APES_Chapter_5_Climate_and_Terrestrial_Biodiversity
37.河南适应性阅读翻译
A正如任何园艺师所知道的，大自然并不需要很大的空间就能强壮健康地生长——给她一寸，她就会占据一英里！以下是四个令人印象深刻的例子，展示了大自然以惊人的结果重新占领我们的世界。
中国，后头湾（Houtouwan）它位于一组小岛中的胜山镇岛屿的最边缘。
到达那里的唯一方式是乘坐私人船只或乘坐公交车，然后再坐船。
它的孤立是导致该村庄在1990年代被废弃的主要因素之一。
现在，它的墙壁和街道被茂盛的植物所覆盖。
德国，斯普雷公园（Spreepark）斯普雷公园在2001年关闭后，当地的植物很快开始生长。
自1969年公园开放以来一直在使用的建筑物很快被树叶覆盖。
现在，有一个倡议旨在使该地重焕生机。
意大利，穆利尼河谷（Vallone dei Mulini）由于高湿度，它形成了一个完美的微气候，促进了植物的生长。
随着废弃建筑物的破败，废墟及其周围变得完全丛生。
2006年拍摄的该地照片在网络上迅速传播。
柬埔寨，磨菲寮（Beng Mealea）尽管建于约900年前，这座宏伟的寺庙比其更有名的邻居吴哥窟参观的人要少得多。
2020年，它被提交考虑为联合国教科文组织世界遗产。
自然退化等因素严重损害了该遗址，使周围的丛林侵蚀并与之融为一体。
B对于许多人来说，攀登长城是一生一次的梦想，但吉姆·斯皮尔（Jim Spear）更进一步，在过去的18年里，他作为居住在这座古老奇迹下的一个村民度过了时光。
“我从来没有想过我会有机会参观长城，更不用说在长城下生活了，”现年68岁的斯皮尔说，他是一位自学成才的美国建筑师。
斯皮尔对中国的兴趣始于他的大学时代。
1980年，当他在中国遇到一位名叫唐的中国女孩，并在两年后结婚后，他的兴趣更加深入。
1986年，他决定辍学，放弃了在加利福尼亚大学攻读中国政治博士学位的计划，搬到中国“了解事情的核心”。
斯皮尔说：“我意识到，如果我成为一个海外的中国学者，我将无法体验到中国正在发生的事情。
”1995年，这对夫妇获得了在慕田峪长城附近一座传统村庄农舍的长期租赁，并在十年后决定将其作为全职居所。
学术英语_社科Unit5五单元原文及翻译
UNIT 5 Sociology Matters1.Culture is the totality of learned,socially transmitted customs,knowledge,material objects,and behavior.It includes the ideas,values,customs,and artifacts of groups of people.Though culture differ in their customs,artifacts,and languages,they all share certain basic characteristics.Furthermore,cultural characteristics change as cultures develop ,and cultures infuence one another through their technological ,commercial, and artistic achievements.文化是指社会传播学，海关，知识，材料的对象，和行为。
它包括思想，价值观，习俗，和人群的文物。
尽管文化在他们的习俗，文物，和语言不同，但是他们都有一些共同的基本特性。
此外，当文化发展时文化特征也在变化，并且文化通过他们的技术，商业，艺术成就相互影响。
Cultural universals文化共性2.All societies,despite their differences,have developed certain general practices known as cultural universals.Many cultural universals are ,in fact,adaptations to meet essential human needs ,such as people’s need for food ,shelter,and clothing. Anthropologist George murdock compiled a list of cultural that included athletic sports, cooking ,funeral ceremonies,medicine,and sexual restrictions.所有的社会，尽管他们的差别，已经形成了一定的一般做法被称为文化的共性。
与地理有关的英文参考文献
以下是一些与地理有关的英文参考文献，涵盖了地理学的不同分支和相关领域：1.《Physical Geography: The Global Environment》•作者：Strahler, Alan H., and Arthur N. Strahler•出版年份：2016•内容简介：介绍地球表面的物理地理学，包括气候、地形、水文等方面。
2.《Human Geography: Places and Regions in Global Context》•作者：Knox, Paul L., Sallie A. Marston, and Diana M. Liverman•出版年份：2016•内容简介：涵盖人文地理学的各个方面，包括文化、人口、城市等。
3.《Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts》•作者：De Blij, H. J., Peter O. Muller, and Jan Nijman•出版年份：2016•内容简介：全面介绍地理学领域，从全球范围到不同区域的理论和实践。
4.《The Penguin State of the World Atlas》•作者：Dan Smith•出版年份：2019•内容简介：通过地图和图表展示了世界各地的地理信息，包括人口、经济、环境等方面。
5.《Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West》•作者：William Cronon•出版年份：1991•内容简介：该书研究了城市和自然环境之间的关系，重点关注芝加哥和美国中西部的发展。
6.《The Revenge of Geography: What the Map Tells Us About Coming Conflictsand the Battle Against Fate》•作者：Robert D. Kaplan•出版年份：2012•内容简介：通过地理位置分析国际政治和地缘战略。
硕士英语综合教程课文翻译_交大版
硕士综合英语教程1参考译文Unit 1创建低碳经济概述1. 对于主要由人类活动而迅速积累的温室气体引发了全球变暖这一事实，没有人再持有异议。
除非我们协同一致，快速转向低碳经济，否则全球变暖的趋势将会愈演愈烈。
这一危机日益彰显逼近。
正如获得2007年诺贝尔和平奖的联合国政府间气候变化专门委员会（IPCC）主席拉金德拉·帕乔里所声称的：“如果在2012年之前我们还没有采取行动，那就为时已晚了。
我们在未来两到三年中的所作所为将决定我们的未来。
这是决定性的时刻。
”2. 同工业化前的水平相比，地球平均温度已经上升了0.8摄氏度（1.4华氏度左右），速度为自1975年以来每十年增加0.2摄氏度；如果我们仍然一意孤行，那么温度还会继续发生永久性的变化。
这种温度变化听起来似乎不大，但事实并非如此。
最后一个冰河时代时的全球平均气温不过比现今低约5.4摄氏度（9.7华氏度）。
3. 很多权威的气候学家们都曾发出过这样的警告：如果我们现在的温度超过工业化前2摄氏度（3.6华氏度）的话，我们将会迈进一个危险的未知国度。
没有人能知道到底全球变暖具体达到多少度会变得无法控制，并且造成像干旱、洪水、飓风以及热浪等自然灾害的逐渐恶化，造成诸如格陵兰岛或西南极洲大冰原坍塌以及伴随的全球海平面上升等意外的灾难性变化。
但是我们还依然在我们唯一的家园上不断做着危险而又不受约束的尝试，这也是为什么越来越多的年轻人开始将气候变化视为他们这一代人的一项挑战。
4. 《华盛顿邮报》4月刊报导到：“对于许多儿童和青年而言，全球气候变暖无异于当今的原子弹。
对于环境危机的担忧正影响着这一代人，正如经济大萧条、第二次世界大战、越南战争和冷战等等挥之不去的‘战争游戏’影响了20世纪的灵魂一样。
”5. 有些可怕的预测可能并不会发生，但考虑到那些最优秀的科学家们发出的警告，如果我们再冒险尝试将是极不负责任的做法。
科学家告诉我们，如果我们不尽快采取行动，想要避免全球变暖引发的最严重恶果则为时晚矣。
(生物)高中英语阅读理解《人与自然相处》及答案
（生物）高中英语阅读理解《人与自然相处》及答案物竞天择，适者生存，物种的起源与进化经历了自然界亿万年的沧海桑田。
而在所有已知的生命体中，人类，因其无限的创造力，无疑是最伟大的。
他们也曾对自然充满敬畏之心，直到科学技术为他们掀开了自然界的神秘面纱。
人类开始改造自然，向自然索取，以滋养其不断扩张的人口。
这是人类的福音，却是自然和其他物种的灾难。
阅读题目，回答问题（说明文，全文473词。
摘自China Daily）One million of the planet’s eight million species are threatened with extinction by humans,scientists warned on Monday in what is described as the most comprehensive assessment of global nature loss ever.Their landmark report paints a picture of a planet damaged by anever-growing human population,whose insatiable（贪得无厌的）consumption is destroying the natural world.The global rate of species extinction“is already tens to hundreds of times higher than it has been,on average,over the last10million years”, according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services(IPBES),a UN committee,whose report was written by145experts from50countries.Shrinking habitat,exploitation of natural resources,climate change and pollution are the main drivers of species loss and are threatening more than40%of amphibians,33%of coral reefs and over a third of all marine mammals with extinction,the IPBES report said.“The health of ecosystems on which we and all other species dependis deteriorating more rapidly than ever,”said Sir Robert Watson,IPBES chair,adding that“transformative change”is needed to save the planet. The report comes six months after the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)warned that the world has less than12years to avoid catastrophic levels of global warming.Just as with climate change,humans are the main culpritsof biodiversity damage,changing75%of Earth’s land and66%of marine ecosystems since pre-industrial times,according to the report.The report emphasizes the disastrous impact of population growth and rising demand.It notes that the world’s population has more than doubled (from3.7to7.6billion)in the last50years,and gross domestic product per person is four times higher.More than a third of the world’s land and75%of freshwater supplies are used for crop or livestock production,it noted.“There is very little of the planet left that has not been significantly changed by us,”Sandra Diaz,co-author of the report and professor of ecology at the University of Córdoba,told CNN.“We need to act as stewards for life on Earth.”Diaz said countries in the Global North are particularly to blame for nature damage due to their“unsustainable”levels of consumption,especially when it comes to fishing and logging.Despite the ominous picture“it is not too late to make a difference,but only if we start now at every level from local to global,”said Watson, adding that this would require an overhaul of economic systems and a shift in social mindsets.1.The“picture”painted in the report is.A.promisingB.attractiveC.misleadingD.depressing2.What does theunderlined word“deteriorating”in Paragraph5 probably mean?A.ImprovingB.DecreasingC.WorseningD.Working3.What can we inferfrom Diaz’s opinion?A.Fishing and farming make a big damage tonature.B.Population growth results in lack of landand water.C.Economic systems have been made a shiftglobally.D.Human’s increasing consumption leads tonature damage.4.What is the author’s purpose in writing the passage?A.To showways of protecting species.B.Toexplain the consequences of global warming.C.Tointroduce the report written by IPBES.D.To urgepeople to start to protect the earth.参考答案D C D D生词与长难句1.insatiable adj.不知足的；无法满足的insatiable curiosity永不满足的好奇心2.coral reef珊瑚礁3.marine mammals海洋哺乳动物4.The report comes sixmonths after the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)warnedthat the world has less than12years to avoid catastrophic levels of globalwarming.句子主干：The report comes.句子翻译：联合国政府间气候变化专门委员会警告说世界只剩下不到12年的时间来避免灾难性的全球变暖，6个月后，该项报告就出台了。
剑桥雅思阅读5翻译及精讲（test4）
剑桥雅思阅读5翻译及精讲(test4)雅思阅读是块难啃的硬骨头，需要我们做更多的题目才能得心应手。
下面小编给大家分享一下剑桥雅思阅读5test4原文翻译及答案解析，希望可以帮助到大家。
剑桥雅思阅读5原文(test4)READING PASSAGE 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 on the following pages.Questions 1-3Reading Passage 1 has three sections, A-C.Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.Write the correct number i-vi in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.List of HeadingsI The expansion of international tourism in recent yearsIi How local communities can balance their own needs with the demands of wilderness tourismIii Fragile regions and the reasons for the expansion of tourism thereIv Traditional methods of food-supply in fragile regionsV Some of the disruptive effects of wilderness tourismVi The economic benefits of mass tourism1 Section A2 Section B3 Section CThe Impact of Wilderness TourismAThe market for tourism in remote areas is booming as neverbefore. Countries all across the world are actively promoting their ‘wilderness’ regions —such as mountains, Arctic lands, deserts, small islands and wetland — to high-spending tourists. The attraction of these areas is obvious: by definition, wilderness tourism requires little or no initial investment. But that does not mean that there is no cost. As the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development recognized, these regions are fragile (i.e. highly vulnerable to abnormal pressures) not just in terms of their ecology, but also in terms of the culture of their inhabitants. The three most significant types of fragile environment in these respects, and also in terms of the proportion o f the Earth’s surface they cover, are deserts, mountains and Arctic areas. An important characteristic is their marked seasonality, with harsh conditions prevailing for many months each year. Consequently, most human activities, including tourism, are limited to quite clearly defined parts of the year.Tourists are drawn to these regions by their natural landscape beauty and the unique cultures of their indigenous people. And poor governments in these isolated areas have welcomed the new breed of ‘adventure tourist’, grateful for the hard currency they bring. For several years now, tourism has been the prime source of foreign exchange in Nepal and Bhutan. Tourism is also a key element in the economies of Arctic zones such as Lapland and Alaska and in desert areas such as Ayers Rock in Australia and Arizona’s Monument Valley.BOnce a location is established as a main tourist destination, the effects on the local community are profound. When hill-farmers, for example, can make more money in a few weeksworking as porters for foreign trekkers than they can in a year working in their fields, it is not surprising that many of them give up their farm-work, which is thus left to other members of the family. In some hill-regions, this has led to a serious decline in farm output and a change in the local diet, because there is insufficient labour to maintain terraces and irrigation systems and tend to crops. The result has been that many people in these regions have turned to outside supplies of rice and other foods.In Arctic and desert societies, year-round survival has traditionally depended on hunting animals and fish and collecting fruit over a relatively short season. However, as some inhabitants become involved in tourism, they no longer have time to collect wild food; this has led to increasing dependence on bought food and stores. Tourism is not always the culprit behind such changes. All kinds of wage labour, or government handouts, tend to undermine traditional survival systems. Whatever the cause, the dilemma is always the same: what happens if these new, external sources of income dry up?The physical impact of visitors is another serious problem associated with the growth in adventure tourism. Much attention has focused on erosion along major trails, but perhaps more important are the deforestation and impacts on water supplies arising from the need to provide tourists with cooked food and hot showers. In both mountains and deserts, slow-growing trees are often the main sources of fuel and water supplies may be limited or vulnerable to degradation through heavy use.CStories about the problems of tourism have become legion in the last few years. Yet it does not have to be a problem. Although tourism inevitably affects the region in which it takesplace, the costs to these fragile environments and their local cultures can be minimized. Indeed, it can even be a vehicle for reinvigorating local cultures, as has happened with the Sherpas of Nepal’s Khumbu Valley and in some Alpine villages. And a growing number of adventure tourism operators are trying to ensure that their activities benefit the local population and environment over the long term.In the Swiss Alps, communities have decided that their future depends on integrating tourism more effectively with the local economy. Local concern about the rising number of second home developments in the Swiss Pays d’Enhaut resulted in limits being imposed on their growth. There has also been a renaissance in communal cheese production in the area, providing the locals with a reliable source of income that does not depend on outside visitors.Many of the Arctic tourist destinations have been exploited by outside companies, who employ transient workers and repatriate most of the profits to their home base. But some Arctic communities are now operating tour businesses themselves, thereby ensuring that the benefits accrue locally. For instance, a native corporation in Alaska, employing local people, is running an air tour from Anchorage to Kotzebue, where tourists eat Arctic food, walk on the tundra and watch local musicians and dancers.Native people in the desert regions of the American Southwest have followed similar strategies, encouraging tourists to visit their pueblos and reservations to purchase high-quality handicrafts and artwork. The Acoma and San lldefonso pueblos have established highly profitable pottery businesses, while the Navajo and Hopi groups have been similarly successful with jewellery.Too many people living in fragile environments have lost control over their economies, their culture and their environment when tourism has penetrated their homelands. Merely restricting tourism cannot be the solution to the imbalance, because people’s desire to see new places will not just disappear. Instead, communities in fragile environments must achieve greater control over tourism ventures in their regions, in order to balance their needs and aspirations with the demands of tourism. A growing number of communities are demonstrating that, with firm communal decision-making, this is possible. The critical question now is whether this can become the norm, rather than the exception.Questions 4-9Do the following statements reflect the opinion of the writer of Reading Passage 1?In boxes 4-9 on your answer sheet, writeYES if the statement reflects the opinion of the writerNO if the statement contradicts the opinion of the writerNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this4 The low financial cost of setting up wilderness tourism makes it attractive to many countries.5 Deserts, mountains and Arctic regions are examples of environments that are both ecologically and culturally fragile.6 Wilderness tourism operates throughout the year in fragile areas.7 The spread of tourism in certain hill-regions has resulted ina fall in the amount of food produced locally.8 Traditional food-gathering in desert societies was distributed evenly over the year.9 Government handouts do more damage than tourism does to traditional patterns of food-gathering.Questions 10-13Complete the table below.Choose ONE WORD from Reading Passage 1 for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.The positive ways in which some local communities haveresponded to tourismPeople/Location ActivityS wiss Pays d’EnhautArctic communitiesAcoma and San lldefonsoNavajo and Hopi Revived production of 10……………Operate 11……………businessesProduce and sell 12……………Produce and sell 13……………READING PASSAGE 2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.Flawed Beauty: the problem with toughened glassOn 2nd August 1999, a particularly hot day in the town of Cirencester in the UK, a large pane of toughened glass in the roof of a shopping centre at Bishops Walk shattered without warning and fell from its frame. When fragments were analysed by experts at the giant glass manufacturer Pilkington, which had made the pane, they found that minute crystals of nickel sulphide trapped inside the glass had almost certainly caused the failure.‘The glass industry is aware of the issue,’ says Brian Waldron, chairman of the standards committee at the Glass and Glazing Federation, a British trade association, and standardsdevelopment officer at Pilkington. But he insists that cases are few and far between. ‘It’s a very rare phenomenon,’ he says.Others disagree. ‘On average I see about one or two buildings a month suffering from nickel sulphide related failures,’ says Barrie Josie, a consultant engineer involved in the Bishops Walk investigation. Other experts tell of similar experiences. Tony Wilmott of London-based consulting engineers Sandberg, and Simon Armstrong at CladTech Associates in Hampshire both say they know of hundreds of cases. ‘What you hear is only the tip of the iceberg,’ says Trevor Ford, a glass expert at Resolve Engineering in Brisbane, Queensland. He believes the reason is simple: ‘No-one wants bad press.’Toughened glass is found everywhere, from cars and bus shelters to the windows, walls and roofs of thousands of buildings around the world. It’s easy to see why. This glass has five times the strength of standard glass, and when it does break it shatters into tiny cubes rather than large, razor-sharp shards. Architects love it because large panels can be bolted together to make transparent walls, and turning it into ceilings and floors is almost as easy.It is made by heating a sheet of ordinary glass to about 620°C to soften it slightly, allowing its structure to expand, and then cooling it rapidly with jets of cold air. This causes the outer layer of the pane to contract and solidify before the interior. When the interior finally solidifies and shrinks, it exerts a pull on the outer layer that leaves it in permanent compression and produces a tensile force inside the glass. As cracks propagate best in materials under tension, the compressive force on the surface must be overcome before the pane will break, making it more resistant to cracking.The problem starts when glass contains nickel sulphide impurities. Trace amounts of nickel and sulphur are usually present in the raw materials used to make glass, and nickel can also be introduced by fragments of nickel alloys falling into the molten glass. As the glass is heated, these atoms react to form tiny crystals of nickel sulphide. Just a tenth of a gram of nickel in the furnace can create up to 50,000 crystals.These crystals can exist in two forms: a dense form called the alpha phase, which is stable at high temperatures, and a less dense form called the beta phase, which is stable at room temperatures. The high temperatures used in the toughening process convert all the crystals to the dense, compact alpha form. But the subsequent cooling is so rapid that the crystals don’t have time to change back to the beta phase. This leaves unstable alpha crystals in the glass, primed like a coiled spring, ready to revert to the beta phase without warning.When this happens, the crystals expand by up to 4%. And if they are within the central, tensile region of the pane, the stresses this unleashes can shatter the whole sheet. The time that elapses before failure occurs is unpredictable. It could happen just months after manufacture, or decades later, although if the glass is heated — by sunlight, for example — the process is speeded up. Ironically, says Graham Dodd, of consulting engineers Arup in London, the oldest pane of toughened glass known to have failed due to nickel sulphide inclusions was in Pilkington’s glass research building in Lathom, Lancashire. The pane was 27 years old.Data showing the scale of the nickel sulphide problem is almost impossible to find. The picture is made more complicated by the fact that these crystals occur in batches. So even if, onaverage, there is only one inclusion in 7 tonnes of glass, if you experience one nickel sulphide failure in your building, that probably means you’ve got a problem in more than one pane. Josie says that in the last decade he has worked on over 15 buildings with the number of failures into double figures.One of the worst examples of this is Waterfront Place, which was completed in 1990. Over the following decade the 40-storey Brisbane block suffered a rash of failures. Eighty panes of its toughened glass shattered due to inclusions before experts were finally called in. John Barry, an expert in nickel sulphide contamination at the University of Queensland, analysed every glass pane in the building. Using a studio camera, a photographer went up in a cradle to take photos of every pane. These were scanned under a modified microfiche reader for signs of nickel sulphide crystals. ‘We discovered at least another 120 panes with potentially dangerous inclusions which were then replaced,’ says Barry. ‘It was a very expensive and time-consuming process that took arou nd six months to complete.’ Though the project cost A$1.6 million (nearly ￡700,000), the alternative — re-cladding the entire building — would have cost ten times as much.Questions 14-17Look at the following people and the list of statements below.Match each person with the correct statement.Write the correct letter A-H in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet.14 Brain Waldron15 Trevor Ford16 Graham Dodd17 John BarryList of StatementsA suggests that publicity about nickel sulphide failure has been suppressedB regularly sees cases of nickel sulphide failureC closely examined all the glass in one buildingD was involved with the construction of Bishops WalkE recommended the rebuilding of Waterfront PlaceF thinks the benefits of toughened glass are exaggeratedG claims that nickel sulphide failure is very unusualH refers to the most extreme case of delayed failureQuestions 18-23Complete the summary with the list of words A-P below.Write your answers in boxes 18-23 on your answer sheet.Toughened GlassToughened glass in favoured by architects because it is much stronger than ordinary glass, and the fragments are not as 18…………… when it breaks. However, it has one disadvantage: it can shatter 19…………… . This fault is a result of the manufacturing process. Ordinary glass is first heated, then cooled very 20…………… . The outer layer 21…………… before the inner layer, and the tension between the two layers which is created because of this makes the glass stronger However, if the glass contains nickel sulphide impurities, crystals of nickel sulphide are formed. These are unstable, and can expand suddenly, particularly if the weather is 22…………… . If this happens, the pane of glass may break. The frequency with which such problems occur is 23…………… by glass experts. Furthermore, the crystals cannot be detected without sophisticated equipment.A numerousB detectedC quicklyD agreedE warmF sharpG expands H slowly I unexpectedlyJ removed K contracts L disputedM cold N moved O smallP calculatedQuestions 24-26Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?In boxes 24-26 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this24 Little doubt was expressed about the reason for the Bishops Walk accident.25 Toughened glass has the same appearance as ordinary glass.26 There is plenty of documented evidence available about the incidence of nickel sulphide failure.READING PASSAGE 3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.The effects of light on plant and animal speciesLight is important to organisms for two different reasons. Firstly it is used as a cue for the timing, of daily and seasonal rhythms in both plants and animals, and secondly it is used to assist growth in plants.Breeding in most organisms occurs during a part of the year only, and so a reliable cue is needed to trigger breeding behaviour. Day length is an excellent cue, because it provides a perfectly predictable pattern of change within the year. In the temperate zone in spring, temperatures fluctuate greatly fromday to day, but day length increases steadily by a predictable amount. The seasonal impact of day length on physiological responses is called photoperiodism, and the amount of experimental evidence for this phenomenon is considerable. For example, some species of birds’ breeding can be induced even in midwinter simply by increasing day length artificially (Wolfson 1964). Other examples of photoperiodism occur in plants. A short-day plant flowers when the day is less than a certain critical length. A long-day plant flowers after a certain critical day length is exceeded. In both cases the critical day length differs from species to species. Plants which flower after a period of vegetative growth, regardless of photoperiod, are known as day-neutral plants.Breeding seasons in animals such as birds have evolved to occupy the part of the year in which offspring have the greatest chances of survival. Before the breeding season begins, food reserves must be built up to support the energy cost of reproduction, and to provide for young birds both when they are in the nest and after fledging. Thus many temperate-zone birds use the increasing day lengths in spring as a cue to begin the nesting cycle, because this is a point when adequate food resources will be assured.The adaptive significance at photoperiodism in plants is also clear. Short-day plants that flower in spring in the temperate zone are adapted to maximizing seedling growth during the growing season. Long-day plants are adapted for situations that require fertilization by insects, or a long period of seed ripening. Short-day plants that flower in the autumn in the temperate zone are able to build up food reserves over the growing season and over winter as seeds. Day-neutral plants have an evolutionaryadvantage when the connection between the favourable period for reproduction and day length is much less certain. For example, desert annuals germinate, flower and seed whenever suitable rainfall occurs, regardless of the day length.The breeding season of some plants can be delayed to extraordinary lengths. Bamboos are perennial grasses that remain in a vegetative state for many years and then suddenly flower, fruit and die (Evans 1976). Every bamboo of the species Chusquea abietifolio on the island of Jamaica flowered, set seed and died during 1884. The next generation of bamboo flowered and died between 1916 and 1918, which suggests a vegetative cycle of about 31 years. The climatic trigger for this flowering cycle is not yet known, but the adaptive significance is clear. The simultaneous production of masses of bamboo seeds (in some cases lying 12 to 15 centimetres deep on the ground) is more than all the seed-eating animals can cope with at the time, so that some seeds escape being eaten and grow up to form the next generation (Evans 1976).The second reason light is important to organisms is that it is essential for photosynthesis. This is the process by which plants use energy from the sun to convert carbon from soil or water into organic material for growth. The rate of photosynthesis in a plant can be measured by calculating the rate of its uptake of carbon. There is a wide range of photosynthetic responses of plants to variations in light intensity. Some plants reach maximal photosynthesis at one-quarter full sunlight, and others, like sugarcane, never reach a maximum, but continue to increase photosynthesis rate as light intensity rises.Plants in general can be divided into two groups: shade-tolerant species and shade-intolerant species. This classificationis commonly used in forestry and horticulture. Shade-tolerant plants have lower photosynthetic rates and hence have lower growth rates than those of shade-intolerant species. Plant species become adapted to living in a certain kind of habitat, and in the process evolve a series of characteristics that prevent them from occupying other habitats. Grime (1966) suggests that light may be one of the major components directing these adaptations. For example, eastern hemlock seedlings are shade-tolerant. They can survive in the forest understory under very low light levels because they have a low photosynthetic rate.Questions 27-33Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3?In boxes 27-33 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this27 There is plenty of scientific evidence to support photoperiodism.28 Some types of bird can be encouraged to breed out of season.29 Photoperiodism is restricted to certain geographic areas.30 Desert annuals are examples of long-day plants.31 Bamboos flower several times during their life cycle.32 Scientists have yet to determine the cue for Chusquea abitifolia’s seasonal rhythm.33 Eastern hemlock is a fast-growing plant.Questions 34-40Complete the sentences.Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passagefor each answer.Write your answers in boxes 34-40 on your answer sheet.34 Day length is a useful cue for breeding in areas where …………… are unpredictable.35 Plants which do not respond to light levels are referred to as…………… .36 Birds in temperate climates associate longer days with nesting and the availability of …………….37 Plants that flower when days are long often depend on …………… to help them reproduce.38 Desert annuals respond to …………… as a signal for reproduction.39 There is no limit to the photosynthetic rate in plants such as …………… .40 Tolerance to shade is one criterion for the …………… of plants in forestry and horticulture.剑桥雅思阅读5原文参考译文(test4)TEST 4 PASSAGE 1 参考译文：The Impact of Wilderness Tourism荒野旅游的影响AThe market for tourism in remote areas is booming as never before. Countries all across the world are actively promoting their ‘wilderness’ regions —such as mountains, Arctic lands, deserts, small islands and wetland — to high-spending tourists. The attraction of these areas is obvious: by definition, wilderness tourism requires little or no initial investment. But that does not mean that there is no cost. As the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development recognized, these regions are fragile (i.e. highly vulnerable to abnormal pressures)not just in terms of their ecology, but also in terms of the culture of their inhabitants. The three most significant types of fragile environment in these respects, and also in terms of the proportion of the Earth’s surface they cover, are deserts, mountains and Arctic areas. An important characteristic is their marked seasonality, with harsh conditions prevailing for many months each year. Consequently, most human activities, including tourism, are limited to quite clearly defined parts of the year.A偏远地区的旅游市场从未曾像现在这么火爆。
新编研究生英语阅读-Unit5课文翻译及分析(西农适用)
新编研究生英语阅读-Unit5课文翻译及分析(西农适用)新编研究生英语阅读-Unit5课文翻译及分析(西农适用)本文对新编研究生英语阅读-Unit5课文进行翻译和分析，适用于西农的学生。
以下是对课文的详细描述和分析。
课文：The Age of the Sea Turtle翻译：海龟的时代分析：本文主要介绍了海龟的生态特征、保护现状以及人类对海龟的影响。
第一部分：海龟的生态特征海龟是海洋中的重要物种，广泛分布于全球各大洋。
它们通常具有重型的甲壳和四肢，适应于在海水中生活。
海龟是肉食性动物，以藻类、水草、甲壳类动物等为食。
海龟寿命长，具有迁徙能力。
一些海龟种类可以在不同的洲际海岸间迁徙，寻找更适宜的环境生活。
海龟的迁徙现象引起了科学家的广泛研究和关注。
第二部分：海龟的保护现状尽管海龟在生态系统中扮演着重要的角色，但它们面临许多威胁。
其中包括人类活动对海龟栖息地的破坏、非法捕捞、污染和气候变化等。
为了保护海龟，各国政府和环保组织采取了一系列措施。
例如，划定保护区、限制捕捞、倡导环保意识等。
这些努力取得了一定的成效，但仍需更多的关注和努力。
第三部分：人类对海龟的影响人类对海龟的影响主要体现在以下几个方面：1. 游客干扰：许多海龟栖息地是热门旅游景点，游客的涌入会对海龟的繁殖和生活环境造成干扰。
2. 污染：海洋污染对海龟造成了严重的影响，例如油污染和塑料废弃物对海龟的生存产生了威胁。
3. 气候变化：全球气候变暖导致海平面上升和海洋酸化，这对海龟的繁殖和栖息地带来了威胁。
4. 捕猎：非法捕猎是海龟面临的另一个严重问题。
由于海龟的甲壳和肉被视为稀有和有价值的商品，因此捕猎行为屡禁不止。
结论：海龟作为生态系统中的关键物种，其保护至关重要。
通过采取有效的保护措施，我们能够确保海龟能够继续在海洋中繁衍生息。
然而，这需要全球各国的合作和努力。
希望更多的人能够关注海龟的保护问题，并为之贡献自己的力量。
通过对新编研究生英语阅读-Unit5课文的翻译和分析，我们对海龟的生态特征、保护现状及人类对其的影响有了更深入的了解。
环境政治学译丛
《环境政治学译丛》第一辑（2005年）1）安德鲁•多伯森：《绿色政治思想》，郇庆治（译）2）戴维•佩珀：《生态社会主义：从深生态学到社会正义》，刘颖（译）3）斐迪南•穆勒—罗密尔和托马斯·波格特克：《欧洲执政绿党》，郇庆治（译）4）克里斯托弗·卢茨：《环境运动：地方、国家和全球向度》，徐凯（译）第二辑（2007年）5）默里•布克金：《自由生态学：等级制的出现与消解》，郇庆治（译）6）约翰•德赖泽克：《地球政治学：环境话语》，蔺雪春、郭晨星（译）7）萨拉•萨卡：《生态社会主义抑或生态资本主义》，张淑兰（译）8）塔基斯•福托鲍洛斯：《多重危机与包容性民主》，李宏（译）第一辑1）安德鲁•多伯森：《绿色政治思想》，主译：郇庆治Andrew Dobson, Green Political Thought(London: Routledge,2000)作者简介：作者为英国开放大学教授、环境政治学专业最著名杂志《环境政治学》主编，被公认是西方生态政治学理论研究领域的最权威学者之一和生态自治主义学派的主要代表。
本书是他的主要代表性著作，它的1990年初版后不久就成为环境政治研究者的必读之作，并先后在1991年、1992年和1994年重印发行。
1995年，它又出版了第2个修订版本。
现翻译的是作者2000年最新修订后的第3版，现已成为欧美国家许多高校和研究机构的环境政治学理论教科书。
内容提要：本书提供了对生态政治观念和绿色运动目标与战略的、清晰而富有启发的思考。
在经过两次修订后的该书第3版中，通过对生态主义与其它政治意识形态的关系、激进与改革主义的绿色传统之间的差异和如何实现绿色社会变革等的系统分析，作者明确地主张，生态主义应该被视为一种独立的政治意识形态。
该书包括反思生态主义、生态主义的哲学基础、可持续社会、绿色变化的战略、生态主义和其它意识形态等部分。
2）戴维•佩珀：《生态社会主义：从深生态学到社会正义》，主译：刘颖David Pepper,Eco-Socialism: From Deep Ecology to Social Justice(London: Routledge,1993)作者简介：作者为牛津布鲁克斯大学教授，是西方生态政治理论中生态社会主义学派的主要代表之一。
选必三UNIT 3复习学案Reading and Thinking
③It_is_our_responsibility_to_seize__every_opportunity_to_educate_everyone_about_global_warming，along_with_its_causes_and_impacts，because_this_is_the_most_serious_issue_affecting_all_of_us_on_this_planet.
4．[句式分析]
[尝试翻译]我们有责任抓住每一个机会，教育每个人了解全球变暖，包括其成因和影响，因为这是影响这个星球上我们所有人的最严重的问题。
[板块一 单词短语——点点清]
层级一 高频词汇精讲
1．starvevi.&vt.(使)挨饿；饿死(☞starvationn．饿死；挨饿)
(1)starve to death饿死
In_2013，a_lot_of_people_were_shocked_by_a_news_photo_of_a_dead_polar_bear_that_was_found_on_Norway's_Arctic_island_of_Svalbard.
2．细读短文并找出描写“采取行动和措施”的句子
4．句型公式：(1)There is evidence that ...有证据表明……；(2)现在分词作结果状语
教材原句：There_is_strong_and_comprehensive_evidence_that(有充分而全面的证据表明)the rise in temperature has led to an increase in extreme weather and natural disasters worldwide，not onlycausing_serious_damage(造成了严重的破坏)，but alsocosting_human_lives(造成了人员伤亡)．
tpo40三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo40三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (17)背景知识 (17)阅读-2 (20)原文 (20)译文 (23)题目 (25)答案 (35)背景知识 (35)阅读-3 (38)原文 (38)译文 (41)题目 (44)答案 (53)背景知识 (54)阅读-1原文Ancient Athens①One of the most important changes in Greece during the period from 800 B.C. to 500 B.C. was the rise of the polis, or city-state, and each polis developed a system of government that was appropriate to its circumstances. The problems that were faced and solved in Athens were the sharing of political power between the established aristocracy and the emerging other classes, and the adjustment of aristocratic ways of life to the ways of life of the new polis. It was the harmonious blending of all of these elements that was to produce the classical culture of Athens.②Entering the polis age, Athens had the traditional institutions of other Greek protodemocratic states: an assembly of adult males, an aristocratic council, and annually elected officials. Within this traditional framework the Athenians, between 600 B.C. and 450 B.C., evolved what Greeks regarded as a fully fledged democratic constitution, though the right to vote was given to fewer groups of people than is seen in modern times.③The first steps toward change were taken by Solon in 594 B.C., when he broke the aristocracy's stranglehold on elected offices by establishing wealth rather than birth as the basis of office holding, abolishing the economic obligations of ordinary Athenians to the aristocracy, and allowing the assembly (of which all citizens were equal members) to overrule the decisions of local courts in certain cases. The strength of the Athenian aristocracy was further weakened during the rest of the century by the rise of a type of government known as a tyranny, which is a form of interim rule by a popular strongman (not rule by a ruthless dictator as the modern use of the term suggests to us). The Peisistratids, as the succession of tyrants were called (after the founder of the dynasty, Peisistratos), strengthened Athenian central administration at the expense of the aristocracy by appointing judges throughout the region, producing Athens’ first national coinage, and adding and embellishing festivals that tended to focus attention on Athens rather than on local villages of the surrounding region. By the end of the century, the time was ripe for more change: the tyrants were driven out, and in 508 B.C. a new reformer, Cleisthenes, gave final form to the developments reducing aristocratic control already under way.④Cleisthenes' principal contribution to the creation of democracy at Athens was to complete the long process of weakening family and clanstructures, especially among the aristocrats, and to set in their place locality-based corporations called demes, which became the point of entry for all civic and most religious life in Athens. Out of the demes were created 10 artificial tribes of roughly equal population. From the demes, by either election or selection, came 500 members of a new council, 6,000 jurors for the courts, 10 generals, and hundreds of commissioners. The assembly was sovereign in all matters but in practice delegated its power to subordinate bodies such as the council, which prepared the agenda for the meetings of the assembly, and courts, which took care of most judicial matters. Various committees acted as an executive branch, implementing policies of the assembly and supervising, for instance, the food and water supplies and public buildings. This wide-scale participation by the citizenry in the government distinguished the democratic form of the Athenian polis from other less liberal forms.⑤The effect of Cleisthenes’ reforms was to establish the superiority of the Athenian community as a whole over local institutions without destroying them. National politics rather than local or deme politics became the focal point. At the same time, entry into national politics began at the deme level and gave local loyalty a new focus: Athens itself. Over the next two centuries the implications of Cleisthenes’ reforms were fully exploited.⑥During the fifth century B.C. the council of 500 was extremely influential in shaping policy. In the next century, however, it was the mature assembly that took on decision-making responsibility. By any measure other than that of the aristocrats, who had been upstaged by the supposedly inferior "people", the Athenian democracy was a stunning success. Never before, or since, have so many people been involved in the serious business of self-governance. It was precisely this opportunity to participate in public life that provided a stimulus for the brilliant unfolding of classical Greek culture.译文古雅典①在公元前800年到公元前500年期间，希腊最重要的变化之一是城邦的崛起，并且每个城邦都发展了适合其情况的政府体系。
尊重自然之歌的英语作文
Respecting nature is a fundamental principle that we must adhere to in our daily lives.It is a responsibility that we owe to the Earth and to ourselves.Here is an essay that elaborates on the importance of respecting nature and how we can achieve this.The Song of Respecting NatureIn the grand orchestra of life,nature plays the melody that sustains us all.It is a song that resonates with the rhythms of the Earth,a symphony that has been composed over eons. To respect nature is to listen to this song,to understand its verses,and to hum along in harmony.The Essence of RespectRespect for nature is not merely an act of reverence it is an acknowledgment of our place within the ecosystem.It is recognizing that every creature,every plant,and every body of water has a role to play.Respecting nature means valuing the air we breathe,the water we drink,and the soil that nurtures our food.The Practice of RespectTo practice respect,we must engage in sustainable living.This involves reducing waste, conserving energy,and supporting ecofriendly practices.It means planting trees to combat deforestation,recycling to lessen landfill burdens,and choosing products that are not harmful to the environment.The Impact of DisrespectDisrespecting nature can lead to dire consequences.Climate change,pollution,and the loss of biodiversity are but a few of the symptoms of our disregard for the natural world. The song of nature becomes a lament when we exploit its resources without consideration for the future.The Call to ActionIt is a call to action for each of us to become stewards of the Earth.We must educate ourselves and others about the importance of environmental conservation.We need to support policies that protect natural habitats and promote the sustainable use of resources.The Power of UnityThe power of unity cannot be overstated.When communities come together to protect nature,the impact is profound.Collective efforts in conservation,such as community forests and cleanup drives,demonstrate our shared commitment to respecting the environment.The Legacy We LeaveThe legacy we leave for future generations is a testament to our respect for nature.By living in harmony with the Earth,we ensure that the song of nature continues to be sung, rich with the melodies of a healthy and vibrant planet.ConclusionRespecting nature is not just a song to be sung it is a vow to be upheld.It is a promise to the Earth and to all its inhabitants that we will cherish and protect the environment for the benefit of all life.Let us join hands and hearts to sing the song of respect for nature,loud and clear,so that it echoes through time and across the globe.。
climate sceptics 英文介绍
climate sceptics 英文介绍Climate skeptics, also known as climate change skeptics or climate deniers, are individuals or groups who distrust or deny the scientific consensus that human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, are the primary cause of global warming and climate change.Climate skeptics question the validity of the data, models, and predictions used by climate scientists to understand and measure climate change. They argue that natural factors, such as solar radiation or natural climate variability, are responsible for the observed changes in the Earth's climate.Many climate skeptics argue that the scientific consensus is driven by political and ideological motivations rather than sound scientific evidence. They claim that climate change is a natural and cyclical phenomenon that has occurred throughout Earth's history and that human activities have a minimal impact on the climate.Climate skeptics often focus on isolated incidents of scientific errors, uncertainties, or controversies to cast doubt on the entire body of climate science. They also challenge the economic consequences of climate change mitigation measures, arguing that they are too costly and unnecessary.Critics of climate skeptics argue that their skepticism is driven by industry interests, political ideology, or a lack of scientific understanding. They accuse skeptics of cherry-picking data, misinterpreting scientific studies, and spreading misinformation that has delayed effective action on climate change.The debate between climate skeptics and climate scientists continues to be contentious, with skeptics gaining attention in certain circles and influencing public opinion and policy decisions. However, the overwhelming majority of experts in the field of climate science agree that human activities are causing global warming and climate change, and that urgent action is needed to mitigate its impacts.。
英语作文 monkey
When it comes to writing an essay about monkeys,there are several aspects you can explore to create an engaging and informative piece.Heres a structured approach to help you get started:Title:The Curious World of MonkeysIntroduction:Begin your essay by introducing the topic and providing a brief overview of what you will discuss.You might mention the diversity of monkeys,their habitats,and their unique behaviors.Paragraph1:Classification and DiversityDiscuss the different types of monkeys,such as the New World monkeys like capuchins and spider monkeys and Old World monkeys like baboons and macaques.Mention the characteristics that differentiate them,such as tail length,facial features,and social behaviors.Paragraph2:HabitatsDescribe the various habitats where monkeys can be found,including tropical rainforests, savannas,and mountainous regions.Explain how their habitats influence their behaviors and adaptations.Paragraph3:Social BehaviorExplore the social structures of monkey societies,such as the matriarchal or patriarchal systems.Discuss how monkeys communicate with each other,using vocalizations,body language, and facial expressions.Paragraph4:Diet and Feeding HabitsDetail the dietary preferences of different monkey species,ranging from frugivorous to omnivorous diets.Explain how their diet affects their physical characteristics and behaviors,such as the use of tools for foraging.Paragraph5:Reproduction and Life CycleDescribe the reproductive habits of monkeys,including mating rituals and the care of young.Discuss the life cycle of a monkey,from birth to adulthood,and the roles played by different members of the group.Paragraph6:Threats and ConservationAddress the challenges that monkeys face in the wild,such as habitat loss,poaching,and climate change.Discuss conservation efforts and the importance of protecting these species for ecological balance and biodiversity.Conclusion:Summarize the key points of your essay,reinforcing the importance of understanding and protecting monkeys.End with a thoughtprovoking statement or a call to action for readers to consider their role in conservation.Word Bank:PrimatesAdaptationsSocial hierarchyForagingEndangered speciesEcosystemBiodiversityConservation initiativesRemember to use descriptive language and vivid examples to bring your essay to life. Engage your reader with interesting facts and compelling narratives about the world of monkeys.。
高考英语外刊时文精读专题05气候变化零碳排放
高考英语外刊时文精读精练 (5)Climate change气候变化Heat island热岛主题语境：人与自然主题语境内容：人与环境【外刊原文】（斜体单词为超纲词汇,认识即可；下划线单词为课标词汇,需熟记。
）On March 13th, as commuters（每日往返上班者）streamed out of Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus,a gothic revival masterpiece（哥特式复兴建筑——贾特拉帕蒂·希瓦吉终点站）in Mu mbai, India’s commercial capital, they were confronted with temperatures approaching40°C, nearly7°C above normal for the time of year. The city is in the midst of a debilitating heatwave, its 13th in the past five decades, nearly half of which occurred in the past 15 years. Mumbai’s average temperature has increased by over 1°C in that period.Had those commuters crossed the street from the station and entered the city’s grand headquarters that day, they might have found cause for optimism. That afternoon politicians from the authority and the state of Maharashtra, of which Mumbai is the capital, had gathered to unveil（揭露）a “climate action plan”. The city aims to reach net-zero emissions by 2050, two decades earlier than the target set by the national government.Mumbai is extremely vulnerable to climate change.A narrow and densely populated（人口密集的）island, surrounded on three sides by the Arabian Sea, it is attacked by monsoon(季候风) rains for four months a year and routinely subject to flooding, especially during high tide. That is bad enough for thecity’s apartment-dwellers（公寓居民）. But it is even worse for the 42% of the population who live in slums（贫民窟）, which are likely to be washed away or buried by landslides（山体滑坡）.The key of the plan is a proposal to decarbonise（去碳化）Mumbai’s energy. Generating the city’s electricity, which produces nearly two-thirds of the city’s emissions, relies mostly on burning fossil fuels, particularly coal. The city wants to increase the share of renewables （可再生资源）. It is looking, for instanceinto installing solar panels（装太阳能电池板）on rooftops.Another priority is to improve the quality and efficiency of the city’s buildings.Slums, especially, are heat islands. Made of whatever materials are at hand or cheaply available, they are five or six degrees hotter than structures of good quality, making them, as the report putsit, “uninhabitable(不适于居住的)” on hot days. Moreover, the heat, damp and cramped(狭窄的)conditions make slum residents more vulnerable to disease—a less obvious risk of climate change.The plan is, however, short on details of how to achieve its ambition s. Still, in publishing one at all Mumbai has led the way among South Asian metropolises(大都市). Other cities are keen to follow suit, says Shruti Narayan of C40, who helped with the report. Chennai and Bangalore in the south have started work on their plans. Others, including Delhi and Kolkata in India, Dhaka in Bangladesh and Karachi in Pakistan have expressed interest in doing something similar.There is plenty in Mumbai’s240-page document to inspire them. One is the fact that it does not rely on using technologies that do not yet exist, a criticism at many countries’ national proposals. Another is the attention given to adaptation(coping with all the bad things already happening) and not just reducing future emissions.Details may anyway be beside the point. The real value of Mumbai’s plan is as a signalling device(信号装置)that “focuses the attention of policymakers”, states Abhas Jha, a climate specialist at the World Bank. The Paris Agreement, which committed the world to the goal of keeping the rise in temperatures to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, worked in much the same way, leaving countries to hash out details later. Time, though, is getting ever shorter.【课标词汇】1.stream（一群人,东西）涌,涌动；流动He was watching the taxis streaming past.他看着出租车一辆接着一辆地驶过。
英文原版阅读
英文原版阅读The Impacts of Climate Change on Marine EcosystemsClimate change has become a serious concern in recent decades, as it poses a significant threat to the stability and integrity of marine ecosystems. The warming of our planet is primarily caused by the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, mainly from human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation. This global phenomenon has profound consequences for marine life, including alterations to ocean temperature, sea level rise, and changes in ocean acidity.One of the most direct impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems is the rise in ocean temperature. As the Earth's atmosphere warms, so does the surface of the ocean. This has serious implications for marine species that are sensitive to temperature changes. For example, coral reefs, which are essential habitats for a variety of marine organisms, are highly vulnerable to increased water temperatures. When water temperatures exceed certain thresholds, corals undergo a stress response known as coral bleaching, where they expel the symbiotic algae living within their tissues. This leads to their death and the subsequent loss of biodiversity in coral reef ecosystems.Sea level rise is another consequence of climate change that affects marine ecosystems. As temperatures increase, glaciers and ice sheets melt, causing an influx of water into the oceans. This leads to a rise in sea levels, which can have detrimental effects on coastal habitats and species. Coastal wetlands, mangroves, and estuaries provide critical breeding grounds and nurseries for manymarine organisms. However, as sea levels rise, these habitats are at risk of flooding and erosion, potentially leading to the loss of essential breeding grounds and the displacement of numerous species.Ocean acidification is a less visible but equally significant consequence of climate change. As carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere increase, a portion of it is absorbed by the oceans. This leads to a chemical reaction that results in the ocean becoming more acidic. The increased acidity poses a threat to marine organisms that rely on calcium carbonate to build their shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain types of plankton. The acidification of the oceans can impair their ability to form and maintain such structures, making them more vulnerable to predation and hindering their ability to perform essential ecological functions.The impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems are not limited to individual species. They can also have cascading effects on entire food webs and ecosystem dynamics. For example, changes in ocean temperature can affect the distribution and abundance of plankton, the base of many marine food chains. This, in turn, can impact the populations of larger marine organisms, including fish, marine mammals, and seabirds, which rely on plankton as a primary food source. Changes in their availability or abundance can disrupt the balance of these ecosystems, with potentially far-reaching consequences.In conclusion, climate change poses significant threats to marine ecosystems worldwide. The rise in ocean temperature, sea-levelrise, and ocean acidification are all consequences of global warming that can have severe impacts on marine life. The loss of coral reefs, the flooding of coastal habitats, and the disruption of entire food webs are just a few of the potential consequences. Urgent action is needed to mitigate these effects and protect the invaluable biodiversity and ecological services provided by our oceans.。
Conserve Nature's Essence
**Conserve Nature's Essence**In the grand theater of existence, nature unfolds as a majestic spectacle, its essence a precious thread that weaves the fabric of life.The wisdom of the ancient Roman philosopher Marcus Aurelius lingers: "The universe is change; our life is what our thoughts make it." This profound insight guides our understanding of the imperative to conserve nature's essence.The essence of nature lies in its delicate balance and intricate web of life. Consider the Amazon rainforest, a veritable paradise of biodiversity. Here, countless species coexist in harmony, each playing a vital role in maintaining the ecosystem's stability. However, deforestation, driven by human greed and the insatiable demand for resources, has scarred this natural wonderland. The loss of countless trees not only disrupts the habitat of countless creatures but also contributes to global warming.The essence of nature is also reflected in the purity of our water bodies. The once-clear rivers and lakes, like the Rhine and Lake Baikal, have faced pollution from industrial waste and agricultural runoff. This contamination not only endangers aquatic life but also poses a threat to human health as our water sources become compromised.Nature's essence is further evident in the stability of our climate. The melting of polar ice caps and the increasing frequency of extreme weather events are stark reminders of the imbalance we have caused.Yet, there are beacons of hope in our quest to conserve nature's essence. The establishment of protected areas and national parks around the world has provided havens for endangered species and fragile ecosystems. For instance, Yellowstone National Park in the United States has seen the recovery of species like wolves, demonstrating the power of conservation efforts.Renewable energy initiatives are on the rise, with countries like Germany leading the way in solar and wind power. This shift towards clean energy is a step towards reducing our carbon footprint and preserving the planet's climate.To truly conserve nature's essence, a collective awakening is needed. Governments must enforce stringent environmental policies and invest in conservation projects. Industries need to embrace sustainable practicesand prioritize the well-being of the planet over short-term profits.As individuals, we have the power to make a difference. Simple acts such as conserving water, reducing waste, and choosing eco-friendly products can contribute to the larger cause.In conclusion, conserving nature's essence is not just an option but a moral obligation. It is a journey that requires our unwavering commitment and a profound shift in our mindset. Let us tread this path with reverence and determination, ensuring that the essence of nature remains intact for generations to come.。
Terrestrial Ecosystems in a Changing World
Global Change – The IGBP SeriesJosep G. Canadell·Diane E. Pataki·Louis F. Pitelka (Eds.)Terrestrial Ecosystemsin a Changing WorldWith 104 FiguresEditorsJosep G. CanadellGlobal Carbon ProjectCSIRO Marine and Atmospheric ResearchGPO Box 3023Canberra, ACT 2601, AustraliaDiane E. PatakiDepartment of Earth System Scienceand Department of Ecology & Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaIrvine, CA 92697, USALouis F. PitelkaAppalachian LaboratoryUniversity of MarylandCenter for Environmental ScienceFrostburg, MD 21532, USALibrary of Congress Control Number: 2006922797ISSN1619-2435ISBN-103-540-32729-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New YorkISBN-13978-3-540-32729-5 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New YorkThis work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the mate-rial is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitations, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplica-tion of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2007The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.Cover design: Erich Kirchner, HeidelbergCover photos, credits: (1) Michael Ryan, (2) CSIRO, (3) Richard Norby, (4) David Tilman Typesetting: Stasch · Bayreuth (stasch@)Production: Christine Adolph, HeidelbergPrinted on acid-free paper 30/2133/CA – 5 4 3 2 1 0PrefaceThe GCTE project was born on the day the Berlin wall fell (November 10, 1989). It was the final day of the Planning Committee meeting for the IGB P, at B erlin’s Wissenschaftskolleg. Co-ordinating Panel 4 had presented its recommendations to the IGB P Planning Committee during the preceding week, and on that day they were accepted as the basis for GCTE, ratified later at the general IGBP inaugural meeting in Paris, in 1990.The first full meeting of GCTE was its Open Science meeting in Brighton, En-gland, in February 1991. Much good science was defined and put into effect at that meeting. But one point remained unresolved – an appropriate name and acronym. Everyone was agreed that GCTE was dreadful and could never work. The topic was debated at (the end of) each subsequent meeting of the Steering Committee, and no agreement on a better (publishable) name and acronym was ever reached. Its clumsiness eventually made it distinctive and so, 15 years later, it is finally put to rest, with the project.From its inception GCTE was marked by, and most fortunate in having, a group of outstanding scientists to lead its defined Activities. They constituted the GCTE Steering Committee and their performance and stature attracted the best researchers joining what has been an exemplary (yet essentially voluntary) scientific effort.The evolution of GCTE is an interesting reflection of scientific progress and increasing awareness of what is needed to understand the functioning of the Earth System. It began with three “Foci”, ecophysiology (at various scales), vegetation dynamics (again at scales from patches to the globe) and agro-ecosystems. A fourth Focus, on biodiversity, but also involving linkages across the other three, was added as results from initial studies and models began to emerge. The evolution to a more integrated approach continued and the results presented in this volume show the level of awareness that has now been achieved.Perhaps the most important achievement of GCTE has been to demonstrate the critical role that terrestrial ecosystems play in the functioning of the Earth System. When GCTE began, it was widely assumed that Earth System dynamics were domi-nated by the ocean-atmosphere system, and that terrestrial systems were just the recipients of changes in the dynamics of these two great fluids. Now the picture is much different, as the following examples demonstrate.Terrestrial processes in the carbon cycle. Until very recently, projections of future atmospheric CO2 concentration were determined only by estimated emissions from fossil fuel combustion and land-use change. Research within GCTE and elsewhere has elucidated the important role that feedback processes in terrestrial ecosystems – heterotrophic respiration, wildfires, permafrost melting – will play in determin-ing the trajectory of atmospheric CO2 concentration over the next few decades and centuries. This work has contributed to the issue of ‘sink saturation’ and the possi-bility that the terrestrial will switch later this century from being a net sink to a net source of carbon.PrefaceVINonlinearities in the Earth System. Within the IGBP framework, GCTE took the lead in analyzing the nature of nonlinear change in Earth System functioning. This work played a central role in the emergence of abrupt change, surprises and ex-treme events as unifying themes in the second phase of IGBP research. Dynamic Global Vegetation Models (DGVMs). When GCTE began its implementa-tion in 1991, the terrestrial surface was treated as a ‘big leaf’ or a ‘green slime’ in global climate models. One of the project’s highest priorities was to change this situation. Several research groups associated with GCTE produced prototype DGVMs by the mid-1990s, a model intercomparison was implemented later in the decade, and now DGVMs are recognized as an essential component – as important as the oceans and the atmosphere – in Earth System models.Complementing this Earth System perspective, the last phase of GCTE also placed emphasis on the consequences of global change for the things that matter to people – captured in this book in the section on “Ecosystem Services”. These consequences are mostly reflected at regional scales and the regions under most stress are dis-cussed in the final section of the book.We are delighted and honored to have been asked to write this Preface. Brian was GCTE’s first Chair and Will the first full time Scientific Officer, before he took over as IGB P Director. We both greatly enjoyed our involvement, benefiting from it enormously, and this was in large measure thanks to all the fine people who were involved. We cannot mention them all but we want to acknowledge one person in particular, Rowena Foster, for the prodigious effort she has put in, throughout the 15 years of its existence, to making GCTE work. We know that every scientist who was involved in one of the many workshops organized by Rowena will join us in thanking her.GCTE’s research over the past 15 years provides a sound base for the new Global Land Project, and the community that GCTE has built will make many further contributions to the GLP. This book highlights the exciting work that was carried out during the second half of GCTE and points towards the new challenges to be undertaken under the GLP banner. We congratulate the authors and editors on a fine effort. We thank the GCTE community for its many achievements and wish the GLP all the best for the future.Brian Walker and Will SteffenNovember 2006CanberraAcknowledgmentsThe implementation and success of GCTE was possible thanks to the commitment and contributions of many scientists from around the world who have volunteered for leading roles to drive activities, established networks, and run workshops and synthesis efforts for almost 15 years. Over 100 scientists played roles as members of the scientific steering committee, and as activity and task leaders. To all of them we want to show our appreciation and gratitude for their valuable time and intellectual contributions. Their willingness to contribute well beyond their own interest provided an invaluable service to the development of a globally coordinated understanding of science. Particular thanks go to the chairs of GCTE: Brian W alker, Ian Noble, and Louis Pitelka; and Harold Mooney for being such a motivating and inspiring leader.We also want to thank to a smaller group of individuals who invested their careers in the roles of executive and project officers to support the implementa-tion of the GCTE science plan. Without those individuals who were able to be full time facilitators, coordinators, and leaders, the GCTE would have not been able to operate successfully. Those individuals include: William Batista, Pep Canadell, Sara Duke, Pablo Inchausti, John Ingram, Elisabeth Huber-Sannwald, George Koch, Diane Pataki and Will Steffen. We also want to thank Rowena Foster who supported with great proficiency the International Project Office (IPO) in Canberra for the entire life of the project.No GCTE activity or office would have been possible without the engagement and long term commitment of the many funding agencies which supported the offices and the development of networks, workshops, and synthesis efforts.These long term funding relationships were key to the success of GCTE, enabling the establishment of an IPO and several focus offices that continuously supported the operations of GCTE. The IPO was based in Canberra, Australia and funded by the Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO) of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, and the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Research Organi-zation (CSIRO); initially in the Division of Sustainable Ecosystems and later on in the Division of Marine and Atmospheric Research. B oth AGO and CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research are continuing their invaluable support to international research coordination through their support to the Global Carbon Project, a joint project of the Earth System Science Partnership (IGBP, IHDP, WCRP, and Diversitas).The US-National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Stanford University, and the University of Utah in Salt Lake City supported the focus 1 office on ecosystem physiology and biogeochemistry; the US-Department of Energy (DOE) funded many activities related to ecosystem physiology. The Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) through the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology in Wallingford, UK supported the focus 3 office on agroecology and production systems. The Inter-American Institute for Global Change based in B razil, the University of Buenos Aires, and the CNRS-Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris supported the focus 4 office on functional biodiversity.On behalf of the GCTE and its sponsor program, the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program, we want to express our appreciation and thanks for the longVIII Acknowledgmentsterm commitment and significant contributions to the coordination of interna-tional science. This support has enabled the GCTE to leave behind a legacy of improved understanding of the effects of global change on terrestrial ecosystems, and a large community with the scientific capacity to continue this work into a new phase.Finally we want to thank all the authors of chapters in this book for their time and valuable contributions towards this final GCTE effort.Josep Canadell, Diane Pataki, Louis PitelkaThe editorsContents1Global Ecology, Networks, and Research Synthesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2Carbon and Water Cycles in the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3Changing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.4Landscapes under Changing Disturbance Regimes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.5Managing Ecosystem Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.6Regions under Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.7The Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Part ACarbon and Water Cycles in the 21st Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2CO2 Fertilization: When, Where, How Much?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1Carbon a Limiting Plant Resource?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.2Long-Term Biomass Responses and Carbon Pools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.2.1Time Matters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.2.2Nutrients and Water Determine Biomass Responsesat Elevated CO2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.2.3Scaling from Growth to Carbon Pools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.3Carbon to Nutrient Ratios and Consumer Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.3.1The C to N Ratio Widens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.3.2Consequences for Herbivory, Decompositionand Plant Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4Plant Water Relations and Hydrological Implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.5Stress Resistance under Elevated CO2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.6Biodiversity Effects May Outweigh Physiology Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.6.1Hydrology Implications of Elevated CO2 Depend onSpecies Abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.6.2Biodiversity Effects on Forest Carbon Stockingand Grassland Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.7Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3Ecosystem Responses to Warmingand Interacting Global Change Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.1The Multiple Factor Imperativein Global Change Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.2Ecosystem Responses to Experimental Warming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233.2.1The GCTE-NEWS Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243.2.2The ITEX Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.2.3The Harvard Forest Soil Warming Experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26XContents3.3Temperature and CO2 Interactions in Trees:the TACIT Experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263.3.1Experimental Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263.3.2Growth Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273.3.3Higher-Order Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283.3.4TACIT Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.4More Than Two Factors: the Jasper Ridge Global Change Experiment . . . . . 283.4.1Experimental Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283.4.2Net Primary Productivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293.4.3Community Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293.4.4JRGCE Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.5Modeling Temperature, CO2 and N Interactions in Trees and Grass. . . . . . . . 303.5.1Global Change Simulations for a California Annual Grassland. . . . . . . . 303.5.2Comparing Forest and Grassland with G’DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.6Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4Insights from Stable Isotopes on the Role of Terrestrial Ecosystems in the Global Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.1Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.2Ecosystem Carbon Cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.3The Global Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 4.4Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 In Memoriam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 5Effects of Urban Land-Use Change on Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5.1Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5.2Urban Land-Use Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 5.3Urban Environmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475.3.1Climate and Atmospheric Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475.3.2Atmospheric and Soil Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495.3.3Introductions of Exotic Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.4Disturbance and Management Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505.4.1Lawn and Horticultural Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505.4.2Management Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5.5Effects of Built Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 5.6Assessing Biogeochemical Effects – the Importance of Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 5.7Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 6Saturation of the Terrestrial Carbon Sink. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 6.1Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 6.2Location of the Current Terrestrial Carbon Sinks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 6.3Dynamics of Processes that Contribute to Carbon Sink Saturation . . . . . . . . . 60 6.4Processes Contributing to Terrestrial Carbon Sink Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606.4.1Processes Driven by Atmospheric Composition Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606.4.2Processes Driven by Climate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646.4.3Processes Driven by Land-Use Change and Land Management. . . . . . . 66 6.5Integration and Model Predictions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 6.6Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Contents X I Part BChanging Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 7Functional Diversity – at the Crossroadsbetween Ecosystem Functioning and Environmental Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 7.1Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 7.2Environmental Filters Affect FD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 7.3FD effects on Global Change Drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827.3.1The Traits of the Dominants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827.3.2The Role of Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 7.4Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 8Linking Plant Invasions to Global Environmental Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 8.1Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 8.2Plant Invasions and Elevated CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938.3Plant Invasions and Climatic Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 8.4Plant Invasions and Land Eutrophication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 8.5Plant Invasions and Changes in Land Use/Cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 8.6Multiple Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 8.7Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 9Plant Biodiversity and Responses to Elevated Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . 103 9.1Ten Y ears of GCTE Research: Apprehending Complexity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039.1.1Effects of CO2 on Plant Diversity Through Alterationsof the Physical Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 9.2Temporal V ariation and Response to Elevated CO2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059.2.1Reproductive and Evolutionary Aspects of the Response to Elevated CO21059.2.2Communities at Equilibrium V ersus Dynamic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 105 9.3Biodiversity Loss and Response to Elevated CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079.3.1Species Diversity and Response to Elevated CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079.3.2Ecosystem C Fluxes in a Species-Poor World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 9.4Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 10Predicting the Ecosystem Consequences of Biodiversity Loss: the Biomerge Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 10.1Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: a Synthesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11310.1.1Why Biodiversity Matters to Global Change Ecology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11310.1.2Linking Change in Biodiversity with Change in Ecosystem Functioning11410.1.3Lessons Learned from Early Debates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11410.1.4What We Have Learned about the Relationshipbetween Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11510.1.5The Scientific Framework for Linking Biodiversityand Ecosystem Functioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 10.2The B ioMERGE Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11710.2.1The BioMERGE Structural Sub-Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11710.2.2The BioMERGE BEF Sub-Framework:an Expansion of the Vitousek-Hooper Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11710.2.3The BioMERGE Research Implementation Sub-Framework . . . . . . 119 10.3Discussion: Towards a Large Scale BEF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123。
学术英语综合课文翻译季佩英
Unit 4 环境Text A The Green Movement at 50: What Next?环保的当今时代是约半个世纪之久。
那段时间意识不断壮大，我们所面临的挑战知识增加，而重要的实践已经取得了进展，例如在一些减少各种污染，并在建立保护区。
我们是，但是，仍然由协调人什么我们的星球能提供可持续的要求很远。
人与自然之间的不平衡的后果是出现在改变地球的气候，动物和植物的势头，并在关键的资源，包括野生鱼类资源，淡水和土壤的枯竭的大灭绝。
而这些环境压力不是一成不变的。
他们不断升级，随着我国人口的增长和国家继续为更多的经济增长的不懈追求。
如果我们要避免这些趋势的最严重后果则毫无疑问是较为迅速的进展将需要比迄今取得的，但我们在这里应该关注我们的努力？什么可能是在未来的半个世纪行动的优先领域？这让我感到眼前的主要挑战主要不是相对于良好的信息，更好的技术和良好的政策思路。
这些东西是至关重要的当然的，但所有这些东西都已经可用。
我们知道如何让清洁电力，节约资源，培育生物多样性。
我们知道如何规范污染，防止损坏的生态系统，如果我们想。
我们有这些能力的事实是不够的。
如果我们继续前进的决定性方式的争论它需要被重新定义。
我们需要从“做正确的事'上移动，谈到风险管理，促进抗灾能力。
要查看关爱地球的自然系统为某种道德选择的是完全误解了危机，我们都在这个挑战是关于人类社会的未来，而不是一些可选的慈善事业，我们可以留给慈善事业慷慨解囊，做社会改良。
嵌入了使我们从保护自然的人们保护自然为人们的叙述是这样的重新规划的重要组成部分。
我们正处在一个时期的后果，世界必须知道，健康的本质不是一些可选的精密而是一组不可缺少的物质资产。
如果这样的叙述是为了获得实际效果再想找性质后必须立即被看作不仅是一个环境的挑战，也是一个经济问题。
只要我们继续滑向两个方向行进，一方面是促进环保目标的同时，对其他直接矛盾与措施，以实现更多的经济增长，我们不再将无法取得真正的进展。
The Ethics of Climate Engineering
The Ethics of Climate Engineering Climate engineering, also known as geoengineering, refers to deliberate,large-scale interventions in the Earth's climate system to mitigate the impacts of climate change. The ethical considerations surrounding climate engineering are complex and multifaceted, as they involve weighing the potential risks andbenefits of altering the planet's climate. One perspective on climate engineering is that it represents a potentially dangerous and morally dubious approach to addressing climate change. Critics argue that manipulating the Earth's climate could have unintended and irreversible consequences, leading to further environmental harm and exacerbating existing inequalities. From this viewpoint, climate engineering is seen as a technocratic solution that fails to address the root causes of climate change, such as reliance on fossil fuels and unsustainable consumption patterns. Instead of investing in unproven and potentially risky geoengineering technologies, critics argue that efforts should be focused on transitioning to renewable energy sources, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and implementing adaptation measures to cope with the impacts of climate change. Moreover, the prospect of unilateral geoengineering projects raises concerns about geopolitical tensions and the potential for conflict over control of the Earth's climate. However, proponents of climate engineering argue that it could offer a necessary and pragmatic solution to the challenges of climate change. They contend that traditional mitigation and adaptation measures may not be sufficient to limit global temperature rise to safe levels, particularly given the slow pace of international climate negotiations and the reluctance of some countries to take meaningful action. Climate engineering, proponents argue, could provide a "plan B" for addressing climate change if mitigation efforts fall short, potentially buying time to implement more sustainable solutions. Furthermore, proponents argue that certain forms of climate engineering, such as solar radiation management (SRM), could be relatively inexpensive and technically feasible compared to other mitigation strategies. SRM involves reflecting a small fraction of sunlight back into space to cool the Earth's surface, mimicking the cooling effect of volcanic eruptions. While SRM does not address the underlying causes of climate change, proponents argue that it could help to temporarily offset some of the warmingassociated with greenhouse gas emissions, providing a valuable tool for managing the risks of climate change. Another perspective on climate engineering emphasizes the importance of considering ethical principles such as justice, fairness, and informed consent in decision-making processes. Proponents of this viewpoint argue that any decision to deploy climate engineering technologies must be made in a transparent and participatory manner, with careful consideration of the potential risks and benefits, as well as the views and interests of affected communities. In particular, there are concerns about the potential for climate engineering to disproportionately impact vulnerable populations and exacerbate existing social inequalities. Moreover, the long-term consequences of climate engineering are highly uncertain, making informed consent and democratic governance essential components of ethical decision-making in this area. Given the potential transboundary and intergenerational impacts of climate engineering, there is a need for international cooperation and governance mechanisms to ensure that decisions are made in the public interest and reflect the diverse perspectives of stakeholders from around the world. Overall, the ethics of climate engineering are deeply contested and raise fundamental questions about humanity's relationship with the natural world and future generations. While some see geoengineering as a risky and morally questionable shortcut that could have unforeseen consequences, others view it as a necessary tool for managing the risks of climate change in an uncertain and rapidly changing world. Ultimately, the debate over climate engineering reflects broader tensions between technological innovation, environmental stewardship, and social justice in the face of global environmental challenges.。
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More bad news
Some agents (perhaps fungi) may be killing corals, FL Keys and Caribbean Increase in asthma in Caribbean since 1973 Fe rich dust may trigger harmful algal blooms, FL Pollution and dust form China and C. Asia blows across Pacific Ocean reduce air quality in W US
Average temperature and precipitation Latitude and elevation
Earth‟s Major Climate Zones (Fig. 5-2)
Back to Ocean Currents
Solar Energy and Global Air Circulation: Distributing Heat
Ocean Currents: Distributing Heat and Nutrients
Ocean currents affect climate of regions (Fig. 5-2) Ocean absorbs heat, bulk near equator
Temperature differences influence vertical movements Temperature and winds influence horizontal movements.
Case Study
Blowing in the Wind: A Story of Connections Wind
Vital part of planet‟s circulatory system
Distributes heat Transports heat (P and Fe in dust)
Certain gases regulate earth‟s average temp.
CO2, CH4, H2O, and N2O
Greenhouse gases cause greenhouse effect (Fig. 5-7). Human activities increasing greenhouse effect
Topography and Local Climate: Land Matters
Large bodies of water moderate climate of nearby lands
Sea breezes
Rainshadow effect (Fig. 5-8) Monsoons – heavy rains experienced by land masses lying north and south of warm oceans.
Mixed News
Particles from volcanic eruptions decrease global temp. Add trace elements to soil.
Familiar Lesson
No away Everything is connected
Wind: circulates heat, moisture, plant nutrients, long-lived air pollutants, and soil particles Global air circulation patterns influence climate; climate influences plants and animals found in biomes.
I. Climate: A Brief Introduction
Weather – temp., precipitation, humidity, wind speed, cloud cover, and physical conditions over hours or days (see Suppl. 10). Climate – region‟s general weather patterns over a long period of time.
Evaporation exceeds precipitation; annual precipitation is low and scattered unevenly throughout year. Cover 30% of land surface, mostly subtropical and tropical regions. Largest in interior of continents, other local due to rainshadow effect. Little water in atmosphere, vegetation, and ground broad temperature swings between night and daytime.
• Coriolis effect (animation) • Cells – air movement in huge regions (Fig. 5-4) – Prevailing winds
Coriolis Web Animation /college/strahler/0471480533/animations/ch07_animations/animation2.html
Major factors that determine type of biome (Fig. 3-10):
Biomes are not uniform
Communities vary, but have unique attributes Patchiness resources not uniformly distributed and humans remove or alter vegetation.
Four factors that determine global circulation patterns.
Uneven heating of the earth‟s surface Seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation (Fig. 5-3) Rotation of earth on itstation vary similarly with latitude and elevation (Fig. 5-11).
III. Desert Biomes
Deserts: Tropical, Temperate, and Polar.
General Attributes
Distributes heat Distributes nutrients – upwellings (see Fig. 5-2 and Suppl. 10) Mix Water
Nutrients Oxygen
Atmospheric Gases and Climate: The Natural Greenhouse Effect
Alternating wet and dry seasons Heating of land low pressure draws moisture from warm ocean Haze, smog, higher temp, lower wind speed
Microclimates of cities – warmer than surrounding countryside.
II. Biomes: Climate and Life on Land
Why Do Different Organisms Live in Different Places?
Difference in climate different organisms, esp. plants. Biomes – large terrestrial regions characterized by similar climate, soil, plants, and animals.
Compare biomes locations w/ regional climates (Fig. 5-9 and 5-2). Biomes at the 39th parallel in NA (Fig. 3-9, p. 56)
Influence of humans? Average annual precipitation Average annual temperature Soil type
Properties of air, water, and land
• Cyclical convection cells circulate air, heat, and moisture vertically (Fig. 5-5). – Six giant cells, 3 in N hemisphere and 3 in S (Fig. 5-6) – Leads to irregular distribution of climate patterns and vegetation (or biomes).
Notes
Chapter 5: Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity
Focus Questions: What factors influence earth‟s climate? How does climate determine where the earth‟s major biomes are found? What are the major types of desert biomes? What are the major types of grassland biomes? What are the major types of forest and mountain biomes? How have human activities affected, the world‟s desert, grassland, forest, and mountain biomes?