英美文学关键内容

英美文学关键内容AlliterationAlliteration is regular repetition of the same sounds---usu. Initial consonants of words or of stressed syllables--- in Old and Middle English verse.∙Big Ben∙Super Sonic∙Mickey MouseIambic PentameterIambic pentameter is a meter in poetry, consisting of lines with five feet (hence " pentameter") in which the iamb is the dominant foot (hence "Iambic"). Iambic rhythms are quite easy to write in English and iambic pentameter is among the most common metrical forms in English poetry. Like the rest of the meters it has its origins in Greek poetry.da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM(weak STRONG / weak STRONG / weak STRONG / weak STRONG / weak STRONG)Was-THIS the-FACE that-LAUNCH'D a-THOU sand-SHIPSRhymeRhyme is the echo or coincidence of sounds at the end of the line. It is a similarity of sound between words, such as moon, spoon, croon, tune, and June. Rhyme is often employed in verse.Loveliest of trees, the cherry nowIs hung with bloom along the bough,And stands about the woodland rideWearing white for Easter tide.StanzaStanza is a recurrent grouping of two or more lines of a poem in terms of length, metrical form, and, often, rhyme scheme. The more common stanzaic forms are A. couplet 双行, B. tercet 三行, C. quatrain (ballad stanza 民歌韵段), D. rhyme royal 御韵（7 行抑扬格5 步，韵式ababbcc ）, E. ottava （8 行抑扬格5 步，韵式abababcc ）, F. the Spenserian stanza 斯宾塞韵段（9 行--- 前8 行抑扬格5 步，最后1 行6 步，韵式abab bcbc c ）和G. sonnet.SonnetSonnet is a lyric poem comprising 14 rhyming iambic pentameter lines. The rhyme schemes of the sonnet follow basically two patterns: A) The Italian sonnet (the Petrarchan) comprises an 8-line (octave) of two quatrains, rhymed abbaabba, followed by a 6-line (sestet) usually rhymed cdecde or cdcdcd. B) The English sonnet (Shakespearean) comprises 3 quatrains and a final couplet, rhyming ababcdcdefefgg. An important variant of this is Spenserian which rhymes ababbabccdcdee. Famous English sonneteers are Sir Philip Sidney, Spenser, Shakespeare, John Donne, Milton, Wordsworth, Keats, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, W. H. Auden.The form consists of three quatrains and a couplet. The couplet generally introduced an unexpected sharp thematic or imagistic "turn". The usual rhyme scheme was a-b-a-b,c-d-c-d, e-f-e-f, g-g.This example, Shakespeare's Sonnet 116, illustrates the form:Let me not to the marriage of true mindsAdmit impediments. Love is not loveWhich alters when it alteration finds,Or bends with the remover to remove.O no, it is an ever fixed markThat looks on tempests and is never shaken;It is the star to every wand'ring barque,Whose worth's unknown although his height be taken.Love's not time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeksWithin his bending sickle's compass come;Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,But bears it out even to the edge of doom.If this be error and upon me proved,I never writ, nor no man ever loved.A variant on this form is the Spenserian sonnet, named after Edmund Spenser(c.1552–1599) in which the rhyme scheme is a-b-a-b, b-c-b-c, c-d-c-d, e-e. This example is taken from AmorettiHappy ye leaves! whenas those lily handHappy ye leaves! whenas those lily hands,Which hold my life in their dead doing might,Shall handle you, and hold in love's soft bands,Like captives trembling at the victor's sight.And happy lines! on which, with starry light,Those lamping eyes will deign sometimes to look,And read the sorrows of my dying sprite,Written with tears in heart's close bleeding book.And happy rhymes! bathed in the sacred brookOf Helicon, whence she derived is,When ye behold that angel's blessed look,My soul's long lacked food, my heaven's bliss.Leaves, lines, and rhymes seek her to please alone,Whom if ye please, I care for other none.Heroic CoupletHeroic couplet rhyme d iambic pentameter lines in pairs.A frequently-cited example illustrating the use of heroic couplets is this passage from Cooper's Hill by John Denham, part of his description of the Thames:O could I flow like thee, and make thy streamMy great example, as it is my theme!Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull,Strong without rage, without o'erflowing full.SatireSatire is a mode of writing that exposes the failings of individuals, institutions, or societies to ridicule and scorn.The Canterbury TalesThe Canterbury Tales , begun in about 1386, consists of stories told by some of the thirty pilgrims who set off from the Tabard Inn in Southwark, London, to visit the shrine of St. Thomas a Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury murdered in his own cathedral in 1170. The aim was to tell four stories each: two on the way, two on the way back. The teller of the best story would be given a free dinner by the cheerful host of the Tabard. In fact, the collection is incomplete and only 24 stories are told.Structure1. The General Prologue2. 24 talesin betweenThemeInfluenced by the early ItalianRenaissance, Chaucer affirmedman's right to pursue earthlyhappiness and opposedintellect, and love of life.Meanwhile, he also exposed andsatirized the social evils, esp. thereligious abuses.Characterization--- vivid portrayal of individualized characters of the society and of all professions and social strata except the highest and the lowest∙shows respect for the two landed gentry, the plowman and the parson;∙satirized all the religious people except the parson;∙shows a growing sense of self-importance of the trades and towns people, reflecting the changing social status, esp. in towns and cities.Style∙lively and vivid Middle-Age English∙satiric and humorous∙heroic couplet∙of unequal meritsRenaissance is commonly applied to the movement or period in western civilization, which marks the transition from the medieval to the modern world. Generally, it refers to the period between the 14 th and mid-17 th century. It first started in Florence and Venice of Italy, with the flowering of painting, sculpture and architecture. From Italy the movement went to embrace the rest of Europe. In different countries, the movement occurred in different periods with different emphasis upon the newly discovered Greek and Roman classics and the combination or compromise of a newly interpreted Christian tradition and an ardently admired tradition of pagan classical culture, which was stimulated by a series of historical events, such as the rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek culture, the new discoveries in geography and astronomy, the religious reformation and the economic expansion.Renaissance, therefore, in essence, is a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of those old feudalist ideas in medieval Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie, and to lift the restriction in all areas placed by the Roman Catholic Church authorities.o HumanismHumanism is the idea that man has a potential for culture whichdistinguishes him from lower orders of beings, and which he should striveconstantly to fulfill.Historical Background∙Society, Politics and Economyo The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) between France and Englando The War of the Roses (1455-1485)--- Red Rose represents the noble family of Lancaster and White Roserepresents the noble family of York.o The Civil War or Bourgeois Revolution (1642-1660) between the Monarch and the House of Commonso Restoration (1660-1688)o Glorious Revolution (1688)o The Agrarian Revolution --- the largest scale enclose of common land The land was turned into pasture to greed sheep, driving many peasantsto the cities.o Development of the clothing industry --- the beginning of the English capitalist production, geographical exploration and trade expansiono Discovery of new landIn England, the exploration had two objects: one was the quest of gold andsilver, and the other was the finding of new markets for English cloth. Literature∙Translationo Greek and Roman classicse.g. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey by ChapmanOvid’s MetamorphosesVirgil’s AeneidPlato, Aristotle, Seneca and Plautuso Contemporary Italian and French workse.g. Plutarch, Horace and Danteà Sonnets and blank verse were introduced into England.Comedy and tragedy were flourished.o The King James Bible, or the "Authorized Version"--- a work by 47 translators that was published in 1611∙Imitation and assimilation of classic and foreign writerso Epicse.g. Homer, Virgil, Danta -> Spenser, Miltono Sonnetse.g. Petrarch, Dante -> Shakespeare, Sidner, Jonson, Donne and AndrewMarvello Dramae.g. Seneca, Plautus -> Marlowe, Shakespeare, JonsonKing James Bible: the "Authorized Version"The King James Bible is an English translation of the Holy Bible, commissioned for the benefit of the Church of England at the behest of King James I of England. First published in 1611, it has had a profound impact not only on most English translations that have followed it, but also on English literature as a whole. The works of famous authors such as John Bunyan, John Milton, Herman Melville, John Dryden, and William Wordsworth are replete with inspiration apparently derived from the King James Version. Bibles from the English Revised Version to the New American Standard Bible, the Revised Standard Version, and the New King James Version are revisions of its text; it has deeply influenced Bibles such as the New International Version that do not claim to be revisions of its text.EpicA long narrative poem in elevated style presents characters of high relation to a central figure of heroic proportions and through their development of episodes important to the history of a nation or race.Some of the features are:∙The herois a figure of imposing stature, of national or international importance, and of great historical or legendary significance;∙The setting is vast in scope, covering great nations, the world, or the universe;∙The action consists of deeds of great valor or requiring superhuman courage;∙Supernatural forces ---gods, angels, and demons--- interest themselves in the action and intervene from time to time;∙ A style of sustained elevation and grand simplicity is used;∙The epic poet recounts the deeds of the heroes with objectivity. Some famous epics are Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey, the Old English Beowulf, Virgil'sAeneid, Dante's Divine Comedy, Milton's Paradise Lost.o Mystery PlaysMystery plays are circles of religious plays performed in the Middle Agesduring the great Church festivals, especially Corpus Christ in June. Thematerial came either from the Bible or from the lives of the saints.o Miracle Plays --- a further development of Mystery playso Morality PlaysMorality plays had characters representing abstract qualities such asBeauty, Strength, Gluttony and Vice, or generalized classes such asEveryman and King. These plays treated certain themes like the summonsof Death, and the conflict of vices and virtues in man’s life. There wascertain development of characterization in the moralities. The best knownof the morality plays are Everyman and Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress.∙Elizabethan Drama ( early 16 th cen. --- 17 th cen. )--- the Golden Age of English Dramao Main Features▪Professional playwrights (University Wits) and theatricaltroupes were backed up by some noble patronage.▪Dramas were widespread from private houses to publictheatres on the outskirts of London.▪No women players▪Simple prop-ups▪Entertaining as well as educationalo Major reasons for the rise▪from epic to tragedy and comedy▪from the grander aspirations to worldly life▪from perfect heroes to imperfect ones with flaws, foiblesand limitations▪evils shown to teach people lessonsTragedyTragedy is a serious play or novel representing the disastrous downfall of a central character, the protagonist. According to Aristotle, the purpose is to achieve a catharsis through incidents arousing pity and terror. The tragic effect usually depends on our awareness of admirable qualities in he protagonist, which are wasted terribly in the fated disaster.ComedyComedy is a play written chiefly to amuse its audience by appealing to a sense of superiority over the characters depicted. A comedy will normally be closer to everyday life tha n a tragedy, and will explore common human failings rather than tragedy’s disastrous crimes. Its ending will usually be happy for the leading characters. Among its less sophisticated forms are burlesque (讽刺模仿) and farce (闹剧) .o▪Christopher Marlowe (1564 - 1593)Christopher Marlowe is considered the first great Englishdramatist and the most individual and most suggestiveElizabethan playwright before Shakespeare. He workedon tragedy and advanced it considerably as a dramaticmedium, and thus, is generally regarded as the father ofEnglish tragedy. He is in truth a rebel, not alone againstthe conventions of his day, but against the commonlimitation of our creaturely nature. By revealing thepossibilities for strength and variety of expression in blankverse, Marlowe helped to establish the verse form as thepredominant form in English drama. He expressed thehumanist ideals about the infinite capabilities of Man, inthe desire for power, knowledge and money. The glory ofthe Elizabethan drama dates from his Tamburlaine theGreat.▪Representative works:Tamburlaine the Great (1587 - 1588) --- desire forpowerThe tragical History of Doctore Faustus (1589) ---desire for knowledge and happinessThe Jew of Malta (1590) --- desire for money▪William Shakespeare (1564 - 1616)William Shakespeare is one of the most remarkableplaywrights and poets the world has ever known. With his38 plays, 154 sonnets and 2 long poems, he hasestablished his giant position in world literature. BenJonson once wrote a poem eulogizing Shakespeare asbeing ―not of an age, but for all time‖.S hakespeare’s greatness as a playwright and the successof his plays depend upon his penetrating exposition ofhuman nature, his lively paitings of human life and histruthful reflections of human reality.▪Representative works:History : Henry IV (1-2)Comedy : Mid-summer Night’s DreamThe Merchant of VeniceMuch Ado about NothingAs You Like ItTwelfth NightTragedy :HamletOthelloKing LearMacBethFamous Plays:Romeo and JulietJulius CaesarAntony and CleopatraThe Tempest▪Ben Jonson (1572 - 1637) --- the 1 st poet laureate▪Representative works: Volpone, the Fox MonologueMonologue is an extended speech uttered by one speaker, either to others or alone. Significant varieties include the dramatic monologue (a kind of poem in which the speaker is imagined to be addressing a silent audience), and the soliloquy(in which the speaker is supposed to be ―overheard‖ while alone).There are two basic types of monologues:Exterior monologue: This is where the actor speaks to another person who is not in the performance space or to the audience.Interior monologue: This is where the actor speaks as if to himself or herself. It is introspective and reveals the inner motives to the audience. This is also a common device in stream of consciousness writings.The monologue is an artform in and of itself, but it has always been part of larger, dialogue-based, plays for its provision of another angle in relating to the audience and getting inside a character's inner life.SoliloquySoliloquy is a dramatic speech delivered by one character speaking aloud while under the impression of being alone. The soliloquist thus reveals his or her inner thoughts and feelings to the audience, either in supposed self-communion or in a consciously direct address. It is also known as interior monologue.Famous Quotations"Frailty, thy name is woman!""For anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as twere, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time her form and pressure.""To be, or not to be, that is the question."Text Study: "To be, or not to be"To be or not to be, that is the question:Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,And by opposing end them? To die: to sleep;No more; and by a sleep to say we endThe heart-ache and the thousand natural shocksThat flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummationDevoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;For in that sleep of death what dreams may comeWhen we have shuffled off this mortal coil,Must give us pause: there's the respectThat makes calamity of so long life;For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,The pangs of despised love, the law's delay,The insolence of office and the spurnsThat patient merit of the unworthy takes,When he himself might his quietus makeWith a bare bodkin? who would fardels bear,To grunt and sweat under a weary life,But that the dread of something after death,The undiscover'd country from whose bourn(e)No traveller returns, puzzles the willAnd makes us rather bear those ills we haveThan fly to others that we know not of?Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;And thus the native hue of resolutionIs sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought,And enterprises of great pith and momentWith this regard their currents turn awry,And lose the name of action.--Soft you now!The fair Ophelia! Nymph, in thy orisonsBe all my sins remember'd.The Main IdeaThe speech conveys a sense of world-weariness as well as the author’s incisive comments on the social reality of his time.Unlike the earlier single-minded avengers, Hamlet lives between action and resolution. He is so contemplative that he examines the nature of the action only to deny its possibility. He considers it better for people to die, but then says nobody knows what happens in the afterlife.One of the clearest summaries of this soliloquy was provided by Schopenhauer :'The essential purport of the world-famous monologue in Hamlet is, in condensed form, that our state is so wretched that complete non-existence would be decidedly preferable to it. Now if suicide actually offered us this, so that the alternative "to be or not to be" lay before us in the full sense of the words, it could be chosen unconditionally as a highly desirable termination ("a consummation devoutly to be wish'd" [Act III, Sc. I.]). There is something in us, however, which tells us that this is not so, that this is not the end of things, that death is not an absolute annihilation.'Translation生存还是毁灭，这是一个值得考虑的问题；默然忍受暴虐的命运矢石交攻，还是拿起武器勇对无涯的苦难，通过抗争把它们根除，这两种行为，哪一种更高贵？死了；睡着了；什么都完了；要是在这一种睡眠之中，我们心头的创痛，以及其他无数血肉之躯所不能避免的打击，都可以从此消失，那正是我们求之不得的结局。