外文翻译111
外文翻译中英文对照
Strengths优势All these private sector banks hold strong position on CRM part, they have professional, dedicated and well-trained employees.所以这些私人银行在客户管理部分都持支持态度，他们拥有专业的、细致的、训练有素的员工。
Private sector banks offer a wide range of banking and financial products and financial services to corporate and retail customers through a variety of delivery channels such as ATMs, Internet-banking, mobile-banking, etc. 私有银行通过许多传递通道（如自动取款机、网上银行、手机银行等）提供大范围的银行和金融产品、金融服务进行合作并向客户零售。
The area could be Investment management banking, life and non-life insurance, venture capital and asset management, retail loans such as home loans, personal loans, educational loans, car loans, consumer durable loans, credit cards, etc. 涉及的领域包括投资管理银行、生命和非生命保险、风险投资与资产管理、零售贷款（如家庭贷款、个人贷款、教育贷款、汽车贷款、耐用消费品贷款、信用卡等）。
Private sector banks focus on customization of products that are designed to meet the specific needs of customers. 私人银行主要致力于为一些特殊需求的客户进行设计和产品定制。
外文翻译
一个新的主导逻辑/ 1 Journal of MarketingV ol. 68 (January 2004), 1 – 17Stephen L. Vargo & Robert F. Lusch进化到一个新的主导逻辑营销营销继承了交换从经济学模型，它具有基于交换的主导逻辑货物”，“通常是制造业产值。
主导逻辑集中在有形资源，嵌入式值，和交易。
在过去的几十年里，新的观点出现了，有一个修订的逻辑专注于无形资源，共同创造的价值，和关系。
作者认为，新的观点正在融合形成一个新的市场主导逻辑，一个提供服务而不是商品经济交换的基础。
作者探讨了这种演变的逻辑和相应的移位透视营销学者，营销人员，营销者。
史蒂芬L.瓦戈是市场营销学教授来访，罗伯特H.史密斯商学院，马里兰大学（电子邮件：svargo@rhsmith.umd。
EDU）。
罗伯特F.卢施是院长和著名大学的教授，M.J.Neeley商学院，得克萨斯基督教大学，教授营销（休假），埃勒商学院和公共管理，亚利桑那大学（电子邮件：r.lusch @ edu TCU。
）。
作者的贡献同样这手稿。
作者感谢匿名审稿人的JM和谢尔比亨特，基因laczniak，艾伦马尔特，弗莱德摩根，和马修奥勃良对各种草稿本稿的评论。
市场营销的正式研究首先集中在分布和商品交换和制造产品特色的经济学基础（马歇尔1927；肖1912；Smith 1904）。
首先营销学者将注意力转向商品交换（- 1920），营销机构使货物并安排占有（Nystrom 1915；焊接1916），和需要的功能以便于商品的交换营销机构（谢灵顿1920；焊接1917）。
到了20世纪50年代开始，学校的功能变身营销管理学校，这是通过对管理决策方法营销功能和一个包罗万象的重点客户（德鲁克1954；莱维特1960；麦基特里克1957）。
麦卡锡（1960）和科特勒（1967）：营销作为一个决策活动旨在满足客户在利润的目标市场并进行优化在营销组合决策，或“4 P”的根本基础和纽带标准的经济模型的持续走强。
外文文献翻译译稿和原文
外文文献翻译译稿1卡尔曼滤波的一个典型实例是从一组有限的，包含噪声的，通过对物体位置的观察序列（可能有偏差）预测出物体的位置的坐标及速度。
在很多工程应用（如雷达、计算机视觉）中都可以找到它的身影。
同时，卡尔曼滤波也是控制理论以及控制系统工程中的一个重要课题。
例如，对于雷达来说，人们感兴趣的是其能够跟踪目标。
但目标的位置、速度、加速度的测量值往往在任何时候都有噪声。
卡尔曼滤波利用目标的动态信息，设法去掉噪声的影响，得到一个关于目标位置的好的估计。
这个估计可以是对当前目标位置的估计（滤波），也可以是对于将来位置的估计（预测），也可以是对过去位置的估计（插值或平滑）。
命名[编辑]这种滤波方法以它的发明者鲁道夫.E.卡尔曼（Rudolph E. Kalman）命名，但是根据文献可知实际上Peter Swerling在更早之前就提出了一种类似的算法。
斯坦利。
施密特（Stanley Schmidt）首次实现了卡尔曼滤波器。
卡尔曼在NASA埃姆斯研究中心访问时，发现他的方法对于解决阿波罗计划的轨道预测很有用，后来阿波罗飞船的导航电脑便使用了这种滤波器。
关于这种滤波器的论文由Swerling（1958）、Kalman (1960)与Kalman and Bucy（1961）发表。
目前，卡尔曼滤波已经有很多不同的实现。
卡尔曼最初提出的形式现在一般称为简单卡尔曼滤波器。
除此以外，还有施密特扩展滤波器、信息滤波器以及很多Bierman, Thornton开发的平方根滤波器的变种。
也许最常见的卡尔曼滤波器是锁相环，它在收音机、计算机和几乎任何视频或通讯设备中广泛存在。
以下的讨论需要线性代数以及概率论的一般知识。
卡尔曼滤波建立在线性代数和隐马尔可夫模型（hidden Markov model）上。
其基本动态系统可以用一个马尔可夫链表示，该马尔可夫链建立在一个被高斯噪声（即正态分布的噪声）干扰的线性算子上的。
系统的状态可以用一个元素为实数的向量表示。
外文文献翻译(英文+中文对照)
外文文献翻译 例如例如：：下面是一个样板下面是一个样板，，如需要更多的机械相关专业的外文文献可以联系QQ: 763077177 (非诚勿扰) Coating thickness effects on diamond coated cutting tools F. Qin, Y.K. Chou,D. Nolen and R.G. ThompsonAvailable online 12 June 2009. Abstract ：Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)-grown diamond films have found applications as a hard coating for cutting tools. Even though the use of conventional diamond coatings seems to be accepted in the cutting tool industry, selections of proper coating thickness for different machining operations have not been often studied. Coating thickness affects the characteristics of diamond coated cutting tools in different perspectives that may mutually impact the tool performance in machining in a complex way.In this study, coating thickness effects on the deposition residual stresses, particularly around a cutting edge, and on coating failure modes were numerically investigated. On the other hand, coating thickness effects on tool surface smoothness and cutting edge radii were experimentally investigated. In addition, machining Al matrix composites using diamond coated tools with varied coating thicknesses was conducted to evaluate the effects on cutting forces, part surface finish and tool wear.The results are summarized as follows. Increasing coating thickness will increase the residual stresses at the coating–substrate interface. On the other hand, increasing coating thickness will generally increase the resistance of coating cracking and delamination. Thicker coatings will result in larger edge radii; however, the extent of the effect on cutting forces also depends upon the machining condition. For the thickness range tested, the life of diamond coated tools increases with the coating thickness because of delay of delaminations. Keywords: Coating thickness; Diamond coating; Finite element; Machining; Tool wear1. IntroductionDiamond coatings produced by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technologies have been increasingly explored for cutting tool applications. Diamond coated tools have great potential in various machining applications and an advantage in fabrications of cutting tools with complex geometry such as drills. Increased usages of lightweight high-strength components have also resulted in significant interests in diamond coating tools. Hot-filament CVD is one of common processes of diamond coatings and diamond films as thick as 50 µm have been deposited on various materials including cobalt-cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co) . There have also been different CVD technologies, e.g., microwave plasma assisted CVD , developed to enhance the deposition process as well as the film quality too. However, despite the superior tribological and mechanical properties, the practical applications of diamond coated tools are still limited.Coating thickness is one of the most important attributes to the coating system performance. Coating thickness effects on tribological performance have been widely studied. In general, thicker coatings exhibited better scratch/wear resistance performance than thinner ones due to their better load-carrying capacity. However, there are also reports that claim otherwise and . For example, Dorner et al. discovered, that the thickness of diamond-like-coating (DLC), in a range of 0.7–3.5 µm, does not influence the wear resistance of the DLC–Ti6Al4V . For cutting tool applications, however, coating thickness may have a more complicated role since its effects may be augmented around the cutting edge. Coating thickness effects on diamond coated tools are not frequently reported. Kanda et al. conducted cutting tests using diamond-coated tooling . The author claimed that the increased film thickness is generally favorable to tool life. However, thicker films will result in the decrease in the transverse rupture strength that greatly impacts the performance in high speed or interrupted machining. In addition, higher cutting forces were observed for the tools with increased diamond coating thickness due to the increased cutting edge radius. Quadrini et al. studied diamond coated small mills for dental applications . The authors tested different coating thickness and noted that thick coatings induce high cutting forces due to increased coating surface roughness and enlarged edge rounding. Such effects may contribute to the tool failure in milling ceramic materials. The authors further indicated tools with thin coatings results in optimal cutting of polymer matrix composite . Further, Torres et al. studied diamondcoated micro-endmills with two levels of coating thickness . The authors also indicated that the thinner coating can further reduce cutting forces which are attributed to the decrease in the frictional force and adhesion.Coating thickness effects of different coating-material tools have also been studied. For single layer systems, an optimal coating thickness may exist for machining performance. For example, Tuffy et al. reported that an optimal coating thickness of TiN by PVD technology exists for specific machining conditions . Based on testing results, for a range from 1.75 to 7.5 µm TiN coating, thickness of 3.5 µm exhibit the best turning performance. In a separate study, Malik et al. also suggested that there is an optimal thickness of TiN coating on HSS cutting tools when machining free cutting steels . However, for multilayer coating systems, no such an optimum coating thickness exists for machining performance .The objective of this study was to experimentally investigate coating thickness effects of diamond coated tools on machining performance — tool wear and cutting forces. Diamond coated tools were fabricated, by microwave plasma assisted CVD, with different coating thicknesses. The diamond coated tools were examined in morphology and edge radii by white-light interferometry. The diamond coated tools were then evaluated by machining aluminum matrix composite in dry. In addition, deposition thermal residual stresses and critical load for coating failures that affect the performance of diamond coated tools were analytically examined.2. Experimental investigationThe substrates used for diamond coating experiments, square-shaped inserts (SPG422), were fine-grain WC with 6 wt.% cobalt. The edge radius and surface textures of cutting inserts prior to coating was measured by a white-light interferometer, NT1100 from Veeco Metrology.Prior to the deposition, chemical etching treatment was conducted on inserts to remove the surface cobalt and roughen substrate surface. Moreover, all tool inserts were ultrasonically vibrated in diamond/water slurry to increase the nucleation density. For the coating process, diamond films were deposited using a high-power microwave plasma-assisted CVD process.A gas mixture of methane in hydrogen, 750–1000 sccm with 4.4–7.3% of methane/hydrogen ratio, was used as the feedstock gas. Nitrogen gas, 2.75–5.5 sccm, was inserted to obtain nanostructures by preventing columnar growth. The pressure was about 30–55 Torr and the substrate temperature was about 685–830 °C. A forward power of 4.5–5.0 kW with a low deposition rate obtained a thin coating; a greater forward power of 8.0–8.5 kW with a highdeposition rate obtained thick coatings, two thicknesses by varying deposition time. The coated inserts were further inspected by the interferometer.A computer numerical control lathe, Hardinge Cobra 42, was used to perform machining experiments, outer diameter turning, to evaluate the tool wear of diamond coated tools. With the tool holder used, the diamond coated cutting inserts formed a 0° rake angle, 11° relief angle, and 75° lead angle. The workpieces were round bars made of A359/SiC-20p composite. The machining conditions used were 4 m/s cutting speed, 0.15 mm/rev feed, 1 mm depth of cut and no coolant was applied. The selection of machining parameters was based upon previous experiences. For each coating thickness, two tests were repeated. During machining testing, the cutting inserts were periodically inspected by optical microscopy to measure the flank wear-land size. Worn tools after testing were also examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In addition, cutting forces were monitored during machining using a Kistler dynamometer.5. ConclusionsIn this study, the coating thickness effects on diamond coated cutting tools were studied from different perspectives. Deposition residual stresses in the tool due to thermal mismatch were investigated by FE simulations and coating thickness effects on the interface stresses were quantified. In addition, indentation simulations of a diamond coated WC substrate with the interface modeled by the cohesive zone were applied to analyze the coating system failures. Moreover, diamond coated tools with different thicknesses were fabricated and experimentally investigated on surface morphology, edge rounding, as well as tool wear and cutting forces in machining. The major results are summarized as follows.(1) Increase of coating thickness significantly increases the interface residual stresses, though little change in bulk surface stresses.(2) For thick coatings, the critical load for coating failure decreases with increasing coating thickness. However, such a trend is opposite for thin coatings, for which radial cracking is the coating failure mode. Moreover, thicker coatings have greater delamination resistance.(3) In addition, increasing the coating thickness will increase the edge radius. However, for the coating thickness range studied, 4–29 µm, and with the large feed used, cutting forces were affected only marginally.(4) Despite of greater interface residual stresses, increasing the diamond coating thickness, for the range studied, seem to increase tool life by delay of coating delaminations.AcknowledgementsThis research is supported by National Science Foundation, Grant No.: CMMI 0728228. P. Lu provided assistance in some analyses.金刚石涂层刀具的涂层厚度的影响作者：F. Qin, Y.K. Chou,D. Nolen and R.G. Thompson发表日期：2009摘要：化学气相沉积法（CVD），金刚石薄膜的发现，作为涂层刀具的应用。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。
外文翻译原文--多边形孔周边应力场的分布
E-mail address: dss_iit@ 0020-7403/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. /10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2012.09.009
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 11 February 2012 Received in revised form 27 August 2012 Accepted 12 September 2012 Available online 12 October 2012 Keywords: Complex variable Cauchy’s integral Stress concentration factor Isotropic plates Stress functions Biaxial loading
abstract
General solutions for determining the stress distribution around holes in an infinite plate subjected to arbitrary biaxial in-plane loadings at infinity, are obtained using Muskhelishvili’s complex variable method. The stress functions are obtained by evaluating Cauchy’s integral for the given boundary conditions. The generalized formulation thus obtained is coded and numerical results are presented for triangular, square, pentagonal, hexagonal, heptagonal and octagonal cut-out. The effect of the hole geometry and loading pattern on the stress concentration factor is studied. For some of the cases, plane stress finite element models are prepared in ANSYS and results are compared with present method. & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
外文翻译原文
IntroductionLatvian legislation for forest protection belts Latvian legislation demands that forest protection belts are established around all cities and towns. The concept of protection belts originates from the Soviet Era and is maintained in Latvian legislation despite the radical changes to the political system after regaining indepen-dence in 1991. The legal background for the establish-ment of protection belts is as follows:•Law on Protection Belts (1997, 2002)•Forest Law (2000)•Law on Planning of Territorial Development (1998).Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga, LatviaJanis DonisLatvian State Forestry Research Institute ‘Silava’, Salaspils, LatviaAbstract: Latvian legislation demands that forest protection belts are established around all cities and towns. The main goal of a protection belt is to provide suitable opportuni-ties for recreation to urban dwellers and to minimise any negative impacts caused by urban areas on the surrounding environment. Legislation states the main principles to be adopted, which include the maximum area of protection belts, their integration in terri-torial development plans and restrictions placed on forest management activities. The largest part of the forest area around Riga is owned by the municipality of Riga, which, as a result, has two competing interests: to satisfy the recreational needs of the inhabitants of Riga, and to maximise the income from its property. In order to compile sufficient background information to solve this problem, the Board of Forests of Riga Municipality initiated the preparation of a proposal for the designation of a new protection belt.The proposal was based on the development and application of a theoretical framework developed during the 1980s. The analysis of the recreational value of the forest (5 class-es of attractiveness) was carried out based on categories of forest type, dominant tree species, dominant age, stand density, distance from urban areas and the presence of at-tractive objects. Information was derived from forest inventory databases, digital forest maps and topographic maps. Additional information was digitised and processed using ArcView GIS 3.2. Local foresters were asked about the recreation factors unique to differ-ent locations, such as the number of visitors and the main recreation activities. From a recreational point of view and taking into account legal restrictions and development plans for the Riga region, it was proposed to create three types of zones in the forest: a protection belt, visually sensitive areas and non-restricted areas.Key words:greenbelt forest, recreational value, GIS, zoningThe Law on Protection Belts states that protection belts around cities (with forests as part of a green zone)have to be established (a) to provide suitable conditions for recreation and the improvement of the health of urban dwellers, and (b) to minimise the negative im-pact of urban areas on the surrounding environment.Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003):031–0391618-8667/03/02/01-031 $ 15.00/0Address for correspondence:Latvian State Forestry Re-search Institute ‘Silava’, Rı¯gas iela 111, Salaspils, LV-2169,Latvia. E-mail: donis@silava.lv© Urban & Fischer Verlaghttp://www.urbanfischer.de/journals/ufugRegulation nr 263 (19.06.2001) on the ‘Methodology for the establishment of forest protection belts around towns’issued by the Cabinet of Ministers (CM) states: (a) The area of a protection belt depends on the numberof inhabitants in the town: towns with up to 10,000 inhabitants should have a maximum of 100 ha of protection belt, those with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants a maximum of 1,500 ha, and towns with more than 100,000 inhabitants a maxi-mum of 15,000 ha;(b) the borders of protection belts have to be able to beidentifiable on the ground, using features such as roads, ditches, power lines, and so forth;(c) protection belts have to be recorded in the territorialplans of regions adjacent to the town or city; and (d) establishment of protection belts has to be agreedupon by local municipalities.According to law, protection belts should be man-aged using adapted silvicultural measures. Clear-cut-ting, for example, is prohibited in a protection belt to mitigate any negative impacts of the city on the sur-rounding environment. The Forest Law of 2000 and subsequent regulations including the Regulation on Cutting of Trees, and the Regulation on Nature Conser-vation in Forestry define clear-cuts as felled areas larg-er than 0.1 ha where the basal area is reduced below a critical level in one year. These regulations also state the permitted intensity and periodicity of selective cut-ting (30–50%, at least 5 years between entries).The third element of the legal framework relevant for protection belts in Latvia is the Law on Planning of Territorial Development (1998). It defines:(a) Principles and responsibilities of the different or-ganisations involved;(b) the contents of territorial plans;(c) the procedures for public hearing; and(d) the procedures for the acceptance of plans.The law also states that protection belts around towns have to be designated in territorial plans. Thus, the legislation gives very detailed descriptions of the restrictions to maximum area, activities and guidelines for delineation and so forth, while there are no ‘rules’for the choice of what areas are to be included in pro-tection belts. It is up to territorial planners to propose what areas to include and for negotiation among mu-nicipalities to approve the selection.Protection belt for the city of RigaRiga and the Riga region are situated in the Coastal Lowland of Latvia within the Gulf of Riga. The main landform types are the Baltic Ice Lake plain, the Litto-rina Sea plain and the Limnoglacial plain and bog plain. The total area of the administrative area of the City of Riga covers 307.2 km2, and that of the Riga re-gion 3,059 km2. In 2000 the city of Riga had 815,000 inhabitants, while an additional 145,000 people resided in the greater Riga region. During the last decade the number of inhabitants in Riga decreased by 10.5%and in Riga region by 5.3%. In the mid-1990s the main types of industry in Riga were food processing, timber and wood processing, metal fabricating and engineer-ing, while in the region agriculture and forestry, wood processing, pharmaceuticals, and the power industry were the main activities. Due to reduced industrial ac-tivities today, the main sources of pollution in Riga re-gion are road transport and households.The greater part of the Riga region is covered by for-est, i.e. 1,642 km2or 53%. About 26% of the land is used for agriculture, 4% is covered by bogs, and 4% by water. The Riga region also has a coastal dune zone of some 30 km along the Gulf of Riga. The main tree species to be found in the Riga region are Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.),birch (Betula spp.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karsten) (see Table 1). In the administrative area of the city of Riga, 57 km2 or about 19% of the land area is forest. Scots pine is the domi-nant species, covering approx. 46.9 km2(i.e. 88% of the total forest area).According to the legislation described before, a pro-tection belt around Riga city, with a maximum size of 15,000 ha, could be designated. Moreover, any propos-al has to be agreed upon among 24 local municipalities. The Riga region is divided into 24 administrative units: 7 towns and 17 pagasts or ‘parishes’.Riga municipality currently owns more than 55,600 ha of forests. Most are situated in the vicinity of Riga. Four forest administrative districts lie completely with-in Riga region and close to Riga city (see Fig. 1). The total area of these districts is 44,158 ha out of which forest stands cover 36,064 ha (82%). Thus the Riga municipality forests of those 4 districts cover only 17% of the total forest area of the Region. The dominant tree species in the municipally owned forests are Scots32J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,LatviaUrban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Table 1.Tree species composition in the Riga region Dominant tree Area covered, ha Average age, years species––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Total Municipa-Total Municipa-lity*lity* Scots pine95,27627,3718581 Norway spruce20,8493,0175139Birch30,5585,1246056 Other10,438552––Total157,12136,0647369*Data only for the 4 forest districts of the Riga city munici-pality that are entirely situated within the Riga region.pine, birch and Norway spruce. These cover 76%, re-spectively 14% and 8% of the forest area. Other species cover less than 2% of the area.Until the re-establishment of Latvian independence almost all forestland was owned by the state but since then many areas have been returned to their former owners and are now privately owned. Current regula-tions state that until the designation of new boundaries for protection belts has been agreed upon, all forests of the previously existing and protected green zone have to remain protected whatever their functional role or ownership status. Consequently almost all forests of the Riga municipality located in the Riga region have management restrictions placed on them, and the same can be said for forests of other owners within the previ-ously existing green zone. Currently, therefore, on the one hand significant recreation opportunities for urban dwellers are provided, while on the other hand forest owners’rights to obtain income from timber harvest in the suburban areas continue to be restricted. Suburban municipalities also lose income because of reduced land taxes from land with management restrictions.The board of Forests of the Municipality of Riga there-fore initiated the preparation of a proposal to designate a new protection belt.Study to support protection belt designation The main objective of the study presented here has been to obtain background information in preparation for further discussions with local municipalities. Stud-ies in Latvia as well as elsewhere have revealed that recreational values of forests depend mainly on forest characteristics, location and level of pollution (Emsis et al. 1979; Emsis 1989; Holgen et al. 2000; Lindhagen & Hörnsten 2000; Rieps ˇas 1994; Su ¯na 1973, 1979). A very important aspect is the distance to the forest from places where people live (e.g. Rieps ˇas 1994). The abil-ity of a forest stand to purify the air by filtering or ab-sorbing dust, micro-organisms, and noxious gases de-pends on tree and shrub species composition, age, tree size and stand density (Emsis 1989). Stands purify the air most effectively at the time of maximum current an-nual volume increment, usually between 30 to 60 years of age in Latvian conditions, depending on species.Recreational value, on the other hand, increases with age (and tree size) and reaches its maximum consider-ably later. Taking into account the peculiarities of the dispersal of pollution as described by Laivin ‚s ˇ et al.(1993) and Za ¯lı¯tis (1993), selective cutting is prefer-able in the vicinity of a pollution source, especially ifJ.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,Latvia 33Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Fig. 1.Location ofthe Riga municipali-ty forests in the Riga region.the forest consists of a narrow strip between the pollu-tion source and housing. If the distance between a pol-lution source and housing exceeds several kilometres, a patch clear-cut system with stands of different ages is sufficient to provide a reduction in the negative impact of urban areas. Taking into account the fact that closer to residential areas it is more important to consider the visual qualities of the forest (e.g. Tyrväinen et al. 2003), this purification ability can generally be ignored when planning protection belts.MethodsThis study to support the designating of the Riga pro-tection belt used the following data sources for analysis (see Fig. 2): forest inventory databases, digital forest maps of the Riga municipal forests which are situated outside the administrative borders of the city (55,600 ha of which 44,158 ha located in the Riga region) (see Fig. 1), and corresponding topographic maps.The study and its developed proposal are based on an application of a theoretical approach developed during the 1980s by the Latvian State Forestry Research Insti-tute ‘Silava’(Emsis 1989) and the Lithuanian Forestry Research Institute (Riepsˇas 1994). According to the methodology developed by Emsis (1989), the first step in the process is to evaluate the recreational potential of the forest stands. This is carried out by analysing the following factors:• The tolerance of the forest ecosystem to different lev-els of anthropogenic (recreation) loading;• the status of forest ecosystems in terms of the damage or degradation as a result of recreational use;•the suitability of the landscape for non-utilitarian recreation (recreational value); and• the existing and potential levels of recreational loads.The second step involves evaluating the existing andexpected functional roles of the forest.The tolerance of the forest ecosystem to different levels of anthropogenic impact or loading is evaluated using a framework based on a combination of forest type, dominant tree species, dominant age group, soil type and relief, according to the stability of ecosystem. All stands are classified into one of five tolerance classes. The highest score is given to mature deciduous forests on mesotrophic and mesic soils on flat topogra-phy, while the lowest score is given to young pine stands on oligotrophic soils on steep slopes (forests on dunes).In this study ecosystem tolerance could not be evalu-ated, as it was primarily a desk using existing databas-es, and topographic relief maps were not available in digital form. The status of the forest ecosystem in rela-tion to damage or degradation was evaluated in terms of the degree of change in vegetation cover, under-growth, tree root exposure of the and level of littering, classified into three classes.Assessment of the recreational value of the forest stands was calculated using a formula developed by Riepsˇas (1994):Recreational value VR= (VS*kW*kS+VA)*kPWhere VSis stand suitability based on key internal at-tributes of the stand, such as species, age, stand densityand forest type. VSvalues range from 0 for young, high-density grey alder (Alnus incana L.) on wet peat soils, to 100 for average density mature pine stands ondry mineral soils. kwis a coefficient depending on the distance of the stand from watercourses, ranging from0.1 for stands further than 2 km from watercourses to1.0 for stands up to 500 m from watercourses. kSis a coefficient depending on the distance of the stand from urban areas, ranging from 0.1 for stands further than34J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,LatviaUrban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Fig. 2.Structure of data sources used in data ana-lysis.80 km from Riga to 1.0 for stands within 30 km ofRiga. VA is an additional value depending on the pres-ence of attractive features, for example, 25 for forest stands up to 500 m from settlements, including summer cottages, or for areas intensively used for recreation ac-cording to information of local foresters. kP is a coeffi-cient depending on the level of environmental pollu-tion. Its value is 0 if the actual pollution level exceeds limit values, 0.5 if the level of environment pollution is between 50% and 100% of limit values, and 1 if the level of actual pollution is less than 50% of the limit values. In this study a coefficient of 1.0 was used, be-cause SO2and O3concentrations measured by Rigabackground measuring stations did not exceed 50% of the limit values (Fammler et al. 2000).The division of stands into classes of stand suitabili-ty is based on studies of visitors’preferences. Coeffi-cients kw, ksand VAare based on visitors’spatial distri-bution and show the ratio of the number of visitors in different zones. The evaluation of existing and expect-ed recreational loads was carried out by local foresters. They marked existing and potential recreation places on forest maps, including:•Small areas or sites for activities such as swimming, barbecuing, and so forth.•Recreation territories, defined as areas of 20 ha or more where people stay longer periods for walking, jogging, skiing or other forms of both active and pas-sive recreation.•Traditionally popular places for the collection of berries and mushrooms.•Recreational routes, including routes from public transport stops to recreation sites or recreation terri-tories, and between recreation sites and territories. For each recreation site and recreation territory data on the main seasons of use, the periods of use (week-days, weekends), and the average number of people in ‘rush-hours’during good weather conditions was col-lected or estimated.Data processing was carried out using ArcView GIS3.2a, Visual Fox pro and Microsoft Excel. VS values foreach stand were calculated from information in the for-est database using Visual Fox pro. Information collect-ed at a later stage from local foresters was digitised using separate themes (layers) in ArcView GIS 3.2a. Buffer zones along watercourses and water bodies, as well as residential areas, recreation sites and territoriesand recreation routes were created to get kW ,kSand VAvalues for each stand. Then VR values were calculatedfor each stand.A selection of recreation sites and territories was vis-ited by members of the project team in order to evalu-ate the state of the ecosystem with respect to wear and tear arising from different levels of recreational use. An evaluation of the existing functional role of each forest stand was carried out using the existing categories offorest protection. The anticipated future functional role was evaluated by annalysing the recreational value of stands, known expectations in terms of territorial de-velopment, and existing legal restrictions in order to find a compromise between recreation possibilities and other services of the forest. Next, a first draft of the protection belt was drawn according to experts’judge-ment. This draft included forests with high recreational value adjacent to residential areas and summer cot-tages, and larger tracts intensively used for recreation with medium to high recreational value.ResultsAccording to the original forest classification 65% of the total forest land area was designated as a commer-cial greenbelt forest, for which the main management goals are timber production and environmental consid-erations. The remaining 35% were designated as pro-tected (see Table 2). With regards to protected areas in Latvia: the main management goals of nature parks are nature conservation and recreation, including some ed-ucation. The goal for nature reserves is nature conser-vation, while that of the protected greenbelt forests is recreation.While interviewing local foresters it was revealed that they find it difficult to evaluate dispersed recreation loads (for example collection of berries, mushrooms). The assessments of foresters varied greatly and were considered to be unreliable. It was therefore decided to map only the places important for recreation, but not to use the inaccurate estimates of visitor numbers.In Latvia, special investigations have to be carried out in order to develop management objectives and principles for protected forests as part of the preparation of management plans. Pilot studies and visits to some of the recreation areas have revealed that the evaluation of the state of the forest ecosystem is useful only when de-veloping the detailed management plan. Even then, this is only the case for places identified by local foresters as recreation sites or territories, because otherwise it is too time consuming to carry out fieldwork which provides little useful additional information.Calculated VSvalues show that on average the forests studied have a medium suitability value for recreation (average score 47) (see Table 2). There are considerable differences between districts, with aver-age value ranging from 32 points in Olaine to 66 points in the Garkalne district. This indicates that the average stands in the Garkalne district are more suitable for recreation than those in other districts. If other aspects are taken into account, such as distance from wherepeople live, and VRvalues are calculated it can be seenJ.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,Latvia35Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)that the districts are still ranked as follows: Garkalne,Jugla, Tireli and Olaine.Only 10% of the forest owned by Riga municipality within the Riga region were evaluated as having a high or very high recreational value. 12% had medium recreational value, while large areas used for the col-lection of berries and mushrooms were evaluated as having low or very low recreational value (60% of the total forest area) (see Table 3).More than 16% of the area is covered by bogs, for which according to the used methodology, recreational value was not evaluated at all. Some areas were recorded by the local foresters as important places for the collec-tion of berries. However, more valuable from a recre-ational point of view were those forests situated east and north-east of the city (Garkalne and Jugla districts),while the forests to the south (Olaine and Tireli districts)were found to have a lower recreational value (V R ).36J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,LatviaUrban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Table 2.Distribution of forest by forest categories according to the original functional role Forest districtDataFormer forest category Total–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Commercial Nature Nature Protected greenbelt forests parks reserves greenbelt forestsGarkalneArea, ha521.27,698.78,219.9Average of V S *61.966.566.2Average of V R **59.350.751.4JuglaArea, ha 8,376.74,098.812,475.4Average of V S 45.656.949.1Average of V R 22.034.025.7OlaineArea, ha 11,765.4707.512,473.0Average of V S 31.941.032.6Average of V R 8.527.410.0TireliArea, ha 8,689.5257.91,025.01,016.910,989.3Average of V S 40.666.710.059.342.3Average of V R 17.055.3 1.044.920.6TotalArea, ha 28,831.6779.11,025.013,522.044,157.6Average of V S 39.863.510.061.647.1Average of V R16.357.91.043.725.9* V S Suitability value – based on stand parameters (0–100 points).** V R Recreation value (0–125 points) based on stand parameters, distance to the residential areas, water and other attractive objects.Table 3.Distribution of forest areas by classes of attractiveness and by designated functional role Designated zoneDataClass of attractiveness Total –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––n.a.Very low Low Medium High Very high 0<2525,1–5051–7575–100100<Protection belt Area, ha76.7560.12,266.42,222.7850.5743.66719.9Average of V R *0.012.036.063.390.0125.053.4Visually sensitive Area, ha 447.64,150.54,157.7853.4847.1179.810636.1Average of V R 0.07.837.460.996.7125.028.5Non-restricted Area, ha 6,664.715,389.12,548.61,090.5874.8234.026801.7Average of V R 0.0 5.234.761.197.2125.015.8TotalArea, ha 7,189.020,099.88,972.74,166.52,572.31,157.344157.6Average of V R0.06.236.362.294.6125.025.9*V R Recreation value (0–125 points) based on stand parameters, distance to the residential areas, water and other attractive objects.Areas along main roads and railways are known to be visually sensitive, because of the large number of peo-ple who can see them during travel. The same is true for forest in the vicinity of small villages. Taking into ac-count the fact that legislation prohibits clear-cuts in pro-tection belts – which is not always necessary in order to maintain the visual quality of the landscape – it was proposed, as part of the zoning strategy, to create so called visually sensitive areas. In these areas the forest owner (Riga municipality) is recommended to use more detailed landscape-planning techniques and to pay more attention to visual aspects during management.As a result of the study, seen from a recreational point of view and taking into account legal restrictions and so forth, it has been proposed to create three zoning categories: (1) protection belts, (2) visually-sensitive areas, and (3) non-restricted areas (see Fig. 3). The protection belt should include:• Forest with high recreational value adjacent to residen-tial areas and summer cottages, to form a 200–500 m wide belt.• Larger tracts of forestland intensively used for recre-ation.The zone of visually-sensitive areas should include:• Forests within the administrative borders of Riga mu-nicipality and in the vicinity of villages (up to 200–500 m distance).• Forests along roads of national and regional impor-tance, railways, watercourses and streams as a protec-tion belt of 100–300 m wide.• Places used for mushroom and berry collection in the original restricted protection belt.• Places that could become important for recreation in the near future.J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,Latvia 37Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)Table 4.Proposed distribution of forest categories in designated zones (in hectares)Designated zoneFormer forest category Grand Total––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Commercial Nature Nature Protected greenbelt forests parks reserves greenbelt forests Protection belt355.2779.15,585.76,719.9Visually sensitive areas 3,503.97,132.110,636.1Non-restricted areas 24,972.51,025.0*804.226,801.7Total 28,831.6779.11,025.013,522.044,157.6*Forests within nature reserves are not intended for recreation; their primary management goal is nature conservation.Fig. 3.Proposal for zon-ing of the Riga municipalforests in Riga region.The remaining areas should consequently be classi-fied as non-restricted areas.A revision of the first draft plan was made taking into account the known prospective development plans of Riga and Riga region. As a result, for forests owned by Riga municipality and located in Riga region the pro-posal is to include 6,720 ha in the protection belt (see Table 3). Moreover, it has been suggested to designate 10,636 ha as visually-sensitive areas, but to omit the re-maining 26,802 ha from zoning, as these do not need special management from a recreation point of view. Average recreational values of stands in this area range from 53 (medium), through 28 (low) to 15 points (very low) respectively.As a result, the major part of the forest remains in the same functional category as in the original allocation (see Table 4). As was mentioned above, the classifica-tion described here is only based on recreational as-pects, thus forests in nature reserves are misleadingly shown as non-restricted forests. Only 5,586 ha out of the 13,500 thousand ha of the originally protected greenbelt forests are proposed to be included in the protection belt, while 355 ha of the previous commer-cial greenbelt forests are proposed to be placed under stronger protection.DiscussionForests owned by Riga municipality within the Riga re-gion are divided over 13 rural municipalities. Accord-ing to legislation, revised draft proposals for zoning Riga city forests have to be accepted by Riga munici-pality, while the final decision is up to Riga and the sur-rounding municipalities. The study presented here has provided a tentative estimate of the recreational value and suitability of the forests for recreation and can be used as a starting point for political discussions. At the very beginning the intention was to divide the forests in two categories: the protection belt and the remainder of the forest. During the study it was concluded, however, that a third category would be needed, that of visually sensitive areas. Within this category more attention would have to be paid to the amenity of the landscape, but there would be no need to drastically restrict com-mercial forest management. As nature parks are also designated for recreation, it has been proposed to in-clude all forests of nature parks in the protection belt. It has to be noted that all the forests within the adminis-trative borders of cities, and as such not included in this study, are designated as protected. As a consequence, the forest area available for recreation to the inhabi-tants of Riga would increase to 12,500 ha.Unlike many other European cities, where timber ex-traction is of small importance (Konijnendijk 1999),Riga municipal forests have a considerable economic role. It is estimated that the allowable annual cut in suburban forests amounts to 169,800 m3or 81% of the annual increment (Dubrovskis et al. 2002). It should be kept in mind that income from logging is used for for-est regeneration and tending, forest fire protection and maintenance of recreation facilities.The objective of this study was not to evaluate the precision of the method nor possible errors occurring when applying it. This study revealed, however, the in-completeness of the methodology used. Bogs, which are very sensitive to recreation loads, are ascribed quite a high level of attractiveness from a recreation point of view (for the collection of wild berries), but according to the methodology they are not evaluated at all. All watercourses were assumed to be attractive sites, while the preliminary evaluation of recreation loads showed this not to be true. The use of watercourses is very vari-able and obviously depends on water quality and vege-tation structure of the edges or banks. Another aspect which was not taken into account was that amenity of a forest is not simply the sum of the amenity values of forest stands (Pukkala et al. 1995).It seems that the evaluation based on dominant species is appropriate for screening areas, but for more detailed management plans, species mixture, the number of forest layers, and principles of landscape architecture also have to be taken into account (Bell 1999; Bell & Nikodemus 2000). Various studies have shown that people prefer uneven-aged forests (e.g. Melluma et al. 1982) and uneven-aged stands (e.g. Riepsˇas 1994). The impacts of the screening effect show that there are, even in the visually-sensitive and commercial zones, considerable areas with high and very high recreational value. This is mainly because delineation of zonal boundaries is carried out using easily distinguishable natural lines, and often it is not worth including single stands of high recreational value in the protection belt if, as a consequence, re-strictions on management would be placed over whole compartments of 50 ha.For the preparation of specific management guide-lines detailed field inventories have to be carried out. This has not been done in this study, where more re-liance was placed on the experience of local foresters and existing databases. Detailed economical calcula-tions have yet to be carried out in order to evaluate the direct and indirect value of the forest. These will also assist in obtaining more background information to be used as part of a holistic approach and for development of a decision support system to resolve contradictions between different interest groups.After acceptance of the draft plan by the municipali-ty of Riga, the process of negotiation between Riga and its surrounding municipalities is currently ongoing.38J.Donis:Designating a greenbelt around the city of Riga,Latvia Urban For.Urban Green.2 (2003)。
外文翻译--科隆大教堂
外文翻译--科隆大教堂外文原文Cologne CathedralFrom Wikipedia the free encyclopediaFind out more about navigating Wikipedia and finding information Jump to navigation searchCologne CathedralUNESCO World Heritage SiteState Party GermanyType CulturalCriteria i ii ivReference 292Region Europe and North AmericaInscription historyInscription 1996 20th SessionEndangered 2004-2006Name as inscribed on World Heritage ListRegion as classified by UNESCOThe Cologne Cathedral German Klner Dom officially Hohe Domkirche St Peter und Maria is the seat of the Archbishop of Cologne under theadministration of the Roman Catholic Church and is renowned as a monument of Christianity of Gothic architecture and of the faith and perseverance of the people of the city in which it stands It is dedicated to Saint Peter and the Blessed Virgin MaryThe cathedral is a World Heritage Site being one of the best-known architectural monuments in Germany and Colognes most famous landmark described by UNESCO as an "exceptional work of human creative genius"[1] Cologne Cathedral is one of the worlds largest churches being the largest Gothic church in Northern Europe For four years 1880-84 it was the tallest structure in the world until the completion of the Washington Monument followed by the Eiffel Tower It has the second-tallest church spires only surpassed by the single spire of Ulm Cathedral completed ten years later in 1890 Because of its enormous twin spires it also presents the largest faade of any church in the worldThe choir of Cologne Cathedral measured between the piers also holds the distinction of having the largest height to width ratio of any Medieval church 361 exceeding even Beauvais Cathedral which has a slightly higher vault [2]Construction of the Gothic church began in 1248 and took withinterruptions until 1880 to complete –a period of over six hundred years It is 1445 metres long 865 m wide and its two towers are 157 m tall [3]Cologne Cathedral despite having been left incomplete during the medieval period eventually became unified as "a masterpiece of exceptional intrinsic value" and "a powerful testimony to the strength and persistence of Christian belief in medieval and modern Europe"[1] as was befitting a worship-place of the Holy Roman Emperor and the traditional shrine of the Three KingsHistoryThe Altarpiece of the Three Kings by Stephan Lochner[edit] Ancient siteWhen the present Cologne Cathedral was commenced in 1248 the site had been occupied by several previous structures the earliest of which may have been a grain store perhaps succeeded by a Roman temple built by Mercurius Augustus From the 4th century the site was occupied by Christian buildings including a square edifice known as the "oldest cathedral" and commissioned by Maternus the first Christian bishop of Cologne A second church the so-called "Old Cathedral" was completed in 818 This burned down on April 30 1248The massive facade was left incomplete for 400 years[edit] Medieval beginningIn 1164 the Archbishop of Cologne Rainald of Dassel had acquired relics of the Three Kings which had been taken from Milan in Italy by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa The relics had great religious significance and could be counted upon to draw pilgrims from all over Christendom It was important that they were properly housed The loss of the old five-aisled cathedral prompted a building program in the new style of Gothic architecture based in particular on the French Cathedral of AmiensThe foundation stone was laid on August 15 1248 by Archbishop Konrad von Hochstaden The eastern arm was completed under the direction of Master Gerhard was consecrated in 1322 and sealed off by a temporary wall so it could be in use as the work proceededIn the mid 14th century work on the west front commenced under Master Michael This work halted in 1473 leaving the south tower complete up to the belfry level and crowned with a huge crane which was destined to remain in place and the landmark of Cologne for 400 years[4]Some work proceeded intermittently on the structure of the nave between the west front and the eastern arm but during the 16th centurythis ceased [5]The Cathedral in 1856 showing the unfinished South Tower with its ancient crane the Gothic eastern end and south transept[edit] 19th century completionWith the nineteenth century romantic enthusiasm for the Middle Ages and spurred on by the lucky discovery of the original plan for the facade it was decided with the commitment of the Prussian Court to complete the cathedral It was achieved by civic effort the Central-Dombauverein founded in 1842 raised two thirds of the enormous costs over US 1 billion in todays money while the Prussian state supplied the remaining thirdWork resumed in 1842 to the original design of the surviving medieval plans and drawings but utilising more modern construction techniques including iron roof girders The nave was completed and the towers were addedThe completion of Germanys largest cathedral was celebrated as a national event in 1880 632 years after construction had begun The celebration was attended by Emperor Wilhelm IAn American soldier and a destroyed Panther tank in front of the cathedral on 4 April 1945[edit] World War II and post-war historyThe cathedral suffered fourteen hits by aerial bombs during World War II It did not at all collapse but stood tall in an otherwise flattened city Believers said it was divine intervention The truth is however more prosaic In a world without GPS the tall building was perfect for allied aircraft to use as a landmark from which to calculate bearings to other bomb targets in Germany and southern Europe and thus was left intact for pilots of future missions use as reference points[citation needed]The repairs to the building were completed in 1956 In the northwest towers base an emergency repair carried out with bad-quality brick taken from a nearby war ruin see German Wikipedia "Klner Domplombe" remained visible until the late 1990s as a reminder of the War but then it was decided to reconstruct this section according to the original appearanceSome repair and maintenance work is almost constantly being carried out in some section of the building which is almost never completely free of scaffolding since wind rain and pollution slowly eat away at the stones The Dombauhütte which was established to build the cathedral and repair the cathedral is said to employ the best stonemasons of the Rhineland There is a common joke in Cologne that the leader of the Dombauhütte the Dombaumeister master builder of the cathedral has to be Catholic and free from giddiness The current Dombaumeisterin is Barbara Schock-WernerHalf of the costs of repair and maintenance are still borne by the DombauvereinOn August 25 2007 the cathedral received a new stained glass in the south transept window With 113 square metres of glass the window was created by the German artist Gerhard Richter It is composed of 11500 identically sized pieces of coloured glass resembling pixels randomly arranged by computer which create a colorful "carpet" Since the loss of the original window in World War II the space had been temporarily filled with plain glass[6] Joachim Cardinal Meissner who had preferred a figurative depiction of 20th-century Catholic martyrs for the window did not attend the unveiling[7]Cologne Cathedral across the Rhine[edit] World Heritage SiteIn 1996 the cathedral was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List of culturally important sites In 2004 it was placed on the "World Heritage in Danger" list due to nearby high-rise building and its visual impact upon the site as the only Western site in danger The cathedral was removed from the List of In Danger Sites in 2006 following the authorities decision to limit the heights of buildings constructed near and around the cathedralAs a World Heritage Site and with its convenient position on tourist routes Cologne Cathedral is a major tourist attraction the visitors including many who travel there as a Christian pilgrimage World Youth Day 2005 there were nearly 1 million visitorsThe cathedral is open every day from 600am to 730pm admission is free except for tower ascent and the treasury Visitors can climb 509 steps of the spiral staircase to a viewing platform about 98 metres above the groundOn May 12 2001 the American rock band com performed a free concert in Roncalliplatz the square to the south side of Cologne Cathedral The concert was organised to promote the eradication of violence in schools and was in part broadcast live on MTV EuropeOn August 18 2005 Pope Benedict XVI visited the cathedral as part of his apostolic visit to Germany as part of World Youth Day 2005 festivities An estimated 1 million pilgrims visited the cathedral during this time Also as part of the events of World Youth Day Cologne Cathedral hosted a televised gala performance of Beethovens Missa Solemnis performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Choir conducted by Sir Gilbert LevineThe nave looking east[edit] ArchitectureThe design of Cologne Cathedral was based quite closely on that of Amiens Cathedral in terms of groundplan style and the width to height proportion of the central nave The plan is in the shape of a Latin Cross as is usual with Gothic cathedrals It has two aisles on either side which help to support one of the very highest Gothic vaults in the world being nearly as tall as that of the ill-fated Beauvais Cathedral much of which collapsed Externally the outward thrust of the vault is taken up by flying buttresses in the French manner The eastern end has a single ambulatory the second aisle resolving into a chevette of seven radiating chapelsInternally the Medieval quire is more varied and less mechanical in its details than the 19th century building It presents a French style arrangement of very tall arcade a delicate narrow triforium gallery lit by windows and with detailed tracery merging with that of the windows above The clerestory windows are tall and retain some old figurative glass in the lower sectionsThe arcade gallery and clerestory of the east endThe whole is united by the tall shafts which sweep unbroken from floor to their capitals at the spring of the vault The vault is of plain quadripartite arrangementThe quire retains a great many of its original fittings including the carved stalls which is made the more surprising by the fact that Napoleonstroops had desecrated the building A large stone statue of St Christopher looks down towards the place where the earlier entrance to the cathedral was before its completion in the late 19th centuryThe nave is enhanced by a good many 19th century stained-glass windows including a set of five on the south side called the "Bayernfenster" which were a gift from Ludwig I of Bavaria a set highly representative of the painterly German style of that dateExternally particularly from a distance the building is dominated by its huge spires which are entirely Germanic in character being openwork like those of Ulm Vienna and Regensburg Cathedrals [8][edit] Treasures of Cologne CathedralThe Shrine of the Three KingsThe most celebrated work of art in the cathedral is the Shrine of the Three Kings a large gilded sarcophagus dating from the 13th century and the largest reliquary in the Western world It is traditionally believed to hold the remains of the Three Wise Men whose bones and 2000-year-old clothes were discovered at the opening of the shrine in 1864The Crucifix of Bishop Gero a unique 10th century sculptureNear the sacristy is the Gero-Kreuz[2] a large crucifix carved in oak and with traces of paint and gilding Believed to have been commissioned around 960for Archbishop Gero it is the oldest large crucifix north of the Alps and the earliest-known large free-standing Northern sculpture of the medieval period[9]In the Sacrament Chapel is the Mailnder Madonna "Milan Madonna" dating from around 1290 a wooden sculpture depicting the Blessed Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus The altar of the patron saints of Cologne with an altar piece by the International Gothic painter Stephan Lochner is in the Marienkapelle "St Marys Chapel" Other outstanding works of art are to be found in the Cathedral Treasury[edit] BellsThe cathedral has twelve church bells of which four are Medieval The first was the 38-ton Dreiknigenglocke "Bell of the Three Kings" cast in 1418 installed in 1437 and recast in 1880 Two of the other bells the Pretiosa 105 tons at that time the largest bell in the Occident and the Speciosa 56 tons were installed in 1448 and remain in place today The largest bell the 24-ton St Petersglocke "Bell of St Peter" "Dicke Pitter" in the Klsch dialect was cast in 1922 and is the largest free-swinging bell in the world [10] See below Gallery PetersglockeConsecration Bell - 0425 tonnesVespers Bell - 028 tonnesAngelus Bell - 0763 tonnesHail Bell - 083 tonnesChapter Bell - 14 tonnesSt Josephs Bell - 22 tonnesUrsula Bell - 255 tonnesBell of the Magi - 38 tonnesPretiosia - 56 tonnesSpeciosia - 105 tonnesPetersglocke - 24 tonnes[edit] Church music[edit] OrganistsJosef ZimmermannClemens Ganz 1985–2001Winfried Bnig 2001中文译文科隆大教堂从Wikipedia自由的百科全书了解更多有关浏览和寻找信息百科跳转到导航搜索科隆大教堂联合国教科文组织世界遗产。
毕业论文外文翻译范例
外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。
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外文文献翻译范例
StatusComplete
Type：Office
Location：Hong Kong
Construction started：18 April 1985
Completed：1990
Opening：17 May 1990
HeightAntenna spire：367.4 m (1,205.4 ft)
2011年6月8日
外文文献翻译（译成中文1000字左右）：
【主要阅读文献不少于5篇，译文后附注文献信息，包括：作者、书名（或论文题目）、出 版 社（或刊物名称）、出版时间（或刊号）、页码。提供所译外文资料附件（印刷类含封面、封底、目录、翻译部分的复印件等，网站类的请附网址及原文）
原文网址：/TALLEST_TOWERS/t_sears.htm
译文
建筑师：Bruce Graham, design partner, Skidmore, Owings and Merrill
地点：Chicago
甲方：Sears Roebuck and Company
工程师：Fazlur Khan of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill.项目年份：2008
香港1985年4月18日开工建设1990年完成1990年5月17日开幕高度天线尖顶三百六十七点四米2418英尺屋顶三百一十五点米10335英尺顶层二百八十八点二米九百四十五点五英尺技术细节地上楼层数724层楼建筑面积一十三点五万平方米1450000平方英尺电梯数45由奥的斯电梯公司生产的设计与施工主要承建商香港建设控股有限公司引文需要熊谷组香港贝聿铭建筑师事务所建筑师事务所谢尔曼西贡有限公司sl的托马斯博阿达莱斯利罗伯逊结构工程师协会rllp参考文献对中国塔简称中银大厦银行是中环香港最知名的摩天大楼之一
外文翻译资料及译文
附录C：外文翻译资料Article Source：Business & Commercial Aviation, Nov 20, 2000. 5-87-88 Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals Electronic publications can increase the efficiency of your digital aircraft and analogtechnicians.Benoff, DaveComputerized technical manuals are silently revolutionizing the aircraft maintenance industry by helping the technician isolate problems quickly, and in the process reduce downtime and costs by more than 10 percent.These electronic publications can reduce the numerous volumes of maintenance manuals, microfiche and work cards that are used to maintain engines, airframes, avionics and their associated components."As compared with the paper manuals, electronic publications give us greater detail and reduced research times," said Chuck Fredrickson, general manager of Mercury Air Center in Fort Wayne, Ind.With all the advances in computer hardware and software technologies, such as high quality digital multimedia, hypertext and the capability to store and transmit digital multimedia via CD-ROMs/ networks, technical publication companies have found an effective, cost-efficient method to disseminate data to technicians.The solution for many operators and OEMs is to take advantage of today's technology in the form of Electronic Technical Manuals (ETM) or Interactive Technical Manuals (IETM). An ETM is any technical manual prepared in digital format that has the ability to be displayed using any electronic hardware media. The difference between the types of ETM/IETMs is the embedded functionality and implementation of the data."The only drawback we had to using ETMs was getting enough computers to meet our technicians' demand," said Walter Berchtold, vice president of maintenance at Jet Aviation's West Palm Beach, Fla., facility.A growing concern is the cost to print paper publications. In an effort to reduce costs, some aircraft manufacturers are offering incentives for owners to switch from paper to electronic publications. With an average printing cost of around 10 cents per page, a typical volume of a paper technical manual can cost the manufacturer over $800 for each copy. When producing a publication electronically, average production costs for a complete set of aircraft manuals are approximately $20 per copy. It is not hard to see the cost advantages of electronic publications.Another advantage of ETMs is the ease of updating information. With a paper copy, the manufacturer has to reprint the revised pages and mail copies to all the owners. When updates are necessary for an electronic manual, changes can either be e-mailed to theowners or downloaded from the manufacturer's Web site.So why haven't more flight departments converted their publications to ETM/IETMs? The answer lies in convincing technicians that electronic publications can increase their efficiency."We had an initial learning curve when the technicians switched over, but now that they are familiar with the software they never want to go back to paper," said Fredrickson.A large majority of corporate technicians also said that while they like the concept of having a tool that aids the troubleshooting process, they are fearful to give up all of their marked-up paper manuals.In 1987, a human factors study was conducted by the U.S. government to compare technician troubleshooting effectiveness, between paper and electronic methodology, and included expert troubleshooting procedures with guidance through the events. Results of the project indicated that technicians using electronic media took less than half the time to complete their tasks than those using the paper method, and technicians using the electronic method accomplished 65 percent more in that reduced time.The report also noted that new technicians using the electronic technical manuals were 12-percent more efficient than the older, more experienced technicians. (Novices using paper took 15 percent longer than the experts.)It is interesting that 90 percent of the technicians who used the electronic manuals said they preferred them to the paper versions. This proved to the industry that with proper training, the older technicians could easily transition from paper to electronic media.Electronic publications are not a new concept, although how they are applied today is. "Research over the last 20 years has provided a solid foundation for today's IETM implementation," said Joseph Fuller of the U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center. "IETMs such as those for the Apache, Comanche, F-22, JSTAR and V-22 have progressed from concept to military and commercial implementation."In the late 1970s, the U.S. military investigated the feasibility of converting existing paper and microfilm. The Navy Technical Information Presentation System (NTIPS) and the Air Force Computer- based Maintenance Aid System (CMAS) were implemented with significant cost savings.The report stated that transition to electronic publications resulted in reductions in corrective maintenance time, fewer false removals of good components, more accurate and complete maintenance data collection reports, reduction in training requirements and reduced system downtime.The problem that the military encountered was ETMs were created in multiple levels of complexity with little to no standardization. Options for publications range from simple page-turning programs to full-functioning automated databases.This resulted in the classification of ETMs so that the best type of electronic publication could be selected for the proper application.Choosing a LevelWith all of the OEM and second- and third-party electronic publications that are available it is important that you choose the application level that is appropriate for your operation.John J. Miller, BAE Systems' manager of electronic publications, told B/CAthat "When choosing the level of an ETM/IETM, things like complexity of the aircraft and its systems, ease of use, currency of data and commonality of data should be the deciding factors; and, of course, price. If operational and support costs are reduced when you purchase a full-functioning IETM, then you should purchase the better system."Miller is an expert on the production, sustainment and emerging technologies associated with electronic publications, and was the manager of publications for Boeing in Philadelphia.Electronic publications are classified in one of five categories. A Class 1 publication is a basic electronic "page turner" that allows you to view the maintenance manual as it was printed. With a Class 2 publication all the original text of the manual is viewed as one continuous page with no page breaks. In Class 3, 4 and 5 publications the maintenance manual is viewed on a computer in a frame-based environment with increasing options as the class changes. (See sidebar.)Choosing the appropriate ETM for your operation is typically limited to whatever is being offered on the market, but since 1991 human factors reports state the demand has increased and, therefore, options are expected to follow.ETM/IETM ProvidersCompanies that create ETM/IETMs are classified as either OEM or second party provider. Class 1, 3 and 4 ETM/IETMs are the most commonly used electronic publications for business and commercial operators and costs can range anywhere from $100 to $3,000 for each ETM/ IETM. The following are just a few examples ofETM/IETMs that are available on the market.Dassault Falcon Jet offers operatorsof the Falcon 50/50EX, 900/900EX and 2000 a Class 4 IETM called the Falcon Integrated Electronic Library by Dassault (FIELD). Produced in conjunction with Sogitec Industries in Suresnes Cedex, France, the electronic publication contains service documentation, basic wiring, recommended maintenance and TBO schedules, maintenance manual, tools manual, service bulletins, maintenance and repair manual, and avionics manual.The FIELD software allows the user to view the procedures and hot- link directly to the Illustrated parts catalog. The software also enables the user to generate discrepancy forms, quotation sheets, annotations in the manual and specific preferences for each user.BAE's Miller said most of the IETM presentation systems have features called "Technical Notes." If a user of the electronic publication notices a discrepancy or needs to annotate the manual for future troubleshooting, the user can add a Tech Note (an electronic mark-up) to the step or procedure and save it to the base document. The next time that or another user is in the procedure, clicking on the tech note icon launches a pop-up screen displaying the previous technician's comments. The same electronic transfer of tech notes can be sent to other devices by using either a docking station or through a network server. In addition, systems also can use "personal notes" similar to technical notes that are assigned ID codes that only the authoring technician can access.Requirements for the FIELD software include the minimum of a 16X CD-ROM drive,Pentium II 200 MHz computer, Windows 95, Internet Explorer 4 SP 1 and Database Access V3.5 or higher.Raytheon offers owners of Beech and Hawker aircraft a Class 4 IETM called Raytheon Electronic Publication Systems (REPS). The REPS software links the frame-based procedures with the parts catalog using a single CD-ROM.Raytheon Aircraft Technical Publications said other in- production Raytheon aircraft manual sets will be converted to the REPS format, with the goal of having all of them available by 2001. In addition Raytheon offers select Component Maintenance Manuals (CMM). The Class 1 ETM is a stand-alone "page-turner" electronic manual that utilizes the PDF format of Adobe Acrobat.Other manufacturers including Bombardier, Cessna and Gulfstream offer operators similar online and PDF documentation using a customer- accessed Web account.Boeing is one manufacturer that has developed an onboard Class 5 IETM. Called the Computerized Fault Reporting System (CFRS), it has replaced the F-15 U.S. Air Force Fault Reporting Manuals. Technologies that are currently being applied to Boeing's military system are expected to eventually become a part of the corporate environment.The CFRS system determines re-portable faults by analyzing information entered during a comprehensive aircrew debrief along with electronically recovered maintenance data from the Data Transfer Module (DTM). After debrief the technicians can review aircraft faults and schedule maintenance work to be performed. The maintenance task is assigned a Job Control Number (JCN) and is forwarded electronically to the correct work center or shop. Appropriate information is provided to the Air Force's Core Automated Maintenance System (CAMS).When a fault is reported by pilot debrief, certain aircraft systems have the fault isolation procedural data on a Portable Maintenance Aid (PMA). The JCN is selected on a hardened laptop with a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) connection to the CFRS LAN infrastructure. The Digital Wiring Data System (DWDS) displays aircraft wiring diagrams to the maintenance technician for wiring fault isolation. On completion of maintenance, the data collected is provided to the Air Force, Boeing and vendors for system analysis.Third party IETM developers such as BAE Systems and Dayton T. Brown offer OEMs the ability to subcontract out the development of Class 1 through 5 ETM/IETMs. For example, Advantext, Inc. offers PDF and IPDF Class 1 ETMs for manufacturers such as Piper and Bell Helicopters. Technical publications that are available include maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, service bulletins, wiring diagrams, service letters and interactive parts ordering forms.The difference between the PDF and IPDF version is that the IPDF version has the ability to search for text and include hyperlinks. A Class 1 ETM, when printed, is an exact reproduction of the OEM manuals, including any misspellings or errors. Minimum requirements for the Advantext technical publications is a 486 processor, 16 MB RAM with 14 MB of free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Aircraft Technical Publishers (ATP) offers Class 1, 2 and 3 ETM/ IETMsfor the Beechjet 400/400A; King Air 300/ 350, 200 and 90; Learjet 23/24/25/28/29/35/36/55; Socata TB9/10/20/21 and TBM 700A; Sabreliner 265-65, -70 and -80; andBeech 1900. The libraries can include maintenance manuals, Illustrated parts bulletins, wiring manuals, Airworthiness Directives, Service Bulletins, component maintenance manuals and structural maintenance manuals. System minimum requirements are Pentium 133 MHz, Windows 95 with 16 MB RAM, 25 MB free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Additional providers such as Galaxy Scientific are providing ETM/ IETMs to the FAA. This Class 2, 3 and 4 publication browser is used to store, display and edit documentation for the Human Factors Section of the administration."Clearly IETMs have moved from research to reality," said Fuller, and the future looks to hold more promise.The Future of Tech PubsThe use of ETM/IETMs on laptop and desktop computers has led research and development corporations to investigate the human interface options to the computer. Elements that affect how a technician can interface with a computer are the work environment, economics and ease of use. Organizations such as the Office of Naval Research have focused their efforts on the following needs of technicians: -- Adaptability to the environment.-- Ease of use.-- Improved presentation of complex system relationship.-- Maximum reuse and distribution of engineering data.-- Intelligent data access.With these factors in mind, exploratory development has begun in the areas of computer vision, augmented reality display and speech recognition.Computer vision can be created using visual feedback from a head- mounted camera. The camera identifies the relative position and orientation of an object in an observed scene, and the object is used to correlate the object with a three-dimensional model. In order for a computer vision scenario to work, engineering data has to be provided through visually compatible software.When systems such as Sogitech's View Tech electronic publication browser and Dassault Systemes SA's Enovia are combined, a virtual 3D model is generated.The digital mockup allows the engineering information to directly update the technical publication information. If a system such as CATIA could be integrated into a Video Reference System (VRS), then it could be possible that a technician would point the camera to the aircraft component, the digital model identifies the component and the IETM automatically displays the appropriate information.This example of artificial intelligence is already under development at companies like Boeing and Dassault. An augmented reality display is a concept where visual cues are presented to users on a head-mounted, see-through display system.The cues are presented to the technician based on the identification of components on a 3D model and correlation with the observed screen. The cues are then presented as stereoscopic images projected onto the object in the observed scene.In addition a "Private Eye" system could provide a miniature display of the maintenance procedure that is provided from a palm- size computer. Limited success hascurrently been seen in similar systems for the disabled. The user of a Private Eye system can look at the object selected and navigate without ever having to touch the computer. Drawbacks from this type of system are mental and eye fatigue, and spatial disorientation.Out of all the technologies, speech recognition has developed into an almost usable and effective system. The progression through maintenance procedures is driven by speaker-independent recognition. A state engine controls navigation, and launches audio responses and visual cues to the user. Voice recognition software is available, although set up and use has not been extremely successful.Looking at other industries, industrial manufacturing has already started using "Palm Pilot" personal digital assistants (PDAs) to aid technicians in troubleshooting. These devices allow the technician to have the complete publication beside them when they are in tight spaces. "It would be nice to take the electronic publications into the aircraft, so we are not constantly going back to the work station to print out additional information," said Jet Aviation's Berchtold.With all the advantages that a ETM/ IETM offers it should be noted that electronic publications are not the right solution all of the time, just as CBT is not the right solution for training in every situation. Only you can determine if electronic publications meet your needs, and most technical publication providers offer demo copies for your review. B/CA IllustrationPhoto: Photograph: BAE Systems' Christine Gill prepares a maintenance manual for SGML conversion BAE Systems; Photograph: Galaxy Scientific provides the FAA's human factors group with online IETM support.; Photograph: Raytheon's Class 4 IETM "REPS" allows a user to see text and diagrams simultaneously with hotlinks to illustrated parts catalogs.外文翻译资料译文部分文章出处:民航商业杂志，2000-11-20,5-87-88交互式电子技术手册的电子出版物可以提高数字飞机和模拟技术的效率。
(完整版)外文翻译
(完整版)外文翻译外文文件原稿和译文原稿logistics distribution center location factors:(1)the goods distribution and quantity. This is the distribution center and distribution of the object, such as goods source and the future of distribution, history and current and future forecast and development, etc. Distribution center should as far as possible and producer form in the area and distribution short optimization. The quantity of goods is along with the growth of the size distribution and constant growth. Goods higher growth rate, the more demand distribution center location is reasonable and reducing conveying process unnecessary waste.(2)transportation conditions. The location of logistics distribution center should be close to the transportation hub, and to form the logistics distribution center in the process of a proper nodes. In the conditional, distribution center should be as close to the railway station, port and highway.(3)land conditions. Logistics distribution center covers an area of land in increasingly expensive problem today is more and more important. Is the use of the existing land or land again? Land price? Whether to conform to the requirements of the plan for the government, and so on, in the construction distribution center have considered.(4)commodities flow. Enterprise production of consumer goods as the population shift and change, should according to enterprise's better distribution system positioning. Meanwhile, industrial products market will transfer change, in order to determine the raw materials and semi-finished products of commodities such as change of flow in the location of logistics distribution center should be considered when the flow of the specific conditions of the relevant goods.(5)other factors. Such as labor, transportation and service convenience degree, investment restrictions, etc.(完整版)外文翻译How to reduce logistics cost，enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacityof distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logisticsdistribution center．At present，most of the research on logistics cost concentrates offtheoretical analysis of direct factors of logistics cost, and solves the problem ofover-high logistics Cost mainly by direct channel solution ． This research stresseson the view of how to loeate distribution center, analyzes the influence of locatingdistribution center on logistics cost ．and finds one kind of simple and easy locationmethod by carrying on the location analysis of distribution center through computermodeling and the application of Exeel．So the location of agricultural productlogistics distribution center can be achieved scientifically and reasonably, which willattain the goal of reducing logistics cost, and have a decision．making supportfunction to the logisties facilities and planning of agricultural product．The agricultural product logistics distribution center deals with dozens andeven hundreds of clients every day, and transactions are made in high-frequency. Ifthe distribution center is far away from other distribution points，the moving andtransporting of materials and the collecting of operational data is inconvenient andcostly. costly．The modernization of agricultural product logistics s distribution center is acomplex engineering system， not only involves logistics technology, informationtechnology, but also logistics management ideas and its methods，in particular thespecifying of strategic location and business model is essential for the constructing ofdistribution center. How to reduce logistics cost ，enhance the adaptive capacity andstrain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural productlogistics distribution center. The so— called logistics costs refers to the expendituresummation of manpower, material and financial resources in the moving process of thegoods．such as loading and unloading，conveying，transport，storage，circulating，processing, information processing and other segments. In a word。
外文文献翻译原文+译文
外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。
数据加密标准外文翻译
DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD (DES)Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS PUBS) are issued by the National Bureau of Standards in accordance with section 111 (f) (2) of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, as amended, Public Law 89-306 (79 Stat 1127), Executive Order 11717 (38 FR 12315, dated May 11, 1973), and Part 6 of Title 15 Code of Federal Regulations.（1）Name of Standard. Data Encryption Standard (DES).（2）Category of Standard. Computer Security.（3）Explanation. The Data Encryption Standard (DES) specifies a FIPS approved cryptographic algorithm as required by FIPS 140-1. This publication provides a complete description of a mathematical algorithm for encrypting (enciphering) and decrypting (deciphering) binary coded information. Encrypting data converts it to an unintelligible form called cipher. Decrypting cipher converts the data back to its original form called plaintext. The algorithm described in this standard specifies both enciphering and deciphering operations which are based on a binary number called a key.A key consists of 64 binary digits ("O"s or "1"s) of which 56 bits are randomly generated and used directly by the algorithm. The other 8 bits, which are not used by the algorithm, are used for error detection. The 8 error detecting bits are set to make the parity of each 8-bit byte of the key odd, i.e., there is an odd number of "1"s in each 8-bit byte1. Authorized users of encrypted computer data must have the key that was used to encipher the data in order to decrypt it. The encryption algorithm specified in this standard is commonly known among those using the standard. The unique key chosen for use in a particular application makes the results of encrypting data using the algorithm unique. Selection of a different key causes the cipher that is produced for any given set of inputs to be different. The cryptographic security of the data depends on the security provided for the key used to encipher and decipher the data.Data can be recovered from cipher only by using exactly the same key used to encipher it. Unauthorized recipients of the cipher who know the algorithm but do not have the correct key cannot derive the original data algorithmically. However, anyone who does have the key and the algorithm can easily decipher the cipher and obtain the original data. A standard algorithm based on a secure key thus provides a basis for exchanging encrypted computer data by issuing the key used to encipher it tothose authorized to have the data.Data that is considered sensitive by the responsible authority, data that has a high value, or data that represents a high value should be cryptographically protected if it is vulnerable to unauthorized disclosure or undetected modification during transmission or while in storage. A risk analysis should be performed under the direction of a responsible authority to determine potential threats. The costs of providing cryptographic protection using this standard as well as alternative methods of providing this protection and their respective costs should be projected. A responsible authority then should make a decision, based on these analyses, whether or not to use cryptographic protection and this standard.（4）Approving Authority. Secretary of Commerce.（5）Maintenance Agency.U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Computer Systems Laboratory.（6）Applicability.This standard may be used by Federal departments and agencies when the following conditions apply:①An authorized official or manager responsible for data security or the security of any computer system decides that cryptographic protection is required;②The data is not classified according to the National Security Act of 1947, as amended, or the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended.Federal agencies or departments which use cryptographic devices for protecting data classified according to either of these acts can use those devices for protecting unclassified data in lieu of the standard.Other FIPS approved cryptographic algorithms may be used in addition to, or in lieu of, this standard when implemented in accordance with FIPS 140-1.In addition, this standard may be adopted and used by non-Federal Government organizations. Such use is encouraged when it provides the desired security for commercial and private organizations.（7）Applications.Data encryption (cryptography) is utilized in various applications and environments. The specific utilization of encryption and the implementation of the DES will be based on many factors particular to the computer system and its associated components. In general, cryptography is used to protect data while it is being communicated between two points or while it is stored in a medium vulnerable to physical theft. Communication security provides protection to data by enciphering it at the transmitting point and deciphering it at the receiving point. Filesecurity provides protection to data by enciphering it when it is recorded on a storage medium and deciphering it when it is read back from the storage medium. In the first case, the key must be available at the transmitter and receiver simultaneously during communication. In the second case, the key must be maintained and accessible for the duration of the storage period. FIPS 171 provides approved methods for managing the keys used by the algorithm specified in this standard.（8）Implementations.Cryptographic modules which implement this standard shall conform to the requirements of FIPS 140-1. The algorithm specified in this standard may be implemented in software, firmware, hardware, or any combination thereof. The specific implementation may depend on several factors such as the application, the environment, the technology used, etc. Implementations which may comply with this standard include electronic devices (e.g., VLSI chip packages), micro-processors using Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM), or Electronically Erasable Read Only Memory (EEROM), and mainframe computers using Random Access Memory (RAM). When the algorithm is implemented in software or firmware, the processor on which the algorithm runs must be specified as part of the validation process. Implementations of the algorithm which are tested and validated by NIST will be considered as complying with the standard. Note that FIPS 140-1 places additional requirements on cryptographic modules for Government use. Information about devices that have been validated and procedures for testing and validating equipment for conformance with this standard and FIPS 140-1 are available from the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Computer Systems Laboratory, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.（9）Export Control.Cryptographic devices and technical data regarding them are subject to Federal Government export controls as specified in Title 22, Code of Federal Regulations, Parts 120 through 128. Some exports of cryptographic modules implementing this standard and technical data regarding them must comply with these Federal regulations and be licensed by the U.S. Department of State. Other exports of cryptographic modules implementing this standard and technical data regarding them fall under the licensing authority of the Bureau of Export Administration of the U.S. Department of Commerce. The Department of Commerce is responsible for licensing cryptographic devices used for authentication, access control, proprietary software, automatic teller machines (ATMs), and certain devices used in other equipment and software. For advice concerning which agency haslicensing authority for a particular cryptographic device, please contact the respective agencies.（10）Patents.Cryptographic devices implementing this standard may be covered by U.S. and foreign patents issued to the International Business Machines Corporation. However, IBM has granted nonexclusive, royalty-free licenses under the patents to make, use and sell apparatus which complies with the standard. The terms, conditions and scope of the licenses are set out in notices published in the May 13, 1975 and August 31, 1976 issues of the Official Gazette of the United States Patent and Trademark Office (934 O.G. 452 and 949 O.G. 1717).（11）Alternative Modes of Using the DES. FIPS PUB 81, DES Modes of Operation, describes four different modes for using the algorithm described in this standard. These four modes are called the Electronic Codebook (ECB) mode, the Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) mode, the Cipher Feedback (CFB) mode, and the Output Feedback (OFB) mode. ECB is a direct application of the DES algorithm to encrypt and decrypt data; CBC is an enhanced mode of ECB which chains together blocks of cipher text; CFB uses previously generated cipher text as input to the DES to generate pseudorandom outputs which are combined with the plaintext to produce cipher, thereby chaining together the resulting cipher; OFB is identical to CFB except that the previous output of the DES is used as input in OFB while the previous.数据加密标准（ DES ）联邦信息处理标准出版物（符合FIPS出版）是由国家标准局根据第111条（六）（ 2 ）1949年修订的联邦财产和行政管理服务法，公法89-306 （ 79统计1127年），行政命令11717 （联邦条例法典12315-38，日期1973年5月11日），以及联邦条例法典15-6。
外文翻译--Home government polices for outward FDI from
本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目：Home government polices for outward FDI from emerging economies:lessons from Asia出处：International Journal of Emerging Marketing Vol.5No.3/4,2010 pp.337-357作者：Rajah Rasiah, Peter Gammeltoft, Yang Jiang译文：(来自原文第338页第二段至第342页第三段)3．新兴经济的对外直接投资的驱动因素尽管邓恩(1958)就跨国公司投资和英国经济在美国投资得到的好处这方面的探究做了最早的实质性工作，但海默(1960年)是第一个尝试系统性地解释这些公司的出现。
海默对跨国公司通过垄断性地控制市场和选择特定位置(Rasiah,2004)而出现，做了一个深刻的解释。
Lall和Streeten(1977年)详细解释了重新定位原理和其收益，以及发展中国家经济体受跨国企业活动影响正面临的障碍。
接着，邓恩(1974，1981）又用他对所有权、定位和国际化的折衷体制详细地解释了对外直接投资的驱动系统。
贝尔曼(1972)的早期作品和邓恩(1973，1981)折衷体制是获取对外直接投资的动机的原始材料,后来这些材料被纳鲁拉、邓恩(2000)、Mudambi(2001)、Rasiah(2000a,b)和Gammeltoft(2006)逐渐完善。
在考虑到这些理论和为吸收新发展作的深一步整改上，本文从新兴经济体当地政府的角度来进行解释对外直接投资的驱动因素的变化和他们运营活动中的最大限度的合并效果。
如附表II所示，对外直接投资的驱动因素已演变了三波的进程路线，而且已经逐步发展成组织和技术方面更加复杂的形式。
在下文中，我们将讨论6个战略因素：市场、劳动力、自然资源、价值链控制、财务激励和科技。
3.1 市场的寻求市场是三种影响因素中的主导驱动因素。
外文翻译----产品生命周期理论
外文翻译----产品生命周期理论The Product Life Cycle (PLC) theory。
XXX by Raymond Vernon in his book "nal Investment and nal Trade in the Product Cycle"。
refers to the entire process of a product's market life。
from its XXX。
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a product goes through stages of development。
growth。
maturity。
XXX with varying levels of technological advancement。
XXX n of the same productin different XXX these countries。
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XXX countries。
XXX.The typical product life cycle can be divided into four stages: n。
growth。
maturity。
and decline。
When a new product enters the market。
it enters the n stage。
At this stage。
the product has fewer varieties。
and customers are not yet familiar with it。
Apart from a few XXX。
few people buy the product。
To expand sales。
producers have to XXX the product。
At this stage。
due to technical ns。
外文文献-重金属翻译
文献翻译Assessment of heavy metal pollution in surficial soilssurroundingZinc Industrial Complex in Zanjan-Iran伊朗赞詹锌工业园区周围的表层土壤中重金属污染评价姓名：专业：学号：International Society for Environmental Information Sciences 2010 AnnualConference (ISEIS)国际环境信息科学学会2010年会（太空所）Assessment of heavy metal pollution in surficial soilssurroundingZinc Industrial Complex in Zanjan-Iran伊朗赞詹锌工业园区周围的表层土壤中重金属污染评价摘要在这项研究中，把位于伊朗赞詹市附近的锌工业园区选定作为详细研究对象。
这项研究的目的是评估在这一领域的表层土壤重金属污染的程度和严重性。
我们研究了目前的污染程度和赞詹锌工业园区的15个表层土壤样品中重金属含的空间分布。
土壤用王水消化进行重金属分析。
在土壤表层，铅，锌，镉的浓度表现出人为的增加值。
研究区域重金属污染可能的主要来源是从工业区排放出来的锌。
空气和污水和工业污水的排放造成了研究区域土壤中重金属浓度的增加。
发现在大多数污染物的区域，铅，锌，镉的浓度高达63，3066，18.5 mg.kg-1。
研究区域土壤中各种属性，关注人类生物的健康风险和重金属流动性似乎是非常重要的。
土壤重金属污染的现象十分普遍，是一种有毒性的，可利用金属转移到人类，动物和农作物上。
如果它们是植物，一些有毒金属可能会积累一些植物体内，并可能对人类和草食动物产生威胁。
关键词：重金属污染;尾矿;赞詹省，伊朗1.引言位于伊朗西部北的赞詹省奥格兰区有一个大的金属开采地，自古以来已作为一个的传统开采区来考虑。
dsc外文翻译
为一个锥形螺栓发展动态模型摘要为了能够在地下发掘时，确保安全，能够抵御岩爆产生的动态负载这一点是很重要的，例如，使用的支持系统。
在本文中，为一个锥形螺栓的动态仿真模型实验研究的基础上提出的。
树脂基锥螺栓进行落锤试验。
这些实验表明，螺栓有两个能量吸收机制：在树脂和塑料的变形滑动。
为了模拟这种行为，提出了两个度的自由度集中质量模型。
实验发现，滑动和塑性变形的比例显着变化从一个到另一个测试。
为了解释这种变异，提出了两种方法来确定树脂螺栓滑动参数值，而一个充满活力的力量延伸模型被用来模拟塑性变形。
以模拟实验数据的比较结果证明，该模型的构成要素是适当的模拟锥形螺栓的动态响应。
如今，地下挖掘深为5000米。
在这样的水平，可以高度强调岩体造成岩爆的频率和严重性增加。
在岩爆的中度至主要的严重性，抛出的岩体可达到速度3至10米/小号从10至501cJ/mz的水平相应的能量变化[1]。
由于这些现象的动态性，为了正确设计支持系统，知道岩石加固元素的动态行为是很重要的。
为了研究该课题，麦吉尔大学的机械和采矿工程部门与CANMET采矿和矿物科学实验室（MMSL）在渥太华进行合作。
通过这种合作进行工作，到目前为止，已经有三个主要目标：通过CANMET-MMSL提供的检测仪器验证，确定测试参数对锥形螺栓的响应和性能的影响，并开发了一个模型来模拟锥形螺栓的动态行为。
前两个目标的已经在[2、3]中报道，而这篇文章的重点，是第三个目标，即锥形螺栓的动态行为建模。
在这一为了支持岩石的各元素的文献中，动态模型可分为两大类：集中质量模型和动态变形模型。
Thompson等人。
[4]采用集中质量模型来模拟动量转移的原则为基础的动态测试[5]。
利用这个原理，锚杆进行测试，同时装载质量下降。
当自由落体的元素已达到所需的速度，锚定螺栓迅速停止和装载质量的惯性动态加载测试的强化元素。
在他们的模型，装载质量，锚杆安装的其他组件进行离散准时群众串联弹簧和减震器。
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吉林化工学院信息与控制工程学院毕业设计外文翻译基于MSP430单片机三相正弦波形发生器设计Design of Three-phase Sine Wave Generator Based onMSP430 Microcomputer学生学号：11510321学生姓名：周俊龙专业班级：自动1103指导教师：吴兴波职称：副教授起止日期：2015.03.09～2015.03.20吉林化工学院Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology自供电的混沌信号发生器的电能消耗的理论研究Theoretical study of electric energy consumption forself-powered chaos signal generator张雨静，杨阳，张燕自供电的混沌信号发生器在未来医疗系统可能是有用的，如低成本的便携式人体健康监测和治疗无外接电源。
由于功能和动力装置，电动发电机和消费力水平是自供电系统的一个关键因素。
在本文中，我们研究了一个简单的混沌电路三典型的输出模式的功耗。
对固定输出模式下的功耗分析得到评价混沌信号发生器的功率特性。
数值计算给出了预测周期输出模式和混沌动力特性。
本研究不仅对理解混沌信号发生器的功率消耗是很重要的，也是指导新的自供电的混沌信号发生器的设计。
自供电的混沌信号发生器，蔡氏电路，功耗1引言混沌最初是在流体动力学湍流模型[ 1 ]发现。
混沌理论已被用来作为基本的方法为特征的动态关系，非线性物理，工程，生态，社会，经济系统[ 2 ]。
生理学涉及到许多复杂的非线性系统。
混沌理论已被用于人体健康监测的信号处理，如脑和心脏信号[ 3，4 ]。
混沌信号的过程对于理解大脑的工作机制和模拟大脑活动开辟了新途径。
此外，混沌控制与同步开发新技术来诊断和治疗大脑或心脏疾病和功能障碍。
在控制和混沌系统的同步，混沌信号发生器的关键部件，它可以在模拟和数字电路的实现。
自供电的混沌信号发生器在未来医疗系统可能是有用的，如低成本的便携式人体健康监测和治疗无外接电源。
由于功能和动力装置，电动发电机和消费力水平是自供电系统的一个关键因素。
在本文中，我们研究了一个简单的混沌电路三典型的输出模式的功耗。
对固定输出模式下的功耗分析得到评价混沌信号发生器的功率特性。
数值计算给出了预测周期输出模式和混沌动力特性。
本研究不仅对理解混沌信号发生器的功率消耗是很重要的，也是指导新的自供电的混沌信号发生器的设计。
最近，自供电技术已经引起了医学科学和可穿戴电子[ 5 ]的重视。
一系列具有自供电系统新型纳米器件被开发为能量收集和存储单元，如压电纳米发电机[6–8 ]，热电发电机[9，10]，摩擦电发电机/发电机[11，12]，自充电电池/单元[ 13–16 ]。
可以在工作环境中收获机械能，例如自供电系统，无线传感系统，有两种工作模式：（1）直接供电单位没有能量存储过程，（2）充电电池或电容储存电能，然后工作单位由电池或电容器。
因此，自供电系统可用于无电源的低成本便携式人体健康监测和治疗。
基于一维纳米/微器件，自供电装置已应用在化学传感器，磁场探测器，无线发射机等方面。
自供电的混沌信号发生器的一个发展前景是人类健康监测和治疗。
混沌信号发生器的电能消耗是自我控制混沌信号发生器设计的关键因素。
然而，可以减小混沌信号发生器系统的电能消耗。
自供电的混沌信号发生器的基本结构如图1所示。
图1自供电的混沌信号发生器系统的示意图其基本结构包括自供电，混沌信号发生器输出单元。
自供电单元由三部分组成：能量采集，电源管理，和能量存储。
部分能量转换环境能量收集，如机械能，太阳能和热能，转化为电能。
电源管理部分的能量储存提供直流电源，它包括整流和滤波电路通常。
能量存储部分可充电电池或者超级电容器。
因此，自供电单元提供用于紊乱信号发生器单元，它产生和输出单元必要的处理紊乱信号的稳定电源。
输出单位取决于不同的应用，例如无线晶体管电路。
在本文中，我们提出了电能消耗的理论，使用分析和典型的混沌电路的数值模拟混沌信号发生器的理论框架。
以蔡氏电路为例，该系统可以通过常微分方程（常微分方程）来描述。
我们首先给出一些分析的混沌信号发生器固定输出模式下的功耗，为蔡氏电路功耗的物理图像清晰的认识。
此外，利用数值计算的方法，混沌输出信号的功率消耗特性是通过求解常微分方程的模拟。
理论结果确立的原则混沌特性信号发生器的电能消耗和对未来的自供电混沌信号发生器提供指导系统设计。
2交直流混合输电系统的结构和工作原理蔡氏电路混沌信号可以通过非线性电子电路产生。
蔡氏电路是具有混沌行为的经典的电子电路[17]。
蔡氏电路由两个电容（C1、C2），一个电感（L1），电阻（G）和非线性电阻（R nonlin）。
理想情况下，电容和电感作为储能元件。
电阻是耗能元件。
非线性电阻起到“能源供应商”的角色，换句话说，“动力源”。
非线性电阻器的特点是三段分段线性，如图2（b）。
在实践中，非线性电阻是由线性电阻和运算放大器，需要外接电源。
蔡氏电路的原理图如图2所示。
I L GI L（a）图2 （a ）蔡氏电路原理图；（b ）三段分段线性的非线性电阻特性。
蔡氏电路的动力学行为是由常微分方程描述：⎪⎪⎪⎩⎪⎪⎪⎨⎧-=--=--=21121C C G dt d g C 1C G dt d 1C C 2C C11c1C21C1C L L L dt di i νννννννν）（）（）（ （1） 其中1C ν和2C ν是C1和C2的电压，G = 1 / R ，L 的电流IL 和g （V ）是分段线性函数。
为简单起见，归一化状态方程如下：⎪⎪⎪⎩⎪⎪⎪⎨⎧-=+=--=y d dz z y -x d dy x x y d dx βττατ））（（f （2） []1]1)(21g G 1--+-+==x x b a bx x x f ）（）（ （3） 或等价形式：⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧≤+-≤≥+=1x b a bx 1x ax 1x b -a bx x ，，，）（f （4）其中A 和B 取决于每段的分段线性函数的斜率。
无量纲变量和参数的定义如下：⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧===⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧===22212L C C //LG C C /C G /i z y x 21C Gt τβανν，，， （5）3混沌信号发生器功率根据式（1），每个电路元器件功耗计算如下：在P C1，P C2，P G ，P L 和P nonlin 电容C 1和C 2电源，线性电阻的电感L 和G 为非线性电阻，RG 是线性电阻。
[][]），（，），（，，）（112L 1212L 212111211C G C nonlin C L C C G C C G C C GC C C C C G C C f R P i P R P Ri R P R P νννννννννννννν=-=-⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛--=--=--=f （6） 蔡氏电路，电力消耗的特点取决于电路的输出状态。
在实践中，应用系统可以使用三个典型的蔡氏电路状态:定点、定期，和混乱的状态。
评价的权力，定点状态可以通过定点条件，电容器的电压和电感的电流是恒定的。
它可以被视为一种“稳态”。
在这种状态下，C 1和L 的电压为零。
因此，功耗取决于非线性电阻R 和线性电阻器G ，由哪里提供V G 的电压是线性电阻器G 。
⎪⎪⎪⎩⎪⎪⎪⎨⎧===，，，0dt di 0dtd 0dt d L C C 21νν (7) ⎪⎪⎩⎪⎪⎨⎧==，，RG -PG RG PG 2G 2νν (8) 在我们的例子中，该非线性电阻器的电阻的绝对值等于直线电阻克阻力，但非线性和线性电阻的符号是相反的。
因此，功率的非线性和线性电阻的绝对值是相同的符号相反。
其结果是，理想的蔡氏电路的总功率是零。
这意味着，该非线性电阻充当“动力源”供给电能线性电阻。
在实践中，将非线性电阻可以由外部电源，线性电阻器和运算放大器。
根据以上的结果，可以用于评估紊乱信号发生器的功率线性电路的功率消耗。
因此，固定点状态下的功率电平可以被认为是对紊乱信号发生器设计一个方便的参考索引。
蔡氏电路的周期和混沌输出状态随参数α和β。
对角色的混乱状态混沌电路、李雅普诺夫指数(LE)提供了一种定量措施。
LE > 0时，蔡氏电路的工作状态是混乱。
电路将输出周期信号，而α的值小于8.27和β= 14.87。
在我们的模拟，参数如下:α=7.5，R = 1.33 kΩ，L = 8.2 mH，a= -1.27，b=-0.68。
当初始条件选为x(0)= 0.01，y(0)= 0.02ν= 0.01 v，2Cν= 0.02 v和i L(0)= 0.02 mA，蔡氏电路的工作状和z(0)= 0.03，这意味着1C态是周期性的。
李雅普诺夫指数约为零。
在这种状态下，LE < 0，所以输出。
图3(一个)显示非线性电阻的功率和总功率线性元素(C1，C2，L和G)。
非线性电阻的功率的绝对值等于线性电阻的总功率。
图3(b)显示了两个功率函数之间的区别。
权力的区别是大约10-15，这远低于总功率，如图3(b)所示，相对误差小于10-15。
非线性电阻的平均功率2.46mW，线性元素的总平均功率为2.46兆瓦。
非线性电阻的功率的绝对值与相反的信号和线性元素是相同的。
图3混沌信号发生器工作在周期性的输出模式。
（a）非线性电阻。
C1，C2，L和R的总功率；（b）非线性电阻和其他线性元件之间的功率差，平均功率为2.46 mW。
参数α超过8.27时，电路的输出信号会混乱。
我们选择的参数α=10和β=14.87，相对应的元素:R G =1.33k，C1 =0.005μF和L=8.2mH。
电容C1的电流和电压是模拟初始条件下周期性状态相同的，如图4中(a)和(b)所示。
显然，电流和电压不是周期性的。
因为以上参数下李雅普诺夫指数是0.407，所以是混沌信号的输出。
图4(c)显示了C1的电流电压特性，其特点是混乱的和非周期的。
类似电流-电压特征可以发现在C2非线性电阻的力量为负，但另一个线性元素的总功率是正面的，如图4所示(d)。
非线性电阻的平均功率为-2.45毫瓦，和所有线性元素的平均功率为2.45毫瓦。
由于非线性电阻作为电源，外部电源将提供2.45毫瓦至少在混乱的工作状态。
图4混沌信号发生器工作在混沌输出模式。
（一）电流和（b）电压C1；（C）C1的电压电流特性；（d）蔡氏电路的功率。
平均功率为2.45mW。
4结论总之，我们提出了一个简单的混沌电路功耗的理论研究三输出模式研究。
得到了混沌信号发生器的功率水平的评价是在简化条件下固定输出模式的分析结果，与数值模拟结果提供了功耗特性的混沌信号输出模式。
这里提出的研究对于指导自供电的混沌信号发生器的实验设计提供理论支持。