语义学考试复习资料

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语义学考试

1．语音是语言的物质外壳，语义是语音（文字）形式所运载的信息内容。

2．语义学是研究语言和言语的意义的学科，它主要研究语义的各种性质、类型、语义关系、语义的结构和功能，以及语义的形成和演变等。

语义学实际上是跨学科的交叉性学科。

3．人们在语义方面所做的实际工作为注释古书。

我们语文学时期的语义研究叫做训诂学。

训诂：形训、义训、声训。

《公羊传》《春秋》《谷梁传》4．汉代重要的训诂学作品：西汉周公《尔雅》杨雄《方言》东汉刘熙《释名》许慎《说文解字》。

《尔雅》最早的一部解释词意的专著。

5．1893年，语义学作为专业术语首次使用，是法国学者米歇尔·布勒阿尔。

语义学的建立是他1897年出版的《语义学探索》一书为标志。

6．现代语义学兴起的背景——信息科学的出现7．20C50s，以义素分析和语义场理论的产生为标志，语义学才成为一门相对独立的学科。

8．第一部语言学的语义学专著是贾彦德于1986年出版的《语义学导论》9．语义的性质：a.语义的客观性和主观性b.语义的概括性和具体性 c.语义的稳固性和变异性10．作为交叉性学科的广义语义学，主要包括三大分支：语言学的语义学，哲学的语义学，逻辑学的语义学11．语义学大体上可以分为词汇语义学和句法语义学两大分支。

语义学有描写语义学（共时）和历史语义学（历时）之分。

12．20C40s，“哥本哈根学派”丹麦语言学家叶尔姆斯列夫提出义素分析的设想。

50s 美国朗斯伯里和古德纳夫提出义素分析法。

60s初，卡茨、福德将义素分析法用来为生成转换语法提供语义特征，很快受到现代语义学界的重视。

13．义素分析，一般采用对比的方法，即通过对不同的词义（义项）的对比找出义素来。

14．词汇意义分为两类：概念义，附加义：评价义、形象义、文化义、语体义、民族义15．20C30s，德国特里尔提出语义场理论。

1924年德国伊普森提出语义场。

16．语义场的类型：分类义场，部分义场，顺序义场，关系义场。

语言学考试必备

一、名词解释：5*2=10分1.音位：音位是具体语言或方言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。

2.语流音变：在语流这一活动的言语的声音里，有一种共时的变化的现象特别值得注意，那就是语流音变。

语言单位的读音进入言语之后，其中一个音受到前后音或者说话各种因素的影响而在发音上产生某种变化。

3.语义指向：语义指向是从语义平面揭示句法成分之间的关系，是指向句法结构中某一成分在语义平面上支配或说明的方向。

4.组合关系：语言符号与符号之间按照一定的规则组成的言语链条关系，叫组合关系。

组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序、可数的横向关系；聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。

5.语法范畴：把不同的形式所表示的同一类语法意义进行归类所得出的类，就是语法范畴。

二、填空：30*1-30分1、传统语义学包括：文字学音韵学训诂学2、语言符号的系统性及其特点（1）音义结合的符号：语音是其形式，语义是其内容。

（2）语言符合的形式和其所代表的的事物具有约定俗称性。

特点：任意性，线条性3.谁是现代语言学之父及他的代表作：索绪尔《普通语言学教程》。

4.语音四要素：音高、音强、音长、音质。

5、语义演变的结果：语义的扩大、语义的缩小、词义的转移。

6.语义三角：词义、语音、客观事物之间处于一种三足鼎立、相互制约、相互作用的关系之中。

7、基本词汇的特点：全民常用性、稳定性、能产性8、反义词的分类：互补对立、两极对立和关系对立9、语素和词的区别：• 语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合体。

• 语素和词的区分就在于能否独立运用。

10、词义演变途径：比喻和借代11、文字的分类：1. 表意文字和表音文字，2. 表单位文字，3. 自源文字和借源文字三、选择5*1-5分1、语音四要素，辅音，舌根音，元音，前元音，2、语义场分类• （1）同义义场：绝对同义义场和相对同义义场；（2）反义义场a. 互补对立义场，b. 两极对立义场，c. 关系对立义场；（3）多义义场；（4）联想义场：分类联想、部分联想和描绘联想三种。

自然语言处理与语义分析复习资料

自然语言处理与语义分析复习资料自然语言处理（Natural Language Processing，简称 NLP）和语义分析是当今计算机科学和人工智能领域中非常重要的研究方向。

它们旨在让计算机理解和处理人类的自然语言，从而实现人机之间更加自然和高效的交流。

一、自然语言处理的概念自然语言处理是指计算机对自然语言的理解、生成和处理能力。

这包括对文本的理解、分类、情感分析、信息抽取、机器翻译等任务。

例如，当我们在搜索引擎中输入一个问题时，搜索引擎能够理解我们的问题，并返回相关的答案，这就涉及到自然语言处理的技术。

再比如，智能客服能够回答我们的咨询，也是基于自然语言处理的成果。

二、语义分析的含义语义分析则是深入理解自然语言中词汇、句子和篇章的意义。

它不仅仅是理解表面的文字，还要挖掘隐藏在语言背后的真正含义和意图。

比如，“我今天很开心”这句话，语义分析不仅要知道每个词的意思，还要明白整个句子所表达的情感是积极的。

三、自然语言处理的主要技术1、词法分析这是自然语言处理的基础，包括对词汇的形态、词性、词义等进行分析。

通过词法分析，计算机能够识别单词的基本信息。

2、句法分析句法分析研究句子的结构，确定句子中的主语、谓语、宾语等成分。

它帮助计算机理解句子的语法规则。

3、语义理解通过构建语义模型和知识图谱，计算机尝试理解文本的语义关系。

4、语用分析考虑语言在特定语境中的使用方式和意图，以更准确地理解语言的含义。

四、语义分析的方法1、基于词典的方法利用预先定义的词典和词汇语义关系来进行语义分析。

2、基于语料库的方法通过对大量文本数据的统计和分析，挖掘词汇之间的语义关联。

3、基于深度学习的方法利用深度神经网络自动学习语义特征和模式。

五、自然语言处理和语义分析的应用1、机器翻译能够实现不同语言之间的自动转换，帮助人们跨越语言障碍进行交流。

2、智能客服为用户提供快速准确的回答和服务。

3、文本分类和情感分析对大量文本进行分类，如新闻分类、商品评价的情感分析等。

语言学中的语义学知识点总结

语言学中的语义学知识点总结语义学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究的是词汇和句子意义的构成和表达。

本文将对语言学中的语义学知识点进行总结，并以简洁美观的方式呈现，以助于读者理解和掌握。

一、词汇语义学1. 词的意义词的意义是指词所表示的概念或者事物。

在语义学中，词的意义可以分为字面意义和隐喻意义两种。

字面意义是词的直接、表面上的意义，而隐喻意义则是通过比喻、象征等手段所产生的意义。

2. 词汇关系在词汇语义学中，词之间存在多种关系。

最常见的关系包括同义关系、反义关系和上下位关系。

同义关系是指意义相近或相同的词之间的关系，反义关系则相反。

而上下位关系则是指词汇之间的上下级别关系，如水果-苹果。

3. 词义的组成词义是由几个基本组成部分构成的。

其中最重要的是词的本义和引申义。

词的本义是指最基本的、最普遍的意义，而引申义则是通过语境的作用所产生的其他意义。

二、句法语义学1. 句子的意义句子的意义是由词汇意义的组合和句法结构所决定的。

句法语义学研究句子中各个成分之间的关系以及句子整体的意义。

其中包括主谓关系、动宾关系、修饰关系等。

2. 语法词汇和逻辑词汇语法词汇是指在句子中起到语法功能的词汇，如冠词、连词等。

逻辑词汇则是指在句子中起到表示逻辑关系的词汇，如因果词、转折词等。

这些词汇在句法语义学中扮演着重要的角色。

三、篇章语义学1. 篇章结构和语义关系篇章语义学研究文本中句子之间的组织关系和意义关系。

其中包括衔接关系、因果关系、对比关系等。

这些关系决定了整篇文章的意义和连贯性。

2. 信息结构信息结构是指篇章中信息的安排和呈现方式。

其中包括主题句、背景信息、前提条件等。

通过合理的信息结构，可以使文章更加清晰、连贯。

四、语用语义学1. 语言的使用和意义语用语义学研究语言的使用情境和意义的关系。

语言在不同的情境中可能产生不同的意义，而这种意义的变化通过语用语义学可以进行解释和分析。

2. 言语行为言语行为是指在交际中通过语言完成的各种行为，如陈述、询问、命令等。

高中英语教师资格考试语义学

语义学研究如何通过语言实现意义的交流（词和句的意义）1.Lexical relations 词汇关系（1）Synonymy 同义词①方言同义词Dialectal synonyms/regional synonyms （fall-autumn）②文体同义词Stylistic synonyms (buy-purchase)③情感同义词Emotive synonyms (thrifty-褒义；Stingy-贬义)e.g. ( approving ) the habit of saving money and spending it carefully so that none is wasted 节约；节俭( informal ) not given or giving willingly; not generous, especially with money 小气的；吝啬的④Collocational synonyms (accuse of = charge with 控告）⑤Semantic synonyms 语义同义词：意义大致相同，但是细微差别（enough强调足够，ample 强调富足）（2）Antonymy 反义关系（两个词的关系被称为relational opposites）①Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系（两个词不是互为否定的关系，他们之间存在中间状态，如warm-cool, big-small）②Complementary antonymy 互补反义关系（两个互为否定，boy-girl,alive-dead）③Converse antonymy 反向反义关系（不是互为否定的对立，而是社会关系的一种实体对立，涉及两个角色，比如买-卖，老板-员工）（3）Hyponymy 上下义关系Superordinate 上坐标词（即类名，flower就是一个类名包含很多种类的花，rose-tulip-violet）Hyponym (下位词，即很多种类的花，rose-tulip-violet）（4）Polysemy 一词多义关系（一个词可以有多种意义，不同的意义之间有着一定的联系）Polysemy is characterized as the phenomenon whereby a single word form is associated with two or several related senses.（比如break是破坏，也有违约，违约就是从破坏之意延伸而来）It is distinguished from monosemy, where one word form is associated with a single meaning, and homonymy,where a single word form is associated with two or several unrelated meanings. Although the distinctions between polysemy, monosemy, and homonymy may seem clear at an intuitive level, they have proven difficult to draw in practice.（5）Homonymy 同音、同形异义●Homophone 同音异义词sun-son；flour/ˈflaʊə(r)/ - flower/ˈflaʊə(r)/●Homograph 同形异义词lead领导/li:d/；铅读作/led/●Complete homonym 完全同音同形异义词（读写都一样，意义没关联）bank (岸边和银行）Pupil (at school)-pupil (in the eye瞳孔)Race (contest of speed)-race (ethnic group)（6）prototype 一个范畴最具特色的实例The most characteristic instance of a category (e.g. Robin is the prototype of bird)2.句间的含义关系①X is synonymous with Y (X Y两句话等同关系）②X is inconsistent wity Y (X Y 意义上相互矛盾）③X entails Y = Y is an entailment of X. （蕴涵关系：一种句意的包含关系）X的意义被Y包含Mary broke the window “entails” the window was brokenSue and Fred went to the party------ Sue went to the party.如果Sue和Fred一起去过party是假的，Sue went to the party 可能为真，也可能为假。

语义学复习提纲.docx

(1)施事(Agent)
(2)受事(Patient)
(3)主事(Theme)
(4)经事(Experiences)
(5)与事(Beneficiary)
(6)I.具(Instrument)
(7)处所(Location)
(8)目标(Goal)
(9)来源(Source)
范畴、
大脑对客观世界进行认知加工，经过加工后的世界是主客观相结合的产物。这种主客观相互作用的认知加工过程就是对事物的分类过程即范畴化过程，结果形成认知范畴。
家族相似性
通常认为某一词类的全体成员一定共有某一分布特征，那么全体成员具有家族相似性。1.以运动会为例，各种比赛项冃交叉相似。称为家族相似性。
二、原型
.原型是某类范畴中最好、最典型的成员。跟它最接近的成员最具原型性，反Z为边缘成员有以下特点：
①决定范畴内涵的属性机器数目是不确定的°
②范畴的边界是模糊的③成员的地位成员不平等④原型性更高的成员最大限度地区别于其他范畴的原型成员⑤原型是由完形感知形成的。
引申、
引申人体上可以分成隐喻和换喻两种方式。
引中义
词语由本义引申而成的新义。
语义特征(义素)义素
对义位(义项)进行分解得到的语义区別性特征。
语义场、
语义场实际是以一个共同的意义成分为核心聚集起来的词义的聚合。这些词义相互联系、相互制约，在意义义场：同属于一个上位概念的下位概念构成联想语义场。颜色词和亲属词。
TIME IS MONEY
•转喻举例
名转动：部分代整体
The buses are on strike・
Napoleon lost at Waterlo()・
例如：
1.He is a pig.他简直是头猪。(比喻：他是一个像猪一般的人，指肮脏，贪吃的人。)

语言学概论复习(全)

语言学概论复习(全)语音是语言的重要组成部分，是指发音的声音和音调。

不同的语言和方言有不同的语音系统，包括语音的音位、音系、音调等。

语音学研究语音的产生、结构、变化和规律，是语言学的一个重要分支。

语音的正确使用对于交际和沟通至关重要，因此语音教育也是语言教育中重要的一部分。

学语义学是语言学的一个分支，研究语言符号与其所表示的意义之间的关系。

它涉及到语言符号的语用、语境、隐喻等方面，是语言学中非常重要的一个领域。

语义学的研究对象包括词汇、短语、句子等，其目的是揭示语言符号与意义之间的规律和机制。

重新改写：语音是语言的声音，是承载语言符号系统的媒介。

它是人类发音器官发出的具有交际功能的有意义声音，具有自然属性和社会属性双重属性。

在语言的音形义三个基本属性中，语音是第一属性。

语音的物理基础主要有音高、音强、音长、音色。

元音是一种音素，与辅音相对。

元音是在发音过程中由气流通过口腔而不受阻碍发出的音。

汉语拼音方案的字母代表的音属于元音。

元音的不同是由共鸣腔的不同形状造成的。

每个元音的音质由舌位的高低、前后和嘴唇的圆展这三个因素的结合决定。

文白异读指的是一个方言中不少汉字具有两个或多个有文雅/白俗风格区别的语音形式，形成系统的层次。

文读一般是读书音，使用于正式场合，来自权威方言或者民族共同语；白读是口语音，使用于非正式场合，是本方言自己的读音。

历史比较法是根据语音对应关系，比较方言或亲属语言之间的差别来拟测原始“祖语”的方法，是推溯方言或亲属语言的演变过程的有效方法。

音位是从语音的社会属性的角度划分出来的最小的能区别意义的线性单位。

一个音位往往包含几个音素。

音位的作用是区分词或语素的语音形式。

语文学是广义的语言学，研究古代书面语，旨在解读古典文献。

其发源地有古印度、古中国、古希腊-罗马，分别涉及构词法、文字、音韵、训诂、语法、修辞、逻辑等方面。

语言联盟指的是一片地理区域内的不同语言不仅在词汇上有大量的借贷，而且在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规则方面也十分相似，但是各语言仍然有相当数量的核心词根彼此不同。

语义学题库

语义学题库
摘要：
1.语义学题库的概述
2.语义学题库的内容
3.语义学题库的应用
4.语义学题库的发展趋势
正文：
语义学题库是一种以语义学为研究对象的题库，主要涉及对语言意义、语义结构和语义变化的研究。

语义学题库旨在帮助人们更好地理解和运用语言，提高语言表达的准确性和有效性。

语义学题库的内容涵盖了语义学的各个方面。

首先，它包括了对语义基本概念的解释，如词义、句义、语义角色等。

其次，题库中还包括了语义结构的分析方法，如组合结构、层次结构等。

此外，题库还涉及了语义变化的研究，如词义的演变、语义场的变化等。

语义学题库在实际应用中具有广泛的用途。

首先，它可以作为教学材料，帮助学生系统地学习和掌握语义学的知识。

其次，题库中的语义分析方法可以应用于自然语言处理领域，提高计算机对语言的理解能力。

此外，语义学题库还可以为语言研究提供丰富的实例，促进语言学的发展。

随着人工智能和自然语言处理技术的发展，语义学题库也将迎来新的发展趋势。

一方面，题库的内容将更加丰富和完善，以满足不同层次用户的需求。

另一方面，题库将更加注重与实际应用的结合，提高其在自然语言处理等领域的应用价值。

总之，语义学题库作为一种研究语言意义的工具，具有重要的理论和实践意义。

语言学概论复习资料--语义、义项、文字

语言学概论复习资料--语义、义项、文字第五章语义1. 简答语言的理性意义和非理性意义。

答：语言是交流思想和感情的工具，语义也就必然包含这两方面的内容，即一是思想，就是所谓的“理性意义”，二是情感，就是所谓的“非理性意义”。

理性意义也叫逻辑意义或指称意义，是对主客观世界的认识。

在词语平面上，它是与概念相联系的那一部分语义，在句子平面上它是与判断和推理相联系的那一部分语义。

理性意义是语义的基本要素。

非理性意义是说话人的主观情绪、态度以及语体风格等方面的内容，它一般总是附着在特定的理性意义之上。

2. 解释“语义”。

答：语义是同语言形式结合在一起的意义，同语言形式的结合是语义的基本特征。

3. 解释“语言意义”答：语言意义是一般的、稳定的意义，是语言形式本身表达的意义。

4. 解释“语境意义”。

答：语境意义是个别的、临时的意义，是语言形式在特定的交际场合、知识背景等语境音素作用下所表达的意义。

5. 解释“词义”。

答：词义是同词的语音形式结合在一起的人们对一定对象的概括反映和主观态度。

6. 解释“词的理性意义”。

答：同词的语音形式结合在一起时，对一定对象的区别性特征的认识就是词的理性意义。

7. 解释“义素”。

答：义素是从义项中分析得到的词义的语义特征。

8. 解释“义项”。

答：义项是词典释义的最小单位，是从词语的各种用例中概括出来的共同的、一般的、稳定的意义。

9. 简答义素和语素之间的区别。

答：义素和语素不是同一个概念，它们是两种性质上根本不同的单位。

义素是对一个词的语义特征进行分析后所得到的最小语义单位；语素则是最小的音义结合体。

义素是一种从理论上分析出来的语义单位，就不是一种自然语言的单位，义素不直接与语音相结合。

语素不仅有一定的意义而且有一定的读音，是人们可以直接感受到的自然语言的单位。

10. 简答义素和义项之间的关系。

答：一个词可以同时有几个理性意义，其中一个意义在语言学上叫一个义项。

现代语义学把分析音位的区别特征原理用于词义分析，把义项进一步分析为若干语义特征，这些语义特征就是义素。

语言学考试资料

1. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. How important is language in our lives? / Why study Language?Language plays a central role in our life as individuals and social beings.It is a vital human resource that all of us share.3. Who is the father of modern linguistics? Saussure4. What are the two media of language? Speech and writing5. How is language developed?Language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts. Language is human-specific.6. What is the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning?It is a matter of convention. The other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality.7. How important is the feature of arbitrariness of language?8. Design features of Language.--the features that define human languages.Language distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.Human language is unique（1）Arbitrariness 任意性(2) Duality 二重性(3) Creativity 创造性(4) Displacement移位性There is no logical/intrinsic connection between sounds and meaning .What’s in a name ? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet.That which we call a rose would smell as sweet By any other name.The quote by William Shakespeare meant to say that the names of thing s do not matter, only what things are.Arbitrariness 语言的任意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Creativity /Productivity 语言的创造性多产性Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understand by people who have never come across that usage before. Language users can understand and produce novel linguistic messages. Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning. A small number of sounds ---a large number of meaningful units.(words)A large number of words –infinite number of sentences.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.9. Functions of LanguageInformative function 信息功能the use of language to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out. This function is characterized by the use of declarative sentences and is most often used in all branches of learning.Interpersonal function 人际功能language can be used to establish and maintain one’s social status. It is concerned with the interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and theaddresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Performative function行事功能language can be used to “do things” , to perform act.Emotive function 感情功能language can be used to change the emotional status of an audience (for or against someone or something)Phatic communion function 寒暄功能it refers to the social interaction of language.Recreational function 娱乐功能the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.Metalingual function 元语言功能language can be used to talk about itself.10. What is linguistics?Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. It is the systematic investigation of the common features of all human language.11. Main branches of LinguisticsPhonetics 语音学phonetics is the study of the production, transmission, perception, description, classification, and transcription of speech sounds.Phonology 音系学studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.Morphology 形态学is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.Syntax 句法学is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language , or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. Semantics 语义学examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it. Pragmatics 语用学is the study of meaning of context.Phonetic transcription 语音标记法Phonetic transcription is a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.12. Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Psycholinguistics 心理语言学The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. Anthropological Linguistics 人类语言学Computational linguistics 计算语言学13. Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.14. Organs of speech 发音器官The pharyngeal cavity咽腔the throatThe oral cavity 口腔the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying across the glottis (声门) are the vocal cords (声带). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound.The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.15. Phone, phoneme, and allophone 语音（音素）、音位、音位变体Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。

语义学复习

语义学“到”的用法：1.句法框架固定：数1+到+数22.作用，是把数1和数2连接起来，组成一个复杂的数量单位，整个数量单位的句法功能跟单纯的数量短语完全一致。

3.语法特点：（1）用“到”连接的数量词语限于两项，一般没有多项并列的情况；（2）数1和数2必须按从小到大顺序排列(负数则按绝对值排列，如：零下七度到九度)，一般不允许互换位置。

（3）“到”表示数目的覆盖范围。

（合取）#这本书，老张可以写第三章到第七章。

#李老师负责1班到4班，王老师负责5班到8班。

(4) “到”表示约数的取舍范围。

（析取）#明天最高温度:二十一到二十三度。

#咱们今天走了四十到五十里路了。

（5）“到”表示集体或整体的覆盖范围和个体或局部的取舍范围。

#本店招收营业员若干名，年龄:十八岁到二十四岁。

#我家先生每月出差两到三次。

（6）歧义:#明天气温是三十一到三十三度。

“到”可以作连词，“之间”：十八岁到二十四岁之间一国外语义学的发展历史法国的语言学家布勒阿尔(Bréal)最早提出“语义学”这一术语，是一门与语音学科相对的、关于意义的学科，主要研究语词意义变化过程的原因和结构，即意义的扩大和缩小，意义的转化，意义价值的提高或贬低等过程的原因和结构。

结构主义语义学是从20世纪上半叶以美国为主的结构主义语言学发展而来的，研究的内容主要在于词汇的意义和结构，比如说义素分析，语义场，词义之间的结构关系等等。

又称词汇语义学，研究词和词之间的各种关系例如同义词、反义词，同音词等，找出词语之间的细微差别。

生成语义学是20世纪六七十年代流行于生成语言学内部的一个语义学分支，是介于早期的结构主义语言学和后来的形式语义学之间的一个理论阵营。

生成语义学借鉴了结构语义学对义素的分析方法，比照生成音系学的音位区别特征理论，主张语言的最深层的结构是义素，通过句法变化和词汇化的各种手段而得到表层的句子形式。

形式语义学起始20世纪70年代蒙太古以数理逻辑方法对英语的研究，后经语言学家和哲学家努力发展成一个独立学科，摒弃了蒙太古对生成语言学的句法学的忽视，强调语义解释和句法结构的统一，从而最终成为生成语言学的语义学分支。

语言学复习资料

语言学复习资料Part V: Semantics1. Semantics：the study of meaning, specially the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.2. Ogden and Richards (1923): 奥格登和理查兹《意义的意义》The Meaning of Meaning Summary of Important Ones•1）reference•2）concept•3）synonym•4）paraphrase•5）translation equivalent•6）intention•7）implicature3. Leech’s Seven MeaningsLeech— a British modern linguist,《语义学》Semantics (1974) ：P-23: Seven Types of Meaning：♠1) Conceptual Meaning 概念意义♠2) Connotative Meaning 内涵意义♠3) Social Meaning 社会意义♠4) Affective Meaning 感情意义♠5) Reflected Meaning 反映意义♠6) Collocative Meaning 搭配意义♠7) Thematic Meaning 主题意义2)-6)属于Associative Meaning联想意义1) Conceptual Meaning 概念意义➢关于逻辑、认知或外延内容的基本意义。

又叫“外延意义”（denotative meaning),也通常是词典给出的定义，概念意义不会因人、因文化而异；可分解成若干“语义成分”。

E.g.•women: [HUMAN] [FEMALE] [ADULT]•Pig: [ANIMALE] [DOMESTICATED]…2）Connotative Meaning 内涵意义➢附加在概念意义之上，通过语言所指事物传递的意义。

语义学复习

第一章语义研究的发展和现状（一）三个时期（1）语文学时期（2）传统语义学时期（3）现代语义学时期（二）现代语义学流派A、结构语义学：受索绪尔结构语言学的影响，采用结构主义的理论方法研究语义。

B、解释语义学：用符号和规则对语义进行形式化描写和微观分析，检验句子的搭配，解决歧义问题。

C、生成语义学：不以语法为基础而以语义为基础的语言理论模式；认为语法和语义不能截然分开，语义是基础，具有生成性。

D、菲尔墨的语义理论：提出一整套用来说明句子语义的理论→格语法理论：提出“语义深层结构”。

E、切夫的语义理论：主张把句法结构和语义结构结合起来分析句子。

以考察动词的语义特征为重点→动词中心说F、逻辑数理语义学：利用许多数理逻辑的概念和表示方式来研究语义。

70年代，美国逻辑学家蒙塔古创立了“蒙塔古语法”。

第二章关于语言和语义的一些基本认识语义单位1.义位：大致相当于义项的语义单位，由一束义素构成。

2.义素：义素是义位的组成部分，是分解义位得到的，有些有附加义素。

3.语素义：语素是语法单位，包含语义片段，和义位、义素密切相关。

4.义丛：词组的意义方面。

由义位组合而成，分为固定的和自由的两种。

5.句义：句子的意义方面，由义位和义丛组合而成。

6.言语作品义：某一言语作品的意义方面，例如一席话、一篇文章、一本书的意义或者某一作家全部著作的意义。

7.附加义（有人叫色彩意义）：某些义位、句义和言语作品义的附加成分。

•基本义•反映义•广义附加义•语法意义•语义类型•狭义（去掉广义中的语法意义和•具体的认识成果。

）反映义也可分为指称意义与系统意义第三章&第四章义素分析法义素分析：是把词语的义位进一步分析为若干义素的组合，以便说明词义的结构、词义间的异同以及词义间的各种关系。

总原则：“二元对立”。

有的话就在该特征之前标以[+]，没有则标以[-]，兼有二者则标以[±] 。

义素分析的基本方法是对比法。

义素分析的程序和方法1．分析原则义素分析是一种聚合分析。

语义学资料

语义学资料语义学Leech’s 7 types of meaning.Leech recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics, first published in 1974, as follows:1.conceptual meaning 概念意义logical, cognitive or denotative content. 逻辑的，认知的，外延的内容Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. This refers to the definition given in the dictionary. It is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication and is integral to the essential functioning of language. Componential analysis, the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. Man [+Human] [+Male] [+Adult] Girl [+Human] [-Male] [-Adult]词的概念意义是一个词的中心意义或核心意义。

如孩子的概念意义是未成年的人，man 的核心意义是成年男人。

2.Associative meaning:meaning associated with the conceptual meaning which can befurther divided into following types: a) connotative meaning b) social meaning c) affective meaningd) reflected meaning e) collocative meaningConnotative meaning. 伴随意义，内涵意义What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. 通过语言所指所传达的意义。

(完整版)英语语义学汇总,推荐文档

1. Semantics:is a word derived from Greek stem “seme” which meant sign, first coined by semantique M.Breal in 1893. And it was first cited by British scholar in an English report entitled “ Reflected Meaning : a point in semantics”.2. There is no definite answer to the question “what’s the meaning of meaning”. In order to get the meaning of word, we should depend on the concrete contexts we refer to.Eg: I meant to come early. （intentional meaning）The real flag means danger. (conventional meaning)The dark cloud means rains.( natural meaning)Calligraphy means beautiful writing. ( linguistic meaning)Study linguistic phenomena within the language system, not outside.Ogden and Richard “ the meaning of meaning” in 1923, listed at list 16 different understandings of meanings.Although different scholars hold different attitudes towards what’s the meaning of meaning, they do share something in common, that is , to explicate linguistic phenomena, the knowledge that language use must have in order to make certain judgment concerning meaning of words and sentences of their language.3. judgment made by language uses(1) ambiguityPolysemous words in the sentenceEg: she cannot bear children ( put up with)Certain structures: adj + n in possessive case + NAdj + a series of nounsMore/most + adj +nV-ing + nounResulting from elliptical structureEg; serve meat when thoroughly stewed.Homonymous wordsEg: when does the baker follow his trade?Whenever he needs( kneads) the doughLiaisonEg: a train deara trained deera trained earit rained here,.(2) anomalyAnomaly refers to a phenomenon that various words in certain combination are anomalous. This means the combination violate semantic rules, though in agreement with grammatical or syntactical rules.Eg: grean idears sleep furiously-violated semantic rules, unaccepatable combinatione.g. I ate three phonemes for brbeakfast(3) ContradictionContradiction refers to a certain combination that is contradictory.Eg: 你以为咱家有金山银山啊My brother is the only childColourless green ideas sleep furiously(4) RedundancyRedundancy is very common in language, it is one of the features of language.Eg: I went yerterday你用脑袋好好想一想用鼻子闻一下毫无根据的诽谤（5）equivalenceEquivalence means that the propositions contains in sentences are equivalent, not sentences themselves--- it also used in logic, referring to certain sentences are equivalent in truth value.Eg: The textbook is on the top of the desk.(6) EntailmentSome sentences or propositions logically entail other sentences or propositions.Eg: A: Mary killed spy.B: The spy died.Proposition: a statement is a proposition if it can be judged either T or F. ( one sentence may contain different propositions) ( different referents express different propositions)Eg: I an a teacher.A: He almost manage to win the electionB: He didn’t win the electionA entails BA: Now he had a passport again. Bill will be able to leave the countryB: Bill left the country.A: John is a bachelor.B: John is unmarried.Some patternsPersuade sb to do sthPersuade sb thatEg: A: I persuade John to give the first three lecturesB: John gave the first three lectures( not entail)A: I persuade John that he was wrong.B：John accepted that he was wrong.( entail )A: If you don't come before 5 o’clock. You don’t find him at home.B: You will find him if you come before 5 o’clock.In this case, A doesn’t entail B, because “not” in A functions not only a negative mark but also shows different meanings. A means that you nay or may not find him before 5 o’clock.4 Various theories of meaning4.1 referential theory of meaningRefrence：（指称关系）Refrent：（指称物）Referring expression: (指称表达式)---the relationship between language and worldAccording to this theory, linguistic expression is what it refers to or stands for. (It is modest, because it has its own significance in the study of meaning, emphasizing relatedness of language to the world. It is too extreme, reducing language to its reference. It is the first theory to explore relation between language and world.)Why is it too extreme?It is not convincing: for example, one-one relationGeorge Bush (linguistic expression): a real person; the president of U.S.( referents)One linguistic expression has more than one referent.Problems:1. Meanings can not be equivalent with reference.e.g. Venus(金星)/启明星/长庚星Different expressions may refers to the same thing( one referent), but mean quite differently, even when meaning and referent are identical in the following sentence containing “I”.I attend the meeting Friday. One-a lot of (relation)2. This theory proves to be invalid, incapable of explaining expressions which do not have referent but intuitively speaking, they are meaningful.e.g. Marilyn Monroe spends a very wonderful life.Your apple is very sweet.The above sentences have no referent at all.This meaning is invalidated in the theory of meaning.4.2 The ideational theory of meaningAccording to this theory, the meaning of expression is the idea or the concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows the expression. (Changeable, flexible, different people may form different pictures when exposed to the object.)The idea or images called concepts are fleeting (changing), and then ideas are changing.4.3 Behaviorist theory of meaningAccording to this theory, the meaning of expression is either the stimulus that evokes or the response that it evokes or a combination of both in particular occasions of an utteranceThe relation between language and stimulus is not one to one, but quite complicated, perhaps one to many.e.g. One girl sees apples on the table and she want an apple. She may express this intention in different ways.a. Look at those apples. I am hungry. Would you please fetch one for me?b. You know I love apples.c. I beg you cannot get that apple with a wooden leg.- These responses are quite different in meaning, not valid to explain meaning.- Each theory has its own contribution to a certain degree in the study of meaning.4.4 The meaning-in-use theoryAccording to this theory, the meaning of expression is determined by if not in identical ways its use in the language. The language use cannot be separated from contexts, so the use meaning is also contextualism.Problems:a.Meaning shouldn’t be taken as use. Meaning is logically prior to use. The use theory is questioned.b. This theory is too over generalized and doesn’t have much actual value, because context itself is not enough for analyzing meaning.c. To equate meaning with context, we can only account for simple instance of language use.d. Context is related with objective world, and knowledge about word is so much limited, we cannot totally rely on this knowledge to analyze meaning, nor can we extend the scope of semantic study to the study of the world.4.5 The verification theory of meaning--Falsifiability--Truth value theory, truth- conditional theoryLeech’s classification of meaning--This theory is advocated by Vienna Circle ( a group of people in pursuit of empiricism) and Schick is the authority one.-- According this theory, the meaning of an expression, if it has one, is determined by verifiability of the sentences or propositions containing the expression.--This theory just provides a criterion of judging whether a proposition is meaningful or not instead of what is meaning.-- Schick said that stating the meaning of sentence amounts to stating the rules according to which the sentence is to be used.This is the same as stating the way in which it can be verified or falsified.Problems:1. It is hard to determine how many observations or statements will be enough to verify a proposition. ( infinite in number )e.g. My brother is bald.For time being, whether or not I have a brother.For time being, whether or not my brother is bald.The meaning of the above sentence is determined by a set of observations/ statements and statements are observational statements.They provide the mean for observationally verifying whether the speaker has a brother and for time being whether he is bald. If this statement is verified, the proposition is true or it is false.2. Secondly, only deals with the meaning of declarative sentence which make statements.4.6 The true-conditional theory of meaning (logic semantics)-- According to this theory, the meaning of expression is contribution to the truth conditions of sentences containing the expression.-- Truth conditions are conditions under which propositions prove to be true or false.Chapter 3. Types of MeaningThere is intrinsic connection between meaning and communication in semantics. (Intentional transmission of meaning)In semantics, intentional transmission of communication by means of some established signal system. (Language)3.1 classifications of signals1. verbalGrammatical linguistic and lexical linguistic2. non-verbal(1) Linguistic (vocal; intonation; stress)(2) ParalinguisticVocal (loudness, tone of voice, tempo)Non-vocal (eye movement; facial expression, gesture)(3) non-linguisticVocal: individual voice3 qualityNon-vocal: blush3.2 classification of meaning3.2.1 Propositional meaning/conceptual/referential/denotative/According to Herford O Hensley, propositions are things that are true or false. A proposition is that of meaning of the utterance of declarative sentence which describes some states of affairs. The difference between sentence and proposition:a. Proposition is not the same as a sentence. The same sentence can express different propositions by means of the reference, because a speaker indicates which things or persons in this world are talked about.e.g. here, there, nowb. Because of ambiguityThe same sentence may express different propositions.e.g. Vagueness----referent---- not clear ( feature of language )Possessive case:This is Jean’s picture.The picture taken by Jean.The picture belongs to Jean.The picture of Jean.3.2.2. Social meaning: language is social phenomenon(1) Illocutionary meaning(2) Speaker/ addressee(3) Stylistic / register(1) Illocutionary meaning---when we utter a sentence, we are performing a certain speech act from the perspective of semantics. It expresses a kind of logical meaning.e.g. It’s a nice day!I state it a nice day! ----- perform a sentence---illocutionary force.Propositional meaning vs. illocutionary meaningSometimes we can have illocutionary meaning without propositional meaning to perform speech act expresses illocutionary forcee.g. Good morning can’t be judged true or false.In uttering sentences, we perform speech act under felicity condition.e.g. In the evening, people are going to go asleep, it is not proper to say have a nice day.(2)Speaker/addressee relationshipPower vs. solidarityThe speaker may have the power over the addressee, vice versa.e.g. In Chinese, we have 你and 您, in French we have tu and vous, but in English we don’t have this kind of phenomena.Different pronouns indicate different relationship between speaker and addressee.Solidarity shows the equal relationship between the speaker and hearer.T/V: tu/vous formTReciprocal vs. non-reciprocalTerms of addressingWhen addressing somebody, you can use different terms. Different choices of terms in a way may reflect a speaker and addressee relationship.Terms of addressing: the point is under the topic of “power and solidarity”. This point is related to social meaning which we can study in a diachronic way.e.g.①We often call some colleagues teacher Wang or teacher Li, which shows that the speaker and the addressee is equal in status. And sometimes we call some of our colleagues XiaoLi or XiaoWang, which shows that the speaker is older than the addressee. In terms of age, the speaker has the power over the addressee.②The addressing term may change with the time. We often use “同志” in Chinese, but in English the correspondent word “comrade” has another meaning (gay or homosexual). So English people don’t use this word so often. From the 1950s to present, the meaning of “comrade” has been extended and it has derogatory meaning, thus people don’t have positive association of the word meaning.③In the 1970s or 1980s, we have the addressing terms of “师傅” and “徒弟” in the factory. At present, we call the taxi driver “师傅” instead of “comrade” or “driver”, though we don’t have the “徒弟” relationship.师傅：master, master worker徒弟：apprentice, follower, discipleThe addressing terms change with the time, which shows the changing and development of society have influence on language. The changing of addressing terms reflects the emotional meaning. Two points concerning social meaning in terms of speaker/addressee relationshipT/T form is more common than the T/V form. T/V form is more often used in grammatical system, while in English there is no such kind of grammatical terms to show solidarity and power of speaker and addressee relationship. But we can use titles, such as Mr., Miss, Mrs.e.g. when we say “This is Mr. Smith” which is very formal. We can say “This is Tom” to show the intimate relationship. If we are good friends, we use a given name only, a shortened family name, or even the nickname. Such as Charles, Charli or Chuck.(3) Stylistic/register meaning.These two are related, but not the same, both of them can be defined as the variety of language depending on the use rather than the user.User: dialectsStyle: is defined as situationally distinctive use of a variety of language.(e.g. oral form & written form; formal form & informal form, literary form, colloquial form, technical form)Register:is closely used in linguistics and sociolinguistics. It is a variety of language defined according to its use in social situation.Their conceptual/propositional meanings are the same, but register/ stylistic meanings are not.e.g.分analyze the problem (chemist)析dissect the subject (medical)问expounded the problem (missionary)题explain/ make it clear (colloquial form by common people)Three points concerning stylistic/ register meaning①formality vs. informalityWhen we talked about register, we talk about formality and informality.e.g. 流汗：informal: sweat, formal: perspireIn different context, we use different words.②provinceIt is referred to the professional or academic fields.e.g. program: computer program 计算机程序，TV program 电视节目③modeWhen we talk about mode, we talk about writing and speech. Writing is more formal than speech, but not always.Phrasal verbs are less formal than single verbse.g. 提出(理论)：propose, put forward, set forth, come up with, advance, initiate, advocate, etc. The point is proposed by Leech: synonyms are used in different contexts, but the conceptual meanings are the same.e.g. Home: formal: domicile/ residence, in poetry: abodee.g. Small: little, tiny, wee(Scottish dialect), diminutive (formal)3.2.3 Emotive/ indexical meaningIt concerns the use of certain expression through which we can find speaker’s identity or status. It is not conveyed by linguistic components, but by non-linguistic components, such as voice quality (passive voice or active voice)①emotional/ emotive meaning expresses speakers or writers attitude of emotional involvement, it focus on speaker and writer. Sometimes emotional meaning overlaid on propositional meaning. e.g. when the black people were transported to America as slaves, their master often called them “nigger”, later on, they called them “negro” to show their low social status contrary to their master. In the 1960s, they were called “black people” instead of “negro” contrary to the white. Later on, they called them “Afro-American”. Form this we can see the addressing terms change with time, the emotional involvement involved in these terms change with the time.②emotional meaning is expressed without propositional meaning through tone of voice, intonation or intonation pattern. This kind of meaning can be judged as true or false as it expresses certain state of affairs.e.g. the baby which/ who you saw this morning.“Which” is acceptable according to grammatical rule. When we use “which”, it means we treat baby/ the man as something instead of a person, “which” shows the speaker is more separate/ distant from the things involved. “Who” shows more personal feeling with the person or man.3.2.4 Thematic meaningBy thematic meaning, in different sources, the terms are similar. But different scholars may use different terms: theme vs. rheme; topic vs. comment; given information vs. new information; background vs. focus. All these terms are used to show thematic meaning.Definition given by Leech: thematic meaning derives from theme. It is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organized the message in terms of ordering, focus or emphasis. Thematic meaning may be different according to what the speaker wants to emphasize or highlight. Under this one, we have three points:①normally, the propositional meaning must be the same. In this case, we can compare thematic meaning. This kind of meaning can be expressed by either verbal or non-verbal component. Verbal componen t means the arrangement of words.Non-verbal component means intonation, stress and etc, which are used to accompany verbal signals.②Thematic meaning is expressed by voiceNormally, active or passive voice counterparts express the same propositional meaning, but different lies in the thematic meaning.e.g. i. Marry donated the first prize. (The first prize is new information.)ii. The first prize was donated by Marry. (Mary is new information.)For the first sentence, the author wants to highlight “what is donated.” For the second sentence, the author wants to emphasize “who donated the first prize.”e.g. i. Everyone in this class speaks two languages.ii. Two languages are spoken by everyone in this class.For the first sentence, the people in the class can speak two languages, but the languages are not fixed. For the second sentence, the people in this class speak two fixed languages, such as English and French, or English and Germany. The propositional meaning maybe change when the thematic meaning changes.If the voice transfers, the propositional meanings are different. Quantifier and negation transfer will cause the change of propositional meanings.③ Thematic meaning is expressed through other grammatical constructions.e.g. i. A student is waiting ouside.(waiting outside is new information.)ii. There is a student waiting outside.(a student waiting outside is new information.)The proposition meaning is the same, but thematic meaning is changed. First part, “there be” is old information.Change order:e.g. i. They stopped at the end of corridor.(at the end of corridor is new information.)ii. At the end of corridor, they stopped.(they stopped is new information.)④ Thematic meaning is expressed through intonation, stress to highlight one part of sentence.e.g. i. ‘John kept the watch. (it is John, not somebody else who kept the watch.)ii. John ‘kept the watch. (it is kept, not buy or else)iii. John kept the ‘watch. (it is watch, not something else that John kept.)Connotative meaning is proposed by Leech. Connotative meaning is the communicative value, an expression has by means of what it refers to over and above its purely conceptual content.e.g. woman [+human, +adult, -male] Psychological meaning and physical characteristics, not social. Male is unmarked.Woman’s associate meaning: patient, irrational, wear skirt, gentle, kind, prone to tears, good at cooking, capable of speech, expression, sentimental.Connotative meaning is not what is included in language system. People should draw a distinction between speaker’s attitudes and what is encoded in the language system.Further discussion on proposition meaning:(1) Different between valid and invalid inferencesPremise i:Premise ii:Conclusion:e.g. premise i: All men are mortal. (T)premise ii: John is a man. (T)conclusion: John is mortal. (T) valid inferencee.g. premise i: All men are mortal. (T)premise ii: Fido is not a man. (T)conclusion: Fido is not mortal.(F) invalid inferenceIf “not” appears in premise, the conclusion is difficult to get.(2) Different between valid and truth conclusione.g. premise i: All men are mortal.(T)premise ii: God is not a man. (T)conclusion: God is not mortal.(T) conclusion is true, but it is invalid inference. Since without premise i and ii, the conclusion is still right. According to common sense, the conclusion “God is not mortal” is unrelated to premise i and ii.(3) Difference between deductive and inductiveDeductive inference: the truth of the premise guarantees the truth of conclusion. It is from general truth to particular facts.Inductive inference: the method of reasoning from particular facts to general truth.e.g. premise i: Professor Smith had 200 students in his class at beginning of the semester.Premise ii: Three weeks later, he had only 10 students in his class.Conclusion: Professor Smith course is unpopular.This adopts the deductive method, but the conclusion is invalid.There are two conditions:①The number of the students in the Mr. Smith’s class is not the convincing evidence to prove whether Mr. Smith’s class is popular or not.②Maybe, at first the students thought the course provided by Mr. Smith is interesting at the first sight, but when they attended the class for themselves, they finally find that it is very hard for them to follow the teacher; therefore they were absent form the teacher’s class.(4) Analytic proposition and synthetic propositionNormally, analytic proposition is one whose truth is independent of the way the world we live in happens to be. The truth of this kind of proposition is true in all possible words.In contrast, synthetic proposition is one whose truth is dependent on the way the world we live in happens to be.(Analytic:措辞为真，保证命题为真，synthetic:需用事态来衡量)e.g. All spinsters are unmarried.This is analysis proposition, since its truth is independent of the world we live in.e.g. My brother is a bachelor.This is synthetic proposition, since its truth is dependent on the verification of whether the speaker has a brother or not and whether or not for the time being her/ his brother is a bachelor.(5) the propositional calculusThe basic formation of proposition: simple proposition and complex proposition.Simple proposition is one that doesn’t contain any constituent propositions within it.Complex proposition is one that is formed from one or more constituent propositions by means of connective.“and”, “and then”, “or”, and “not” are logic connectives. They are also called operators.e.g. John did not buy a Ford.(it is a simple sentence, but a complex proposition with “not” in it.) e.g. they got married and they got a baby. (“and” shows the logic order. It is different from “and” in the sentence “Mary and I go to the cinema.”)(6) truth function connectiveA connective is said to be truth functional if and only if the truth value of the complex propositions formed by applying it to one or more constituent propositions. It is fully determined by the truth values of those component propositions.(如果构成复合命题的各自命题为真，则复合命题为真；如果构成复合命题的各子命题不能保证为真，则connective不具有真值涵项性)Truth Table①同真为真，一假为假p q p&qT T TF T FT F FF F F②一个为假，则为假if前件…then后件，p→qp q p qT T TT F FF T FF F Fp q p v (or)q T T TT F TF T TF F F p q p≡q p ) q T T TT F FF T FF F Te.g.: John went to Paris before Mary died1 2This is a complex proposition. Supposed that 1 and 2 are the facts, but the connective “before” is not truth functional, since we can not decide whether or not John went to Paris before or after.e.g.: The question is discussed in the aspects or syntactic structure.The connective “or” is truth functional“and” conjunction“v” “or” discojunction inclusive 讨论的是命题“)” if…then 蕴含关系implication“≡” equivalence“~” negation[8]. Formation of structure of simple proposition(1) Predicate 谓元vs argument 主元Structure of simple proposition is formed by combining predicate with one or more arguments. e.g.: Mary is tall.Argument predicateJohn loves Mary.Argument predicate argumentBy predicate, we mean a term which is used in combination with a name in order to give some information about individual that the name refers to. Usually verbs, adjectives and common names are used as predicates.Argument: According to John Lyons, something which is named or talked about usually proper names are used.e.g.: Brute is a mouseProper name common namesArgument predicateThe classification of predicate: one-place, two-place, three-placeAccording to the number of arguments, they are combined to form a simple proposition.e.g.: Mary is tall. ------------One-placeThis one is preferable to that one-------------two-placeHe gave me a rose----------three-placeI bought this clothe from Internet for 100RMByuan. -----------four-placeTraditionally, the classification of predicates is according to the number of objects.No-objects one-object two-objects4. structural semantics: sense relation4.1 Structural semantics states or analyzes the meaning of words in terms of their association with other words in the language system.Association is the key word. Words in the vocabulary form a kind of relation in the system. Semanticists focus their attention on what is called implicational lexical relations. The main concern is lexical meaning.4.2 Sense relation: refers to the relations of sense holding within sets of lexemes.“sense”, this term was used early in the last century, may at the end of the 19th century. A famous scholar Fregue drew a distinction between sense and reference. If we use the sense of a word, we mean its place in the system of relationships which it contrasts with other words in the vocabulary of certain language.Reference: studies the relation between language and the world.Sense: studies the relation within the language systemWhy people use “sense”, this term instead of “meaning”?since meaning is too general and vague, we need to be specific we use sense instead of meaning. 4.3 Six types of sense relation-----可以用蕴含公式表达Square not triangle incompatibleCat ←→ not dogEasy ←→ difficult → antonymWife ←→ husband → converseSingle ←→ married → complementary4.3.1 Hyponymy (superordinates, originally called inclusion by analogy.)Hyponym 共同下义词e.g.: He caught a sparrow.------ He caught a bird.(yes, entail)He didn’t catch a sparrow. ------ He didn’t catch a bird. (No)This is a rose. -------- This is a flower. (Yes)I hate roses. ----- I hate flowers. (No)n →谓语(蕴含关系)n →宾语(一般不是)----Hyponymy is a relative notion not absolute one, which means a certain lexemes or words maybe surperordinates in contrast with one set of words, but may also be hyponyms in contrast with other sets of words.----Vocabulary of natural language tends to have many gap related to what we are talking about. e.g.: lexical gap: (1) 阉割(2) no common superordinates for word colourcolour ←→ white shape → triangle, squareblack, yellow(The parts of speech of hyponymy must be the same)4.3.2 Synonymy----Synonyms can be categorized into 2 types:(1)Absolute synonyms: refers to the synonyms which are interchangeable in all contexts.e.g.: word-formation = word buildingNorth Korea → fatherland→ motherland→ homeland(2)Relative synonyms:refers to those synonyms with common basic meaning but slightlydifferent in terms of use or meaning. Such synonyms are abundant in any language.e.g.: beautiful---pretty---charming---attractiveempty---vacant---hollow-----In different contexts, we use different synonyms. Many synonyms may have different senses which are in contrast with different synonyms and antonyms. Different senses contrast with different linguistic item.e.g.: He is a bit high. = He is a bit drunkhigh。

语义学复习提纲

语义学复习提纲概念：语言符号的任意性、任意性：也叫绝对任意性理据性：也叫相对任意性、可论证性、象似性从语言发展阶段看：原生阶段具有任意性、派生、合成阶段具有理据性，句法组合具有象似性。

从语言系统看：单纯词具有任意性。

合成词和句子具有任意性。

任意性和理据性都是语言符号的特点。

本义、一般指词的原始意义或较早的意义，从字面上讲，也就是本来的意思。

引申、引申大体上可以分成隐喻和换喻两种方式。

引申义词语由本义引申而成的新义。

语义特征(义素)义素对义位（义项）进行分解得到的语义区别性特征。

语义场、上下位义场：同属于一个上位概念的下位概念构成联想语义场。

颜色词和亲属词。

部分整体义场顺序义场2）反义义场极性对立义场：非A一定B：大小互补反义义场：非A即B类：死活关系反义义场：夫妻（3）同义义场生日/诞辰父亲/爸爸（4）多义义场语义范畴、语法范畴:把同一性质的语法意义综合和概括所形成的语法意义的类别论元（语义角色、语义格）、题元跟动词发生语义关系的名词（代词）是题元（theme），根据名词和动词具体的语义关系，每一个题元便获得了一个题元角色（thematicrole）。

乔姆斯基提到的题元角色主要有以下一些：（1）施事（Agent）大脑对客观世界进行认知加工，经过加工后的世界是主客观相结合的产物。

这种主客观相互作用的认知加工过程就是对事物的分类过程即范畴化过程，结果形成认知范畴。

家族相似性通常认为某一词类的全体成员一定共有某一分布特征，那么全体成员具有家族相似性。

1.以运动会为例，各种比赛项目交叉相似。

称为家族相似性。

二、原型.原型是某类范畴中最好、最典型的成员。

跟它最接近的成员最具原型性，反之为边缘成员有以下特点：①决定范畴内涵的属性机器数目是不确定的。

②范畴的边界是模糊的③成员的地位成员不平等④原型性更高的成员最大限度地区别于其他范畴的原型成员⑤原型是由完形感知形成的。

原型施事、原型施事范畴中最好、最典型的成员。

语义学重点

5.1 Meanings of “meaning”意义的分类G. Leech Semantics1. Conceptual meaning概念意义Logical, cognitive, or denotative content概念意义指的是词语中将其与外部世界的现象联系起来的那部分意义。

Bird: a two-legged, winged, egg-laying, warm-blooded creature with a beak两条腿,长有翅膀、能下蛋的,有喙的温血动物2. Connotative meaning内涵意义What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.一个词语的内涵意义就是该词语在人们心目中所暗示出的一种情感方面的联系。

Pig: a kind of domestic animal --- dirty,lazy, greed for food3. Social meaning社会意义What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.由于使用场合的不同,词语在交际中往往会表达出不同的社会意义。

daddy,father,male parent这三个词语,它们的概念意义相同,指称的是同一个对象。

但这三个词语的风格意义则不同:daddy是非正式的口语词,是儿童在家庭内部的用语;male parent是较正式的书面用语,常作为专门术语用于正式的法律文件、档案材料等;father一词在文体上则属中性。

汉语的母亲、妈妈、妈咪、俺娘、老娘和令堂这几个词语概念意义完全一样,但它们所反映出的交际场合、交际对象等社会环境意义则有很大的差异。

4. Affective meaning感情意义What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.语言中有些成对的含有褒贬意义的词语如slender/skinny, statesman/politician, scholar/bookworm等都带有较强的情感意义。

语义学题库

语义学题库
（最新版）
目录
1.语义学题库的定义和重要性
2.语义学题库的内容和分类
3.语义学题库的应用和影响
4.我国语义学题库的发展现状和挑战
5.语义学题库的未来发展趋势和建议
正文
语义学题库是语义学研究的基础资源，对于自然语言处理、人工智能等领域具有重要的意义。

语义学题库的内容丰富，分类细致，不仅包括了基本的语义学概念，还涵盖了语言结构、语义分析、语义生成等方面的知识。

语义学题库在学术研究、技术开发和教育培训等领域有着广泛的应用。

它可以为研究人员提供理论依据和研究方法，可以帮助开发人员构建更加智能的自然语言处理系统，也可以为学习者提供系统的学习资源。

我国语义学题库的发展起步较晚，但近年来取得了显著的进展。

目前，我国的语义学题库已经初步形成了一定的规模，并且正在向深度和广度发展。

然而，我国的语义学题库还面临着一些挑战，比如资源不足、分类标准不统一等问题。

对于语义学题库的未来发展，我们应当注重资源的建设和整合，制定统一的分类标准，提高语义学题库的利用效率。

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