语言学考点

Cross-cultural communication:simile明喻: a way of comparing on thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it is explicitly signaled in a text, with the words as or like.metaphor隐喻: always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. (and it is a way of transferring qualities from one thing to another, but it is more powerful. )metonymy借喻: a change of name.synecdoche提喻: a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.aliiteration头韵，双声：the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words.Repetition重复：the repetition of the same wordMetre格：when stress is organized to form stressed and unstressed syllables repeated on a line.Iamb（iambus）抑扬格：an iambic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllables followed by an unstressed syllables.Trochee（扬抑格）: an trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable.Couplets（对句）: two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme.Quatrains（四行诗）: stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry.Blank verse（无韵诗）consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme. Narrator：叙述者A narrator is, within any story (literary work, movie, play, verbal account etc.) the non-fictional or fictional, personal or impersonal entity who tells the story to the audience.New information新信息：information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable, it is new.Given information已知信息：information that is presented by the speaker as recoverable, it has already been motioned before.Direct speech直接引语: it contends a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks: “Am I too late?” she asked.Indirect speech间接引语: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.Free direct speech自由直接引语: a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:“Am I too late?”Free indirect speech自由间接引语: more of the narrator’s contribution, it is closer to the original words form of the question.Was she too late? She asked.systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法：generative-transformational grammar转换生成语法：In the late 1950s N. Chomsky tried to open up a new route when he found that the classification of structural elements of language according to distribution and arrangement had its limitations. From this practice Chomsky gradually established the well-known transformational-Generative grammar. From its birth to the present day, TG grammar has undergone five stages of development. The classical theory aims to make linguistics a science. The standard theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory. The extended standard theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar. The revised extended theory focuses discussion on government and binding. The latest is the minimalist program, a further revision of the previous theory. Interpersonal function 人际功能p 10: By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. In the framework of functional grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address other and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicates the various grade of interpersonal relations.T extual function文本功能: Language has the function which enables the other two functions to operate, namely, the function which represents the speaker’s textual-forming potential. This function relates our abilities to construct texts out our utterance and writings. Halliday calss it the textual function.Phrase structure rules句法结构规则: The phrase structure component has phrase structure rules. e.g.S→NP +VPVP→V + NPNP→Det+ NDet→the, a, etc.N→man, ball, etc.V→hit, took, etc.Transformational rules转换规则: The transformational component has transformational rules which change the deep structures into surface structures. According to Chomsky, active and passive, declarative and interrogative, positive and negative sentences have the same deep structures. The difference between them simply comes from the operation of the relevant transformations.Deep structure：见简答题9Surface structure：见简答题9Transitivity及物性：the representation of outer experiences and inner experiences. Material processes: processes of doing, Mental Processes: Processes of sensingPhenomenon: what is being felt, Relational Processes: Processes of being Behavioural Processes, V erbal Processes: processes of saying, Existential Processes These represent that something exists or happens,。