语言学概论复习重点

1.phonetics(语音学) A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. e.g:p. bilabial, stop.：（1）articulatory phonetics(发音语音学), from the speakers’ point of v iew（2）acoustic phonetics(声学语音学), from the hearers’ point of view（3）auditory phonetics(听觉语音学), from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.
2.pragmatics(语用学)，a field of study to take care of that part of meaning of language in use.In many ways, pragmatics is the study of speakers intended meaning, or even the “invisible meaning”. Pragmatics can also be defined as the study of speaker meaning.Micropragmatics(微观语用学)：The research on the analyses of larger chunks of language, such as a whole conversation, an article or even a chapter of a novel or one act of a play in the user interaction concerning the mechanisms by which speakers encode their message in skilful ways and how hearers arrive at the intended meanings in spite of the differences between the literal meaning and the intended meaning is called macropragmatics. To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.” R eference(指称)，deixis（指示），anaphora(回指) and presupposition(预设)” are all topics in this field.
3.phonology(音位学)：phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language（1）phonemes, the smallest phonological unit that can distinguish meaning(eg:sip\zip)2.minimal pairs and sets minimal pairs: a pair of words, identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same position minimal set：a group of words differential by one sound segment in the same position3. free variation(自由变体) when two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation (eg: either 的两种发音)Cooperative principle there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation this is what called cooperative principle. It means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.
4.Syntax(句法) If we focus on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, we are studying what is known as the syntax of a language. It means the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Every sentence is a sequence of words, but not every sequence of words is a sentence.The prescriptive Approach（规定的方法）: This view of
grammar as a set of rules for the “proper” use of a language is st ill to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.The Descriptive Approach（描述性的方法）: Linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach1.Structural analysis:its main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language.2.Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法): Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis.
5.Variations of the same phonemes（音位变体）means any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.
6. Descriptive and prescriptive grammars: descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the
language.most modern linguistics are descriptive, it attempts to describe what people accurat ely say. Traditional grammars told people how to use a language. As traditional grammar trie d to lay down rules,they are often called prescriptive. To put it simple, description tells people what it is in a language while prescription tells people what should be in a language.Descripti ve---describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use(modern linguistic)Prescriptive---lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior in using
language(traditional grammar)
7. duality(二重性) L anguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.
8. arbitrariness(任意性) one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
9.morphology(形态学) Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is thus the study of the
internal structure forms and classes of words.(unfriendly: unhappily, unkindly, unlonely)A morpheme（词素,形态素）is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. eg: tourists(tour,ist,s)Free morphemes（自由词素）: A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk, car, friend.Lexical morphemes（open class of word）：词汇语素(look, love, happy)Functional morphemes(closed class of words)：功能语素(but, when, the)
Bound morphemes: bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)Derivational morphemes(派生词缀) which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.(-er, -ness, -ly)Inflectional morphemes(曲折词缀)：which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical functional of a word.(-’s, -s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est)
10. assimilation(同化) sounds belonging to one word or one syllable (音节)can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables，this is called assimilation. 11. tone language(声调式语言)language in which the meaning of a word depends on the pitch at which it is uttered.
Chinese is tone language while English is not. In English, tone is regarded as a phonological f eature distinguish meaning.
12.diacritics(变音符号) a sign placed above or below a character or letter to indicate that it has a different phonetic phonetic value, is stresses, or for some other reason.
13. root(词根) A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. A word may contain more than one root, in which case it is a compound word , eg: bookshop, blackbird
14. Blending(混成构词法) A single new word can also be formed by combing two separate forms. This process is usually called blending. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word.
15. Acronym(首字母组合词) some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words. Words of this kind are called acronym. Such as UNESCO, NATO
16.Derivation(派生法), Which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. In contrast to compounding, a derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and a
bound morpheme.
17. compounding（复合法). Words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver are formed by putting two words together. This way of building new words is called compounding. Compounding is a productive way of word formation. By means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form a compound.
18. Stress(重音) when a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress.Nouns have first syllable stress, verbs second.
19. syllable(音节) these units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole world, are called syllables.20. prototype(原型) the members of a particular community which are considered as the best examples of a lexical category are said to be prototype. According to prototype theory, people decide whether an en tity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with the prototype. For example, sparrow c an be said the prototype of birds.
21. lexical gap(词汇空缺) the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull.
22. semantic field (语义场) a set of words with an identifiable semantic connection
23. sense and reference(意义和指称) sense and reference are two different, though related, aspects of meaning.Sense is to be defined in terms of relationships which hold between the linguistic elements themselves(mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic(语言内部的关系) relations eg: bachelor and married have the sense relationship of bachelor=never married Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements ( words, sentences ,etc) and the non-linguistic world of experience. Eg: things, actions, events and qualities.
24. suffix(后缀) The suffix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.
25. recursiveness(递归性)Recursion is the process a procedure goes through when one of the steps of the procedure involves invoking the procedure itself. Recursion in linguistics enables 'discrete infinity' by embedding phrases within phrases of the same type in a hierarchical
structure.26. cohesion(衔接) cohesion is an important field of study in discourse(谈话，谈论) analysis. it refers to the grammatical and \or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.Five types of cohesive devices: reference, substitution(替代,替换), ellipsis(省略), conjunction, lexical cohesion
27. coherence(连贯性) coherence refers to the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse.
28. reflective meaning(反射意义) is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.(the nuclear family, the nuclear age)
29. associative meaning(联想意义)Is the essential and inextricable part of what language is,and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communicatiIs the essential and inextricable part of what language is,and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication.It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.
30. ambiguity (消解歧义)The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs.
31. iconicity(象似性，形象性) iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy between the form of a sign (linguistic or otherwise) and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness. Iconicity of order (顺序的象似性)refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction. It reflects the consistency of language with human cognition and the objective world..eg: I came, I saw, I conquered.(a.He opened the bottle and poured himself a glass of wine. b. He poured himself a glass of wine and opened thebottle.)
Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance.(a. I killed the chicken. B. I caused the chicken to die.) Iconicity of distance can also give a satisfactory explanation to the sequence of multi-adjectives before a noun.
Iconicity of complexity. The phenomenon that linguistic complexity reflects conceptual complexity. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more from with
more meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning. This idea has long been an important aspect of markedness theory. Marked forms and structures are typically more complex than unmarked ones.(a. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met her. b. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met the girl from next door.)
32. Allomorpheme(语素变体)some morphemes are realized by more than one morphemes depending on the context they occur. Allomorphemes are phonological variants of the same morpheme.
33.Tree diagram: S=NP(Art+N)+VP(V+NP[Art+N])
34. Illocutionary acts: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning.
35. language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.36. linguistics: the scientific and systematic study of language. 37. elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.
38.pragmatics:a branch of linguistics that studies language in use. 39. stem:the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.
40.semetic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, or cause.。