面和各部件。
使用柔软的布擦拭，勿使用化学品进行清洗，以免损坏仪器表面。
3. 分方案保管在存放勃氏比表面积测定仪时，应按照使用说明书和要求将仪器进行分方案保管，包括在通风干燥的环境下存放，防止阳光直射，防止撞击和震动，以免影响仪器的使用寿命。
在使用期间，遇到仪器异常或需要检查清洁时，应根据说明书和维修路线进行检查和处理。
在填写仪器维修记录时，应详细说明维修的问题、时间和人员信息等等。
berger测试机简易培训
接触电阻
优化接触电阻 为了弥补接触电阻的损失，测量加载必须加载小电压到电池上。接 触电阻指定为加载曲线的优化。 优化的条件： 1.接触电阻默认150mΩ, 重装软件需要优化； 2.当更换探针个数、探针类型、排线等需要进行优化； 3.更换或调试测试盒（PSL）后，需要重新优化； 4.曲线不完整的时候观察0点电压的时间长度，0.6ms内则 不需要调整，若起0点电压始于纵坐标则需要调整。
Setting 界面
PSL参数 位置：Settings→ PSL Parameters...
暗电流测量参数
Interval: 两次数据点间的时间间隔。测量间隔 至少为30μs并可以 5μs的步长递增 Trigger（触发）:开始及开始延迟条件。 Start delay：介于测量触发到达和实际测量开始之 间的延迟。可以 50μs的步长递增 Load curve负载曲线： Number：负载曲线数据点个数； Minimum：负载曲线的最小阻抗； Maximum：负载曲线的最大阻抗； Number SC：短路点个数； Number OC: 开路点个数； Load curve：暗电流测量的默认负载曲线。
FF的计算过程：
FF=Pmpp/（Uoc × Isc）
P125
P150 M156
P156
EFF的计算过程：
Eff=Pmpp /（面积× 1000W/m2）
Setting 界面
光强调整选项 位置：Settings→flasher 测试光强范围：950w~1050w 通过修改Generator Power的百分比来确定 1、若光强低则增大比例，若光强高则减小比例， 0.5%的步进约1%光强步进 2、调整完后，点击Trigger flash； 3、关闭此对话框，并点击注界面的 进行测试， 观察光强 4、逐渐调整。
Berger测试的介绍
VOC
Rs & Rsh
RSH ISC The slopes of these lines are characteristic resistances. RS
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VOC
等效电路图
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Cell RS
ISC
RSH
RLOAD
Cell
IV曲线分为五个部分共110个点组成.
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三.测试设备的校准
1.只能使用一级标准组件校准,校准时测试数据与标称数据的要求: Isc <±1% Pmpp <±1%
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二级标准组件的使用
1.如果在日常的检验过程中,测试数据与标称数据在控制的范围之内: Isc <±1% Pmpp <校准. 2.如果测试数据在范围之外,有必要先检验以下几个参数:
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Isc异常: Monitor cell 上是否有灰尘. 检查窗帘是否有异样,是否更换过. 二级标准组件是否衰减过多. Voc异常: 温度探测仪器是否损坏或者不准确. 光强是否超出范围了(reference voltage是否为85%-95%) FF异常: 连接器或者连接线是否损坏. 光前的均匀性是否有问题. 排除以上原因,如果测试值还是在范围之外,通知相关人员是否有必要再次使 用一级标准组件校准. 以下几种情况下建议校准: 1.更换monitor cell 2.更换灯管
3.更换其他硬件(PSL PSS)
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建立不同的monitor cell 类型
不同组件类型在更换的时候避免再次使用一级标准组件校准,可以通 过新建不同的monitor cell类型以对应不同的组件类型. 步骤:
1.进入管理员模式 SettingsOperating Mode
2.Mearusement Edit Monitor cells copy 并输入相应的参数. 3.按 F5 进入测试界面,Monitor 里面选择刚相应的monitor cell 类型.
赫爽测试仪培训资料
一、启动软硬件
1 2 3 4 5 、现场电源：电压范围，220V左右，并确认接地线。 、确认模拟器、测试柜、工控机柜包装，外壳，内部电路板外观以及插线头无问题。 、硬件连接，固定好。 、启动工控机，打开软件。 、启动模拟器和电子负载，并确认在联机状态（关闭时，先关闭模拟器和电子负载，再 关闭工控机。注意：关闭模拟器时，请先放电至几十伏内。）
三、模拟器校正
校正过程参见模拟器校正步骤。 注意事项：测试标改 温度系数，再进行第二步和第三步，当然，也可直接修改电流或电压校正系数，不过 此时短路电流或开路电压会有偏差。
四、测试及文件保存
1.测试：生产中，快捷的测试有按键盘空格键、按遥控器、触发开关等 2.文件保存：“自动保存” 、扫描枪、点击“保存当前文件”和点击“保存所有文件” 四种保存途径。
两种操作权限（见图九）
模拟器校正分三步： 第一步充电电压系数：
计算机联机 的状态下， 按下“开始” 按键，可以 再PLG前面 板上看到充 电电压数值， 待其充电完 成稳定后， 将其值填入 下图编辑框， 然后接受以 上充电电压 系数。
第二步光强：
输入充电电压，按下开始充电； 红灯表示充电完成后，按下“光 强测试”。
模拟器校正说明： 1.第一步充电电压系数只需在设备第一次使用的 情况下进行，校正好后无需改动。 2.第二步光强在 PLG充电电压发生改变的情况下， 页就是模拟器的光强发生改变的情况下，需要进 行光强的测试，软件自动保存测试结果。 3.第三步电流电压系数松开架子测试计算工控机 与电子负载的电压比例，测试好后此结果也不需 要经常改变，保存其固定值；需要经常校正的是 电流调整系数和电压调整系数，对于不同的电池 组件，可能需要不同的标准组件来进行校正，所 以应当根据需要进行电压电流校正，这一步可能 会经常用到
Berger 培训
2
一、软件界面 打开桌面SCLoad_STD快捷方式，如下图所示：
电流—电压 曲线显示框
电性能数据
批号、日期、 分档等信息 输入
各分档Bin数 量显示
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二、基本参数设定 点击菜单栏中Measurement→edit cell types…，出现如下所示对 话框：
图2.1
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（2）校准开压异常： 校准步骤正常，但开压明显偏低，导致效率相差较大。点击Setting → Configuration进入以下界面：
图5.3
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测试温度的获得一般有两种：Intrare和PT100。 Temperature acquisition for automatic operation：自动操作时获得温度。 Temperature acquisition for manual operation：手动操作时获得温度。 自动操作模式用于生产，手动操作用于校准。 一般情况是：自动模式选择Infrare，手动模式选择PT100。当开压 较低时，可以通过将手动模式PT100改选Infrared的方式来调节。
点击Edit按钮，出现如图2.2界面
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图2.2
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Name：电池片类型； Cell area：电池片面积； Temperature correction：温度系数； Cell current：单位面积电流； Operating point voltage：电压选定点，一般设定0.5V。 Dark current operating point：设定反向电压，算出暗电流大小。一般 为-6V或者-12V。
图3.6
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Josef Berger
vorgelegt von Josef Berger am 11. Januar 2002
Erstgutachter: Zweitgutachter:
Prof. H. Osswald Prof. M. Wolff (Universit¨ at T¨ ubingen)
Tag des Rigorosums: 22.07.2002
2 The Orthogonal Projection from L2 W (µ, H) onto LA (µ, H) . . . . 39
The Stochastic Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 The Skorohod Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 The Malliavin Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Representation of Martingales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 The Clark Ocone Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Reference to Abstract Wiener Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 Appendix: an Internal Representation of the L´ evy Transformation of Brownian Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
贝尔德直读光谱仪培训题材
贝尔德直读光谱仪培训题材一. 光电直读光谱分析的应用近况及新发展DV4-1000型光电直读光谱仪，1964年美国贝尔德公司开始生产光谱仪持续生产了DV2、DV4、DV6，从70年代进入中国，直读其实就是直观可见数据的意思。
现在市专场上的光谱有德国的OBLF、斯派克，美国的ARL,国产的瑞利（但国产的缺点是高合金钢和极低含分析误差大）。
DV4-1000中1000是指焦距，曲率半径为1000mm的凹球面镜，光源:KH-3/5 型，重复频率100周（现在新产光源都在400周以上），频率低的缺陷：峰压不稳定，随交流供电的电压和频率的波动造成分析数据的漂移，严重影响分析的精度和准确度。
二. 光电光谱分析的原理.（光谱光室分布图）试样经过激发时，不同元素的原子，在火焰、电弧、火花等光源激发下，由于原子能级跃迁发射出特有的谱线，即“特征谱线”，能通过入射光学系统到光栅上，光栅将光分解成光谱，这些光谱线代表样品中的各个元素，各元素光谱线的强度与样品中元素的含量成比例，每一元素至少有一条光谱线通过出口狭缝，射到光电倍增管的光阴极上，当元素的浓度变化时光谱线的强度也变化，光电倍增管的输出电流也随之变化，除了元素光谱线以外，用一条或更多的光谱线作为内标线它将与元素线相比，通过测量板将从元素电容器送来的模拟分析数据转换成数字信号，然后计算机进行计算元素的含量。
三. 光电光谱的光学系统及光转换1 / 121.罗兰圆（270个出射狭缝），凹面光栅光学系统（其实与我们的光盘CD相适），主要起到光谱线的分散和折射。
使各元素的谱线分别射信对应的光电倍增管的光阴上。
2.光电倍增管的光电转换（能将光谱线射至光阴上产生的光电，放大到几百万倍，以达到测量系统所要求的电流值，此电流可通过同轴电缆送到元素板上进行换算。
）四.用好光电光谱仪的操作要点及注意事项1..光谱仪的外围条件1）.仪器的周围不应有振动，不受阳光的直接照射，散热（风扇），机房温度控制在23 ±2℃,温度（有除湿器，＜60,不然会引起一些电器元件短路烧坏），应有良好的地线越小越好，接地电阻＜4。
berger分类检测培训教材
Berger分类检测培训材料丁连生2006/7/20目录：z培训的目的：z培训内容：1.Berger 测试系统的构成：2.Berger 测试系统的原理：3.Berger 测试软件操作培训4.Berger 测试参数的意义及说明5.Berger 测试仪光强及温度修正方法6.Berger 测试仪曲线分析及常见故障说明z培训试题：（略）一．培训目的：通过此次培训，使大家了解测试系统的结构，明确测试系统的原理，掌握测试软件的使用与操作，掌握光强校正及温度校正的方法，并具备一定的测试分析能力。
二． 培训内容：1.Berger 测试系统的构成：测试系统图 1测试针架图 22.Berger 测试系统的原理：本系统通过模拟1.5AM1000W/cm2太阳光脉冲照射PV电池或组件表面产生光电流，光电流流过可编程式模拟负载，在负载两端产生电压，负载装置将采样到的电流、电压、标准片检测到的光强以及感温装置检测到的环境温度值，通过RS232接口传送给监控软件进行计算和修正，得到PV电池的各种指标和曲线、然后根据结果进行分类和结果输出。
3.Berger 测试软件操作培训：3. 1 分类文件的建立和修改。
3．11 在SCLoad 软件菜单中选择Settings -----Operating Mode….(图 3)图33. 12 在Operating Mode 中选择Manager 后按 OK(图 4).图 4 图 53. 13 在Password 中不需输任何内容，直接按 OK(图5).图 63. 14 在菜单Settings 中选择 Classification 及其 New 子菜单(图 6)。
3. 15 按 OK 创建新的分类文件(图7)。
图7 图 83. 16 输入新分类文件名，并保存(图 8)。
3. 17 在分类文件的Class 项目中点击 Add , 根据要求输入分类档次（Class）的名称，其中一个档次必须为垃圾档 （TRASH），并给每个档次分配一个存放盒（Bins ， 16 个分检盒中的一个）(图 9)。
安全管理培训BERGE
作业安全预防
3.用电安全
四、触电急救常识 触电急救最主要的是要动作迅速，快速、正确地使触电者脱离电源器。
1. 第一步：应根据触电者的具体情况，迅速对症救护
●义务
• 遵章守纪：员工在作业过程中，应严格遵守安全生产规章制度和操作规程，服从管理，正确佩戴和使用劳防用品 • 接受教育：员工应接受安全教育培训，掌握工作所需的安全生产知识，提高安技能，增强事故预防和应急处理能力 • 报告危害：员工发现事故隐患或者其他不安全因素，应立即向现场安全生产管理人员或者本单位负责人报告
安全管理培训BERGE
作业安全预防
1. 安全基本常识 2. 机械安全 3. 用电安全 4. 交通安全 5. 消防安全 6. 安全事故分析 7. 安全事故等级 8. 安全事故处理流程
作业安全预防
我国的安全管理机制
● 我国现行的安全生产方针： 以人为本 安全第一 预防为主 综合治理
● 管理体制
企业负责 行业管理 国家监察 群众监督
作业安全预防
1.安全基本常识
一、工伤保险的概念
工伤保险亦称职业伤害保险，是对在劳动过程中遭受人身伤害（包括事故伤残和职业病以及因这两种情况造成死亡）的职工、遗 属提供经济补偿的一种社会保险制度。工伤保险的实施范围为“我国境内的企业及职工”。
二、工伤认定
● 职工有下列情形之一的，应当认定为工伤
1. 在工作时间和工作场所内，因工作原因受到事故伤害的 2. 工作时间前后在工作场所内，从事与工作有关的预备性或者收尾性工作受到事故伤害的 3. 在工作时间和工作场所内，因履行工作职责受到暴力等意外伤害的 4. 患职业病的 5. 因工外出期间，由于工作原因受到伤害或者发生事故下落不明的 6. 在上下班途中，受到机动车事故伤害的 7. 法律、行政法规规定应当认定为工伤的其它情形
高斯贝尔静电防护培训教材
仪器的外壳接地方式（背后）
结束语
希望各级领导干部认真执行 将之落到实处！
静电！
静电环—使用要求
二、静电环的正确配带
1、使用者用腕带扣紧于手臂，松紧度应合适。过紧会导致身体 不舒服，手腕血液循环不佳；过松则防护性能不佳，甚至不 起作用。冬季配带时应注意腕带扣环不能配带于衣服上，此 时几乎如同没带。 2、 腕带接地夹头应充份接地。接地应夹紧专用接地铜线，不能 夹于流水线的外壳、仪器等其它任何物体上。 3、当作业员须离开岗位时，应将静电环轻轻取出，并放置于指 定的位置，恢复工作岗位时应继续按上述要求安置好。 4、当静电环各接头处松动时应及时修正，若无法处理好时应及 时反映于相关人员。
静电环的检查分为二部份：
一、性能部份检查
当静电环正确配带后用静电腕带测试仪测试，具体步骤为被测者 用手正常接触测试仪金属部份。若测试仪绿灯（GOOD）亮起并 伴有提示音表示该静电环可以正常使用；当LOW红灯亮起并没 有提示音时表示接触电阻过低，防静电有效但不安全须重新调整； 当HIGH红灯亮起表示人体与接头之间接触电阻过大，防静电效 果不佳或没有，应立即重测或调整检查。 特殊情况：当GOOD与HIGH或LOW灯一起亮时表示接触电阻界 于两者之间，应当为不良视之，在正常的检测过程中应只能 GOOD灯亮，并有提示音，其它指示灯不亮方可使用。 极少数人员正确配带静电环后经检测接地始终不合格（非静电环 故障），此为特殊情况，领班可酌情安排其他合适岗位。
实际测试方法
检测接地工具---万用表
数字式万用表是最为常用的电子工具之一，可测试电压电流电阻电容晶体管等。
一、开机 在测量时，先打开电源，锁定开关不能按下，正常时，LCD上应有显示 上应有显示， 在测量时，先打开电源，锁定开关不能按下，正常时，LCD上应有显示，检查有没 有电池符号闪烁显示，如有，则为电池电量已不够，应更换电池。 有电池符号闪烁显示，如有，则为电池电量已不够，应更换电池。 二、二极管档位的测量 a. 先将挡位打到二极管档如右： 测量二极管时，将两支表笔分接二极管两脚，再 将两支表笔调转测量一次，当有一次测量时， 表头上有500－800阻值时，则红表笔 表头上有500－800阻值时，则红表笔 接的是 正极，黑表笔接的是负极。如测量时，两次测 量的结果都是很小的阻值或有报鸣响声，则该 二极管有短路现象（坏），如两次测量的结果 都是无阻值显示，则该二极管有开路现象（坏）。 三、该档位经常用作短路接地的检测,若被测两端电阻 该档位经常用作短路接地的检测, 值小于50欧左右时 蜂鸣器就会发生声响， 值小于50欧左右时,蜂鸣器就会发生声响，此时显示 欧左右时, 屏显示值与0 屏显示值与0非常接近时说明红黑两笔接触的两端 为短路状态。 为短路状态。
贺尔碧格培训资料 (1)
中间填料
曲轴箱
三. 刮油环盒及刮油环
45
作用：防止曲轴箱润滑油沿活塞杆向外（中体侧）泄漏 型式：传统型式刮油环，贺尔碧格专利OT环
双作用气缸
中体
十字头
曲轴箱
刮油环的作用
46
法兰
刮油环杯槽 润滑油
中体侧
联接螺杆 排放气及保 护气压力 刮油环组 法兰螺栓及螺母 脉动密封
曲轴箱侧
刮油填料盒结构
47
刮油刀口
活塞环型式
29
特点： 单环，阶梯切口 切口间隙小 密封效率高
阶梯切口
应用： 用于轻质气体
活塞环型式
30
特点： 矩形截面 斜切口 两瓣结构
斜切口
应用： 用于缸径较小 活塞杆材质较硬 中、高压工况
31
特点： 双作用 一个T型环与两个矩形环 销钉连接 直切口，切口错开
T 型环
应用： 双作用密封
矩形环
双作用填料环型式
15
气体通过轴向间隙 进入填料杯槽内， 气体压力使两个切 向环作用于活塞杆 表面及杯槽端面形 成密封。 气缸侧 填料环组在环槽 的另一侧面形成 密封。 曲轴侧
两个切向环组合在一 起，切口间隙相互覆 盖。
切向环
切向环
气体被封闭在填料 盒中。
双作用填料环工作原理
16
压力
径向环-带倒角
刮油环型式
50
润滑油泄漏原因：
• • • • • • • • •
压缩机长期使用后活塞杆及填料盒磨损 曲轴箱润滑油的飞溅 刮油填料盒设计不合理造成回油不畅 曲轴箱里面的油气压力脉动 刮油环的材质及加工精度差 刮油环与活塞杆的贴合程度不高 不正确的轴向间隙 不正确的刮油环型式的设计 活塞杆的跳动值过大
Berger
China’s new bilateral investment treaty programme: Substance, rational andimplications for international investment law makingAxel BergerGerman Development Institute (DIE)Paper prepared for the American Society of International Law International Economic Law Interest Group (ASIL IELIG) 2008 biennial conference “The Politics of InternationalEconomic Law: The Next Four Years”, Washington, D.C., November 14-15, 2008Abstract:This article aims at empirically investigating the evolution of China’s BIT policy since the early 1980s and compares it with current developed country approaches. Analysing the development of substantive and procedural investment protection provisions, it argues that China has pro-actively initiated a remarkable change of its formerly restrictive BIT policy towards a liberal approach. Since 1998, Beijing is negotiating BITs that contain comprehensive investor-state dispute settlement provisions. China even abandoned its hostile stance on national treatment of foreign investors. Notwithstanding existing reservations towards unrestricted national treatment, the current Chinese model agreement is comparable to the admission model BIT adopted by European countries. The prospects of the proposed Sino-US BIT, however, are looking rather bleak. This is mainly due to fundamental differences with respect to the parties view on the protection of FDI in the pre-establishment phase and the current political environment in the US that accentuates national security concerns with regard to foreign investors from developed and emerging countries. Contact:Axel BergerGerman Development Institute (DIE)Tulpenfeld 653113 Bonn, GermanyT: +49(0)228 94927-235F: +49(0)228 94927-130Axel.Berger@die-gdi.de1 IntroductionChina’s rise as an economic player is causing significant power shifts in the world economy.1 Its strength as a low cost manufacturer helps to supply global markets with cheap products and simultaneously increases the global demand for commodities. This growing economic presence – in accordance with the classical argument by Paul Kennedy on “The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers“2 – consequentially augments China’s political influence in international relations.A phenomenon demonstrating China’s economic rise is its growing outward foreign direct investments (FDI). They have recently been discussed widely in the literature as part of a larger trend of developing countries emergence as sources of investments.3 Less visible in the literature is a second trend, namely Beijing’s growing acceptance of international investment agreements as legal instruments for the protection of FDI.4 Most notably, China has been negotiating bilateral investment treaties (BIT) since the end of the 1990s that include far reaching substantive and procedural investment protection. This new policy was a turning away from China’s traditional stance towards international investment law that accentuated the host country’s sovereign right of regulating foreign investments – a policy typical for FDI-importing countries.Against this background this paper aims at empirically investigating the evolution of China’s BIT policy since the early 1980s and compares it with current developed country approaches. After the introduction, chapter 2 will give an overview of the development and substance of today’s global BIT system. Chapter 3 describes the rise of China as a home country for outward FDI and its strategic determinants. Chapter 4 will outline China’s traditional restrictive BIT approach. Chapter 5 argues that China is negotiating liberal BITs with developing as well as developed countries since 1998 that are similar to the European model treaty. Chapter 6 will summarise the main findings and give a preliminary assessment of the background and prospects of success of the ongoing BIT negotiations between China and the US.2 Protection of foreign investment through bilateral investment treatiesThe global governance system for FDI is made up of a dense and complex network of international investment agreements that are usually concluded on a bilateral basis. Bilateral investment treaties (BIT) hence form the most important legal institution for the governance1 See e.g. Kaplinsky and Messner (2008).2 Kennedy (1987).3 See e.g. Sauvant (2005); UNCTAD (2006); Aykut and Goldstein (2006); Broadman (2007); Pamlin and Baijin (2007); UNCTAD and UNDP (2007).4 See e.g. Kong (2003); Cai (2006; 2007); Chen (2006; 2007); Braun and Schonard (2007); Rooney (2007); Berger (2008a); Heymann (2008).of FDI.5 They are defined as agreements that “protect investments by investors of one state in the territory of another state by articulating substantive rules governing the host state’s treatment of the investment and by establishing dispute resolution mechanisms applicable to alleged violations of those rules.”6 The aim of BIT contracting parties is to promote economic cooperation, believing that enhanced legal protection will ultimately result in increasing FDI flows fostering economic development processes in host as well as home countries. BITs, however, do not allow for direct regulatory measures by host states potentially increasing the developmental impact of FDI. Furthermore, the results of quantitative econometric studies on the effectiveness of BIT in increasing FDI flows are mixed and lead to an inconclusive picture.7The concept of legalisation as developed by Abbott et al. will be used to describe the characteristics of the global BIT system.8 Legalisation is a special form of institutionalisation – understood as the expansion of rules, norms and decision-making procedures that influences expectations, interests and behaviour of actors – and “represents the decision […] to impose international legal constraints on governments.”9 The degree of legalisation varies substantially from one issue area to another and within issue areas over time. Along three main criteria – obligation, precision and delegation – the degree of legalisation can be described as a continuum ranging from soft to hard law. In this respect,“[h]ighly legalized institutions are those in which rules are obligatory on parties through links to the established rules and principles of international law, in which rules are precise (or can be made precisethrough the exercise of delegated authority), and in which authority to interpret and apply the rules hasbeen delegated to third parties acting under the constraints of rules.”10The current institutional structure in the area of international investment protection is highly legalised according to the above mentioned characteristics. With respect to the first criteria, modern BITs entail rules that impose binding obligations on the parties which can be enforced through investor-state dispute settlement. Although BIT texts are often drafted in an open and imprecise manner – usually encompassing no more than ten pages – they can be described as hard law as they delegate the authority of interpretation and implementation to transnational 5 See e.g. Dolzer and Stevens 1995; UNCTAD 1998, 2007b. Beyond BITs, investment rules are increasingly being incorporated in double taxation treaties and economic integration agreements like free trade agreements. See UNCTAD (2000; 2006b). On the multilateral level, investment-related rules are mainly incorporated into single WTO agreements such as the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), the Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs) and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Among member countries of the OECD the whole spectrum of international investment relations is governed in the Code of Liberalization of Capital Movements (CCM) and the Declaration on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises (DIIME). See Berger (2008a): 3-5 for an overview.6 Vandevelde (2000): 469–470.7 See e.g. Hallward-Driemeier (2003) and Tobin and Rose-Ackermann (2005) that find no or only little evidence for the effectiveness of BITs. Banga (2003), Neumayer and Spess (2005) and Busse et al. (2008), instead, arrive at a positive relationship between BIT and FDI.8 Abbott et al. (2000).9 Goldstein et al. (2000): 386.10 Abbott et al. (2000): 418.arbitration bodies.11 BITs notably grant foreign investors direct legal personality under international law.12 Without being obliged to submit a claim to domestic courts, foreign investors may sue host countries directly before a transnational tribunal and thus limit national legal sovereignty: “once in force, the role played by non-state actors in the regime’s enforcement mechanisms can be of greater significance than the role played by states.”13 Modern BITs usually provide foreign investors with high levels of substantive and procedural protection. They follow a liberal approach to international investment protection.14 Liberal, i.e. highly legalised, BITs include broad definitions of investment, comprehensive absolute and relative standards of treatment, provisions on the compensation for expropriation and the free transfer of funds as well as unrestricted investor-state dispute settlement mechanisms. While providing high levels of legal protection for foreign investors, liberal BITs limit host countries’ regulatory discretion to restrict national laws and regulations on the entry and operation of multinational enterprises (MNE). The utilisation of liberal investment agreements tends to lead to a more open and less regulated global investment regime. The restrictive approach, in contrast, includes several regulations limiting the substantive and procedural protection of foreign investments and thereby preserves the sovereign right of host states to maintain national laws and regulations on the entry and operation of foreign investors in accordance with national development strategies.Throughout the colonial period foreign investments in developing countries were protected mainly by customary international law. The home state – not the foreign investing company – was the single party allowed to seek redress of an alleged injury by the host state and only breaches of minimum standards of the treatment of foreign investors gave rise to a claim under such law of state responsibility. Hence, customary international investment law provided very little protection.15 The earliest rules to protect FDI flows were incorporated in treaties on friendship, commerce and navigation (FCN) first concluded by the US in large numbers during the late 18th century. These early FCN treaties, however, only partially contained rules on investment. Post-Second World War FCN treaties used to be more investment specific, containing a number of substantive and procedural rules for investment protection that were later adopted in BITs.16The first BIT was signed between Germany and Pakistan in 1959, in 2006 their total number has been accounted to more than 2,500 treaties worldwide.17 Throughout the 1970s and 1980s 11 Keohane et al. (2000): 485 state that in …transnational dispute resolution, […] access to courts and tribunals and the subsequent enforcement of their decisions are legally insulated from the will of individual national governments. These tribunals are therefore more open to individuals and groups in civil society.”12 See Peterson (2005): 8.13 Schneidermann (2004): 68.14 Both the liberal and the restrictive BIT approaches are understood as ideal types. In the Weberian sense ideal types are “formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those one-sidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct”, see Weber (1997): 88.15 See Weil (2001).16 See Vandevelde (1992); Sornarajah (1994).17 See UNCTAD (2007a).BITs slowly spread, with roughly 20 treaties being signed annually mainly between European and developing countries. With the decision of the US to adopt BITs as a foreign investment protection device their number started to increase sharply. When the block of developing countries decided to give up their struggle for a “New International Economic Order”, including the right of host states to expropriate foreign companies’ investments in the natural resource sector, the number of BITs rose even further since developing countries started to compete in capturing a share of global FDI flows, facing the dilemma of either signing BITs that privileged the contracting party exporting FDI or possibly losing FDI to other countries increasing their competitive advantage.18Although BITs are generally negotiated on a reciprocal basis, providing the same level of legal protection for both signatories, they are in fact agreements between a FDI-exporting and a FDI-importing country. The actual level of investment protection found in BIT provisions, therefore, is a function of the expectations of both parties and their respective bargaining power. Due to the fact that developing countries depend on FDI inflows as a source of external financing they usually agree to the model agreements put forward by FDI-exporting countries. The level of legalisation in international investment law has therefore grown strongly since the early 1990s. Only large developing countries like China, India and Brazil were able to refrain from signing liberal BITs.19BIT contents today show a considerable uniformity with regard to general provisions on substantive and procedural protection of foreign investments. The main difference found in liberal BITs is the degree to which they protect investments already in the pre-establishment phase – i.e. before the FDI project has been admitted through the host country’s authorities in accordance with national laws and regulations:“This approach consists in providing foreign investors with national treatment and MFN treatment not only once the investment has been established, but also with respect to the establishment. This means that investors of one party will receive treatment not less favourable with regard to investing in the territory of the other party than domestic investors and investors of any other third country.”20The admission model BIT that has been adopted by European countries and developing countries such as China alike provides investment protection only after the admission of the FDI project. The pre-establishment model, applied by the US from the 1980s onwards, by Canada from the mid 1990s onwards, and by Japan from the beginning of this century entails provisions on the protection of FDI even before their admission. These treaties restrict the screening powers of host states in the pre-establishment phase and their sovereignty in regulating the entry of foreign investors, leading to a liberalisation of host countries’ regulatory systems.2118 See e.g. Guzman (1998) and Elkins et al. (2006).19 China’s traditional restrictive BIT approach will be described in more detail in section 4.20 UNCTAD (2007b): 22.21 Gugler and Tomsik (2007); UNCTAD (2007b): 23.3 China’s emerging outward foreign investmentsThe growth of Chinese outward FDI is the latest stage of an economic growth process that started in the late 1970s with the Chinese leadership’s decision to gradually open up the economy. During the last three decades China has been mostly perceived as the workbench of the global economy, receiving large inflows of foreign investments in export oriented industries. China is traditionally seen as the largest developing host country of global FDI. It accounted for a total stock of US$292 billion in 2006 and attracted FDI flows amounting to US$69 billion in 2006. With China still being a net FDI-importing country, it has recently become an important source country for foreign investments, too. Outward FDI flows grew particularly strongly from a low basis in the first half of the 1990s, before slowing down toward 2000 and increasing again thereafter. Especially noteworthy is the sharp increase of outward FDI flows from US$12 billion in 2005 to US$16 billion in 2006. China is currently the 7th largest foreign investor among developing countries in terms of stocks. Accumulated outward FDI, having been marginal during the first half of the 1980s, have since grown strongly and reached US$73 billion in 2006.22Apart from the strong growth of foreign investments by Chinese enterprises in absolute terms, outward FDI is still surpassed by the volume of inward FDI. However, the outward/inward FDI ratio – an indicator which refers to what Dunning has called a “country’s net international direct investment position”23 – shows that outflows from China grew more rapidly than inflows during the last years, demonstrating that China’s overall importance as an FDI-exporting economy is evolving. China’s total outward/inward FDI ratio has been growing strongly – although from a low basis – since 2002 and stood at 17 in 2005. Notably, the outward/inward FDI ratio towards developing countries is almost double the overall ratio and roughly six times higher than the ratio towards developed countries. This summary of the relative distribution of reciprocal FDI flows suggests that China’s interest in strong legal investment protection through BITs is especially pronounced towards developing countries.24 The geographical distribution of Chinese outward FDI flows has undergone a major shift since the beginning of the 1990s. While developed countries were its main destination during the 1980s, Chinese outward FDI today is predominantly conducted on a South-South basis;i.e. its main recipients are developing countries. Apart from this general observation, disaggregated Chinese outward FDI flows have to be interpreted with great caution. Statistical problems occur with regard to the treatment of round-tripping FDI and foreign investments in offshore-financial centres.25 Against this background, the following figures are indicative only. A compilation of data from various editions of the “Almanac of China’s Foreign Economic Relations and Trade”, published annually by the Chinese Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM), shows that Asia has been the main destination of Chinese FDI during the period of 2003 to 2005, attracting 38 per cent of all Chinese outward FDI. During the same period, Latin America absorbed 32 per cent and Europe 15 per cent. Africa ranked fourth, accounting22 UNCTAD (2007a): 299-306.23 Dunning (1981): 30.24 See Berger (2008a): 11-15.25 See Berger (2008a): 8-9.for 7 per cent of Chinese outward FDI even ahead of North America’s 4 per cent. Oceania attracted 3 per cent of Chinese outward FDI during the respective period.26 With regard to their sectoral distribution, Chinese outward FDI are mainly conducted in the manufacturing, resource-seeking and the IT and software sectors.27Chinese outward FDI is bound to increase in the future. Reasons for this dynamic can be found in political and business sector drivers. With respect to the latter, increasing foreign investments is a result of push factors at the domestic level and pull factors at the global level. On the one hand, in the wake of the accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 and the subsequent need to relocate mature industries to lower wage economies, especially to neighbouring Asian countries, Chinese companies are confronted with a growing competitive pressure on the domestic market.28 On the other hand Chinese companies are increasingly taking advantage of the global business environment’s opportunities. In contrast to the traditional perspective found in the business literature that attributes (Western) multinationals’ internationalisation to a previous accumulation of competitive advantages (asset exploitation), recent studies suggest that multinationals from emerging economies tend to internationalise in order to build up competitive advantages (asset augmentation).29 Recent large merger & acquisitions (M&A) emphasize that this development applies especially to Chinese multinationals. They invest abroad in order to acquire scarce advanced technologies, brand names, distribution networks and managerial know-how,30 and as Wang argues, Chinese enterprises frequently use outward FDI as a means to gain access to developed country markets often protected by trade barriers of regional blocs.31Large Chinese companies rely strongly on their government’s support when intent on investing in strategically important sectors and countries, especially in developing countries. The current Chinese “Going Global” strategy aims at encouraging Chinese companies’ foreign investments abroad. This strategy, which was first announced in 1998 and was embedded in the Tenth Five-Year Plan for National Economy and Social Development in 2001, marked the transition of Beijing’s outward FDI policy from regulations to encouragement.32 The build-up of a number of global champions capable of competing on the global market has since been an explicit industrial policy goal reconfirmed by the “Going Global” strategy. The current government gives priority to resource exploration projects, the export promotion of domestic technologies, overseas research and development as well as M&As enhancing the international competitiveness of Chinese enterprises, accelerating their foreign market presence.3326 See Berger (2008a): 11-12.27 MOFCOM data for the year 2005 shows the following sectoral distribution of Chinese OFDI: manufacturing (30 per cent), resource-seeking (29.8 per cent), IT and software (27.3 %), business services (5.4 per cent), retail (3.4 per cent), communication (2.2 per cent) and others (5.4 per cent), cited in Lunding (2006): 2.28 UNCTAD (2004): 25, 27.29 See e.g. Mathews (2002; 2006).30 See Lunding (2006): 4.31 Wang (2002): 202.32 See Cai (2006): 626.33 See UNCTAD (2006): 210.The growth of Chinese outward FDI in recent years emphasises the need to comprehend China not only as an FDI-importing country, but increasingly as an FDI-exporting economy, too. The reconfiguration of Chinese FDI flows is thought to have led to a significant change of Beijing’s stance on the protection of foreign investments from a restrictive to a liberal approach. Before chapter five will investigate China’s new liberal BIT policy, it will be necessary to describe the main features of its old restrictive approach in the following chapter.4 China’s traditional approach towards international investment lawThe overall economic reform process which started in 1978 led to significant changes in China’s stance on international investment law. During the first three decades of self-imposed isolation from the world market (all through the 1950s until the late 1970s), Beijing adopted a hostile approach towards international investment law and the protection of FDI. One major rationale for this policy can be found in China’s adherence to the Marxist doctrine of rejection of private property. Another rationale for China’s hostile stance on international investment protection lay in China’s experience of colonial rule and foreign interventions. International (investment) law had hence been viewed by Chinese politicians and scholars as a means “used by the imperialists and hegemonists […] to carry out aggression, oppression and exploitation”.34 Its validity, had therefore been rejected. China’s hostile approach towards foreign investments and its import-substitution strategy notably coincided with most developing countries’ attempts to establish a New International Economic Order. In sum, China’s policy accentuated the sovereign right to control the entry of FDI, regulate foreign investors and nationalise foreign property without being obliged to compensation. Consequently, China signed no BIT until 1982 when it concluded a first treaty with Sweden.35In June 2007, China had already concluded 120 BITs,36 making it the second largest contracting party to BITs worldwide.37 This increase in the sheer number of agreements since the early 1980s reveals Beijing’s growing acceptance of international investment law. With regard to actual treaty provisions and their effectiveness in protecting foreign investments, however, it takes two different stages important to be examined in order to gain a clear understanding of the historical evolution of China’s BIT approach. In 1998 Beijing changed its international investment policy from a restrictive mode accentuating the regulation of inward FDI to a liberal approach emphasising the encouragement of outward Chinese FDI.38 This remarkable change in China’s international investment policy making has been ascribed by a number of scholars to China’s evolution from a mere FDI-importing country to an economy that – while still receiving large amounts of foreign investments – is increasingly investing abroad. China is becoming a FDI-exporting economy.34 Kong (2003): 108.35 Kong (2003): 109.36 See the Investment Treaties Online database provided by UNCTAD, available at: /templates/DocSearch____779.aspx, accessed 16 October 2008.37 Germany has singed 136 BITs until June 2007.38 See e.g. Cai (2006): 626.The remaining part of this chapter will investigate the main first-generation BIT provisions that characterise the restrictive approach, while the next chapter will examine the characteristics of China’s second-generation of BITs, comparing them with both the European admission model and the US pre-establishment model.Chinese BITs contain all standard provisions found in global BIT practice. They usually start with a preamble stating the intention of creating “favourable conditions for investments of investors of one Contracting Party in the territory of the other Contracting Party” aiming at promoting mutual investments. The BIT is meant to “intensify the economic cooperation of both States on the basis of equality and mutual benefit.”39 The general pre-1998 (as well as the post-1998) BIT adopts the widespread admission model. Accordingly, absolute and relative standards of treatment of FDI in Chinese BITs are only in force once the investment has been admitted by the host countries’ government. Furthermore, Chinese BITs entail provisions on the definition of investment and the investor, their treatment, expropriation, the transfer of funds, compensation for losses due to war, civil strive and the settlement of disputes. In the following, the main emphasis will be laid on relative and procedural investment protection provisions. They are for one part generally acknowledged to represent the most important elements of BITs and they are furthermore central to the understanding of the evolution of China’s approach.Throughout the 1980s and 1990s China adopted an international investment policy approach characteristic of any given FDI-importing developing country. China’s restrictive policy adopted the so-called “three guiding principles” of international economic co-operation and exchange. China’s authorities upheld their sovereignty to screen and regulate FDI, insisted on the equality and mutual benefit of host and home state and referred to the international practice.40 Kong observes that it “is obvious that utilitarianism or even mercantilism has been the driving force behind the investment legislation” and that “China’s attitude towards FDI in this period was rooted in mixed feelings of attraction and aversion.”41 While negotiating BITs in great numbers, the Chinese international investment policy until the late 1990s remained marked by a reluctance to imply strong legal protection to foreign investments.Until 1998, China signed BITs containing serious reservations towards strong substantive as well as procedural protection of foreign investments. With regard to relative standards of treatment of foreign investors, China appeared reluctant to grant national treatment; i.e. not to discriminate between domestic and international investors. The aim of protecting infant industries and especially state-owned enterprises from foreign companies’ competition may serve as an explanation in this regard. A number of BITs with developed countries made an exception and included provisions on national treatment; however, they contained far-reaching qualifications limiting the effective protection of foreign investments. Article 3 (3) of the Sino-UK BIT concluded in 1986 states that:39 See e.g. China-Egypt BIT (1994).40 Kong (2003): 110.41 Kong (2003): 110.。
常用测量仪器操作教育培训
常用测量仪器操作教育培训一、引言随着科学技术的不断发展，测量仪器已经成为现代工作和生活中不可或缺的一部分。
在各个领域的工作中，测量仪器被广泛应用，用于进行各种测量和测试，以确保结果的准确性。
因此，对测量仪器的正确操作和使用具有非常重要的意义。
为了提高工作人员的操作技能和提高工作效率，进行测量仪器操作教育培训是非常必要的。
二、测量仪器的分类测量仪器根据其功能和用途的不同，可以分为多种不同的类型，如温度测量仪器、压力测量仪器、长度测量仪器等。
不同类型的测量仪器在使用时需要注意的事项也不尽相同，因此在培训教育中需要根据具体的测量仪器类型进行分类讲解。
三、常用测量仪器的操作培训1. 温度测量仪器温度测量仪器常用于实验室、工厂等环境中，用于测量物体的温度。
常见的温度测量仪器有温度计、红外线温度计等。
在温度测量仪器的操作培训中，需要注意以下几点：（1）正确选择温度测量仪器，根据实际需要选择合适的温度测量仪器；（2）正确使用温度测量仪器，操作时需要注意仪器的正确放置和调节；（3）安全操作，避免烫伤或其他意外。
2. 压力测量仪器压力测量仪器常用于工程和科学领域，用于测量气体或液体中的压力。
常见的压力测量仪器有压力表、差压计等。
在压力测量仪器的操作培训中，需要注意以下几点：（1）正确连接压力测量仪器，根据需要进行正确的管路连接；（2）正确设置压力测量仪器，根据实际需要进行仪器参数的调节；（3）安全操作，避免因压力过大或过小造成的危险。
3. 长度测量仪器长度测量仪器常用于机械加工、建筑工程等领域，用于测量物体的长度。
常见的长度测量仪器有卷尺、游标卡尺等。
在长度测量仪器的操作培训中，需要注意以下几点：（1）正确使用长度测量仪器，操作时需要保持仪器的水平和稳定；（2）准确读取测量结果，根据仪器刻度进行准确的读数；（3）保持仪器的清洁和维护，避免因脏污或损坏影响测量精度。
四、培训教育的方式和方法针对不同类型的测量仪器，培训教育可以采用多种方式和方法，如课堂讲解、实地演示、实际操作等。
拜特检测柜培训资料
培训资料1.联接方试将通信线（注意：设备与计算机之间的通信线一端是9孔的并口，另一端是9针的串口）一端与RS-232/RS-485转换头想连后插入计算机的RS232串行通信口，另一端插入测试系统机箱（设备）背面的通讯口插座即可。
如果有多台设备要连在同一台计算机上，每台设备是靠箱号区分的（假如有三台设备则最好三台设备箱号分别是1，2，3），所以箱号要是唯一的，先用通信线把设备与设备连起来，一台一台的开，不要同时开，按F8进去，密码为nbbaite,修改箱号，箱号改完后，把所开的设备关掉，在开下一台，一直类推。
等箱号全部改完后，再开启所有设备，按F5进行联机。
2.故障的通常按如下方法处理：1、检查线路是否接触良好。
2、关闭程控软件，重新运行看是否是软件死机。
3、保证计算机的串口是否完好。
4、更换RS232/RS485转换头或者通信线。
5、关电所有设备电源，然后任意打开一台看行不行，最好多试几台，如果通信正常，再一台一台开，每开一台就重新联机一次，找处异常的设备。
3.的作用是修改单位和设备号。
密码为nbbaite4.在做循环的时候出现的问题和排除现象1、充电时没电流，打开设备的柜子，用万用表测量所对应的通道的功率电源输出端，看有没有电压，如果没有，那么就关掉设备电源，再重新开机，然后再用万用表去测量所对应的通道的功率电源输出端有没有电压，如果还是没有，那么就更换一个功率电源，如果有，那么说明问题出现在其他方面。
（切记：在功率电源是好的情况下，不是设备厂家的人不要去动任何一个部件）2、如果电池电压与实时显示电压不一样，检查设备所对应的设备通道的外接线电流与电压（黑色）是否接好。
（切记：电流线和电压线一定要接好）5.控制软件BeltControl使用说明5. 1 软件功能概述：BeltControl软件是拜特电池测试系统的控制部分，只有设备与计算机通信正常才能使用。
控制部分主要有以下功能：⏹编辑测试方案：编辑、修改、保存、调用测试方案。
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目录
第一节准备工作简介 (1)
第二节工作步骤 (1)
Berger测试仪作业指导
第一节．准备工作：
1、确认工作环境：
车间生产环境条件（温度、适度、压力）；车间环境温度20℃～30℃，但是Berger 测试仪工作温度为22℃～27℃，此项因素对测试结果影响很大，必须保证测试仪工作的温度在环境温度内；
测试条件温度辐照度大气质量（AM）
参数251000W/m2 1.5
误差±5℃±50W/m2 ——
2、确保电路供电正常。
第二节．工作步骤：
Berger测试仪主要分两步：测试和分选，第一步测试部分如下：
㈠.测试部分
1.进入软件界面在电脑桌面上双击Scload软件图标，如右图。
2.进入Scload软件主界面如右图所示。
3.各个菜单简介，如右图。
①菜单栏
File、view、Graph、
Measurements、Auto Mode、Settings，分别对应文件:视图、图表、测量、自动模式、设置。
②快捷栏
分别是新建、打开、保存、预览、打印、图标选择、参数设置、手动调试、手动测试、自动测试。
③界面测试类型。
菜单栏快捷栏
④电性能参数如右
图。
4.片盒分布图各个
参数具体如图。
电性能参数
T 测试温度Uoc 开路电压
E 测试光强Isc 短路电流
Pmpp最大输出功率FF 填充因子
Umpp 最大工作电压Rs 串联电阻
Impp 最大工作电流Rsh 并联电阻
Eff 转换效率
Irev1 反向漏电电流（加10v反偏电压时）
Irev2反向漏电电流（加12v反偏电压时）
㈡.进入自动工作模式
1.在菜单Settings 下的Classification中的Open中选择测试程序，如右图。
2.选择测试数据保存路径。
在Settings中选择Configuration；
选择程序
选择数据保存路径
3．然后在弹出的对
话框中选择
Database，点击
Browse选择保存路
径。
（需注意选择的
数据库文件必须是
复制系统开的，不得
自己新建）
进入自动模式4．以上操作完成后，
需转入自动测试模
式时，应点击“快捷
栏”红色自动测试按
弹出Measurement
Parameters 栏框，
并进行修改为当天
生产的时期然后再
确认生产中的测试
电池片型号是否与
实物电池片型号相
符合。
自动测试界面5．最后进入了自动
测试状态，如右图。
6.设置片盒最大片
数和报警数。
在Settings下选择
Counters，具体参数
如图所示。
7．（盒内最大片数尽
量不要设置超过
80，否则容易导致分
选片盒内电池片容
易碎片）。
㈢．手动检验测试仪
1、确认测试条件正
常：
温度22℃～27℃，
光强950W/m2～
1050W/m2 。
点击pause停止自
动测试，回到主界
面，如图。
测试主界面
2、一线单晶在分选电脑上分别点击Operationmode: AUTOMATIC 停止自动模式.
3、然
后
点
击
service ，manual ，tester 进入控制界面，如图。
Tester 控制界面
点击
停止
运行
4.二线多晶如右图，把分选机档位打到
手动档（autoam换
到man）通过夹具和
探针控制键调节标
片压合效果到最佳
状态，操作中可以重
复使用调试。
5．控制按键
Open the probes 放开探针
Close the probes
闭合探针
Open the centering 放开夹具
Close the Probes
闭合夹具
6.放置好二级标片
前要求生产员工擦
拭探针，确认标准电
池片表面干净没有
杂物（必须检查，小
标片表面不干净对测试结果影响非常大），然后放置二级
标准电池片
探针压合正
分选机档
位模式转
换键
探针下
压松开
控制按
键
夹具控
制按键
标片，放置好二级标
片后检查探针压合
状况，要求探针压和
主栅线，标片左右露
出探针数对称。
然后
盖好黑色布罩。
7.确认无误后即可
开始检验测试仪。
点击绿色手动调试
按钮，在弹出的对话
框中选择标片的面
积型号，后点击ok
进行手动调试，后出
现测试电性能数据。
首现必须查看温度
和光强在正常范围
内，再看其他参数，
当核对测试数据和
标准片数据在接收
范围内时，点击黄色
的手动测试按钮保
存测试数据。
（核对
标准片数据，不要只
电性能数据看功率和Eff，同时
要看其他的参数，可
以多点击几次绿色
按钮调试几次后，保
证测试数据准确。
）
8.检验无异常后，重
新把测试仪打回到
自动档。
点击红色按钮，在弹
出的对话框中选择
电池片型号后点击
ok，回到自动测试界
面。
9.在分选电脑上点
击Operationmode:
AUTOMATIC然后点
击Yes分选机回到
自动测试状态。
㈣．手动标定测试仪
当手动检验测试仪
时，发现测试数据不
在接收范围内，需要
重新手动标定测试
仪。
标定测试仪步骤如
下：
输入密码1、在菜单栏中的
Settings中选择
Operating mode然
后选择Manager权
限，输入密码后点击
ok激活Manager操
作权限。
2、在菜单栏中的Measurement下选
择Edit Monitor Cells，然后点击Edit，在弹出的Monitor cell对话框中点击Monitor calibration在弹
出的对话框中选择功率档，在空白出输入标片的功率值（这是通过功率标定测试仪），然后点击ok，将标片的标准值数到测试仪中。
3、重复手动检验测试仪的步骤
4、
5、6，直到测试仪检测数据和标准片在可接收范围，完成手动标定测试仪。
㈤．常见测试异常及处理方法
1、光强异常
光强正常范围是950～1050W/m2，当测试时出异常不在此范围时可以通过调节闪光的电压进行调节。
点击settings菜单下的flasher，进入调节界面，点击调节按钮（三角形符号）进行适当调节，使光强到正常范围。
（建议不要将电压参数设置过高，容易烧毁闪光灯）
2、电性能参数异常主要电性能参数及范围：
a.T为温度，其温
度范围为25±
2℃。
b.E为幅照,其幅
照强度范围在T温度主要受环境影响较大，温度异常时需反应给外围工程进行调节，同时可以适当调节测试仪的抽风口。
V oc开了电压主要受背电场印刷和烧结影响较大，可以进行适当调节。
控制界面电压参数
调节按钮
1000±50W/m2。
c.Voc为所测电池
片的开路电压,
一般在
0.60V-0.62V。
d.Isc为短路电
流，单晶一般不
低于5.0A，多晶
不低于8.0A。
e.Rs为所测电池
片的串联电阻,
一般在
0.004-0.008
欧。
f.Rsh为所测电池
片的并联电阻，
单晶一般大于
10欧，多晶一般
大于7欧。
g.FF为所测电池
片的填充因子,
一般在
75%-77%。
h.Irev2为反向漏
电电流，一般小
于3A Isc和Rs主要受片源和生产环境影响，生产环境主要指生产过程中硅片受到污染，测试探针长时间没有更换可能会导致Rs增加从而使Isc减小。
Rsh和Ierv2主要是刻蚀工序影响较大，当出现刻蚀不完全时可能会在局部形成回路导致Rsh减小Irev2增加，同时崩边现象也有可能导致局部漏电电流增大。