Part Ⅴ The Seventeenth Century
剑桥雅思阅读5原文翻译及答案（test1）
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READING PASSAGE 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.Johnson’s DictionaryFor the centur y before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.There had, of course, been dictionaries in the past, the first of these being a little book of some 120 pages, compiled by a certain Robert Cawdray, published in 1604 under the title A Table Alphabeticall ‘of hard usuall English wordes’. Like the various dictionaries that came after it during the seventeenth century, Cawdray’s tended to concentrate on ‘scholarly’ words; one function of the dictionary was to enable its student to convey an impression of fine learning.Beyond the practical need to make order out of chaos, the rise of dictionaries is associated with the rise of the English middle class, who were anxious to define and circumscribe thevarious worlds to conquer —lexical as well as social and commercial. it is highly appropriate that Dr Samuel Johnson, the very model of an eighteenth-century literary man, as famous in his own time as in ours, should have published his Dictionary at the very beginning of the heyday of the middle class.Johnson was a poet and critic who raised common sense to the heights of genius. His approach to the problems that had worried writers throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was intensely practical. Up until his time, the task of producing a dictionary on such a large scale had seemed impossible without the establishment of an academy to make decisions about right and wrong usage. Johnson decided he did not need an academy to settle arguments about language; he would write a dictionary himself and he would do it single-handed. Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holbom Bar on 18 June 1764.He was to be paid ￡1.575 in instalments, and from this he took money to rent Gou gh Square, in which he set up his ‘dictionary workshop’.James Boswell, his biographer, described the garret where Johnson worked as ‘fitted up like a counting house’ with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing up. Johnson himself was stationed on a rickety chair at an ‘old crazy deal table’ surrounded by a chaos of borrowed books. He was also helped by six assistants, two of whom died whilst the Dictionary was still in preparation.The work was immense; filling about eighty large notebooks (and without a library to hand), Johnson wrote the definitions of over 40,000 words, and illustrated their many meanings with some 114,000 quotations drawn from English writing on everysubject, from the Elizabethans to his own time. He did not expect to achieve complete originality. Working to a deadline, he had to draw on the best of all previous dictionaries, and to make his work one of heroic synthesis. In fact, it was very much more. Unlike his predecessors, Johnson treated English very practically, as a living language, with many different shades of meaning. He adopted his definitions on the principle of English common law —according to precedent. After its publication, his Dictionary was not seriously rivalled for over a century.After many vicissitudes the Dictionary was finally published on 15 April 1775. It was instantly recognised as a landmark throughout Europe. ‘This very noble work,’ wrote the leading Italian lexicographer, ‘will be a perpetual monument of Fame to the Author, an Honour to his own Country in particular, and a general Benefit to the republic of Letters throughout Europe" The fact that Johnson had taken on the Academies of Europe and matched them (everyone knew that forty French academics had taken forty years to produce the first French national dictionary) was cause for much English celebration.Johnson had worked for nine years, ‘with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow’. For all its faults and eccentricities his two-volume work is a masterpiece and a landmark, in his own words, ‘setting the orthography, displaying the analogy, regulating the structures, and ascertaining the significations of English words’. It is the cornerstone of Standard English an achievement which, in James Boswell’s words ‘conferred stability on the language of his country.’The Dictionary, together with his other writing, made Johnson famous and so well esteemed that his friends were able to prevail upon King George Ⅲ to offer him a pension. From then on, he was to become the Johnson of folklore.Questions 1-3Choose THREE letters A-H.Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.NB Your answers may be given in any order.Which THREE of the following statements are true of Johnson’s Dictionary?A It avoided all scholarly words.B It was the only English dictionary in general use for 200 years.C It was famous because of the large number of people involved.D It focused mainly on language from contemporary texts.E There was a time limit for its completion.F It ignored work done by previous dictionary writers.G It took into account subtleties of meaning.H Its definitions were famous for their originality.Questions 4-7Complete the summary.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet.In 1764 Dr Johnson accepted the contract to produce a dictionary. Having rented a garret, he took on a number of 4…………, who stood at a long central desk. Johnson did not have a 5………… available to him, but eventually produced definitions of in excess of 40,000 words written down in 80 large notebooks.On publications, the Dictionary was immediately hailed in many European countries as a landmark. According to his biographer, James Boswell, Johnson’s principal achievement was to bring 6……… to the English language. As a reward for his ha rd work, he was granted a 7………by the king.Questions 8-13Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this8 The growing importance of the middle classes led to an increased demand for dictionaries.9 Johnson has become more well known since his death.10 Johnson had been planning to write a dictionary for several years.11 Johnson set up an academy to help with the writing of his Dictionary.12 Johnson only received payment for his Dictionary on its completion.13 Not all of the assistants survived to see the publication of the Dictionary.READING PASSAGE 2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.Nature or Nurture?A A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioural psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of lifefor their willingness to obey instructions given by a ‘leader’ in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to perform. Specifically M ilgram told each volunteer ‘teacher-subject’ that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils’ ability to learn.B Milgram’s expe rimental set-up involved placing the teacher-subject before a panel of thirty switches with labels ranging from ‘15 volts of electricity (slight shock)’ to ‘450 volts (danger —severe shock)’ in steps of 15 volts each. The teacher-subject was told that whenever the pupil gave the wrong answer to a question, a shock was to be administered, beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong answer. The supposed ‘pupil’ was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter. Milgram told the teacher-subject to ignore the reactions of the pupil, and to administer whatever level of shock was called for, as per the rule governing the experimental situation of the moment.C As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and beyond. Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and/or complaints about continuing the experiment. In these situations, Milgramcalmly explained that the teacher-subject was to ignore the pupil’s cries for mercy and carry on with the experiment. If the subject was still reluctant to proceed, Milgram said that it was important for the sake of the experiment that the procedure be followed through to the end. His final argument was ‘you have no other choice. You must go on’. What Milgram was trying to discover was the number of teacher-subjects who would be willing to administer the highest levels of shock, even in the face of strong personal and moral revulsion against the rules and conditions of the experiment.D Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts.E What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit in repetitions of the experiment in other countries, the percentage of obedient teacher-subjects was even higher, reaching 85 per cent in one country. How can we possibly account for this vast discrepancy between what calm, rational, knowledgeable people predict in the comfort of their study and what pressured, flustered, but cooperative ‘teachers’ actually do in the laboratory of real life?F One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teache-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.G An alternative to this notion of genetic programming is to see the teacher-subjects’ actions as a result of the social environment under which the experiment was carried out. As Milgram himself pointed out, ‘Most subjects in the experiment see their behaviour in a larger context that is benevolent and useful to society —the pursuit of scientific truth. The psychological laboratory has a strong claim to legitimacy and evokes trust and confidence in those who perform there. An action such as shocking a victim, which in isolation appears evil, acquires a completely different meaning when placed in this se tting.’H Thus, in this explanation the subject merges his unique personality and personal and moral code with that of larger institutional structures, surrendering individual properties like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline to the service of malevolent systems of authority.I Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgo their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authorityfigure. The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort out which of these two polar explanations is more plausible. This, in essence, is the problem of modern sociobiology — to discover the degree to which hard-wired genetic programming dictates, or at least strongly biases, the interaction of animals and humans with their environment, that is, their behaviour. Put another way, sociobiology is concerned with elucidating the biological basis of all behaviour.Questions 14-19Reading Passage 2 has nine paragraphs, A-I.Which paragraph contains the following information?Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.14 a biological explanation of the teacher-subjects’ behaviour15 the explanation Milgram gave the teacher-subjects for the experiment16 the identity of the pupils17 the expected statistical outcome18 the general aim of sociobiological study19 the way Milgram persuaded the teacher-subjects to continueQuestions 20-22Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 20-22 on your answer sheet.20 The teacher-subjects were told that were testing whetherA a 450-volt shock was dangerous.B punishment helps learning.C the pupils were honest.D they were suited to teaching.21 The teacher-subjects were instructed toA stop when a pupil asked them to.B denounce pupils who made mistakes.C reduce the shock level after a correct answer.D give punishment according to a rule.22 Before the experiment took place the psychiatristsA believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous.B failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions.C underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure.D thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts.Questions 23-26Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?In boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this23 Several of the subjects were psychology students at Yale University.24 Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behaviour could be explained as a positive survival mechanism.25 In a sociological explanation, personal values are more powerful than authority.26 Milgram’s experiment solves an important question in sociobiology.READING PASSAGE 3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40,which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.The Truth about the EnvironmentFor many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out; that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat; that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet’s air and water are becoming ever more polluted.But a quick look at the facts shows a different picture. First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book ‘The Limits to Growth’ was published in 1972 by a group of scientists. Second, more food is now produced per head of the world’s population than at any time in history. Fewer people are starving. Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expected to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted. And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient —associated with the early phases of industrialisation and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it. One form of pollution — the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming — does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem. A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it.Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: ‘Two thirds of the world’s forests lost forever.’ The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby groups. That would matter less if people applied the same degree of scepticism to environmental lobbying as they do to lobby groups in other fields. A trade organisation arguing for, say, weaker pollution controls is instantly seen as self-interested. Yet a green organisation opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than good.A third source of confusion is the attitude of the media. People are clearly more curious about bad news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. An example was America’s encounter with El Nino in 1997 and 1998. This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 deaths. However, according to an article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US$4 billion but the benefits amounted to some US$19 billion. These came from higher winter temperatures(which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).The fourth factor is poor individual perception. People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of waste. Yet, even if America’s trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st century will still take up only one-12,000th of the area of the entire United States.So what of global warming? As we know, carbon dioxide emissions are causing the planet to warm. The best estimates are that the temperatures will rise by 2-3℃ in this century, causing considerable problems, at a total cost of US$5,000 billion.Despite the intuition that something drastic needs to be done about such a costly problem, economic analyses clearly show it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation to the increased temperatures. A model by one of the main authors of the United Nations Climate Change Panel shows how an expected temperature increase of 2.1 degrees in 2100 would only be diminished to an increase of 1.9 degrees. Or to put it another way, the temperature increase that the planet would have experienced in 2094 would be postponed to 2100.So this does not prevent global warming, but merely buys the world six years. Yet the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, for the United States alone, will be higher than the cost of solving the world’s single, most pressing health problem: providing universal access to clean drinking water and sanitation. Such measures would avoid 2 million deaths every year, andprevent half a billion people from becoming seriously ill.It is crucial that we look at the facts if we want to make the best possible decisions for the future. It may be costly to be overly optimistic — but more costly still to be too pessimistic.Questions 27-32Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?In boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet, writeYES if the statement ag rees with the writer’s claimsNO if the statement contradicts the writer’s clamsNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this27 Environmentalists take a pessimistic view of the world fora number of reasons28 Data on the Earth’s natural resources has only been collected since 1972.29 The number of starving people in the world has increased in recent years.30 Extinct species are being replaced by new species.31 Some pollution problems have been correctly linked to industrialisation.32 It would be best to attempt to slow down economic growth.Questions 33-37Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet.33 What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4?A the need to produce resultsB the lack of financial supportC the selection of areas to researchD the desire to solve every research problem34 The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate howA influential the mass media can be.B effective environmental groups can be.C the mass media can help groups raise funds.D environmental groups can exaggerate their claims.34 What is the writer’s main point about lobby groups in paragraph 6?A Some are more active than others.B Some are better organised than others.C Some receive more criticism than others.D Some support more important issues than others.35 The writer suggests that newspapers print items that are intended toA educate readers.B meet their readers’ expec tations.C encourage feedback from readers.D mislead readers.36 What does the writer say about America’s waste problem?A It will increase in line with population growth.B It is not as important as we have been led to believe.C It has been reduced through public awareness of the issues.D It is only significant in certain areas of the country.Questions 38-40Complete the summary with the list of words A-I below.Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.GLOBAL WARMINGThe writer admits that global warming is a 38…………….challenge, but says that it will not have a catastrophic impact on our future, if we deal with it in the 39…………… way. If we try to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases, he believes that it would only have a minimal impact on rising temperatures. He feels it would be better to spend money on the more 40………… health problem of providing the world’s population with clean drinking water.A unrealisticB agreedC expensiveD rightE long-termF usualG surprisingH personalI urgent剑桥雅思阅读5原文参考译文(test1)TEST 1 PASSAGE 1参考译文：Johnson’s Dictionary约翰逊博士的字典For the century before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.约翰逊博士的《字典》于1775年出版，在此之前的一个世纪，人们一直对英语的发展状况担忧。
17poetry英国17世纪诗歌
when old
(2)
World view:
The world was sick; harmony was gone;
proportion was gone; beauty was gone; order was gone; there was little to do but wait for final dissolution.
Roughness of meter and irregular rhyme John Donne is generally regarded as the
leading figure of this school.
Other members include George Herbert,
Andrew Marvell and Abraham Cowley.
III. John Donne (1572-1631)
1.
Life and career
Born to wealthy Catholic parents In his youth, he struggled between Catholicism and Protestantism.
After converting to the Church of England, he became secretary to a wealthy man who planned to advance him.
(3)
View of love:
When young, love is an animal affair, a
matter of flesh and sensation; when old, the nature of love is a perfect union of body and mind.
The Seventeenth Century
47 scholars worked on it. The project was presided over by Bishop Lancelot Andrewes The basis: Tyndale text
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2.2 Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
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4. English Literature of the Restoration John Bunyan John Dryden
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4.1 John Bunyan (1628-1688)
Bunyan: a pilgrim; a man of innocence, diligent; With sensitive imagination Once enlisted in the Parliamentary army Bunyan lived at a time when political struggles adopted the form of religious struggles. The Pilgrim’s Progress from This World
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2.3 Metaphysical Poets and Cavalier Poets
Two antagonistic camps: the Royalists and the Puritans. The Metaphysical Poets: John Donne, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert John Donne: “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” (1611) The Cavalier Poets: Sir John Suckling, Robert Herrick, Ben Johnson Carpe Diem: a Latin phrase meaning “seize the day”. The philosophy of carpe diem asserts the notion that since life is short, one must make the most of one’s youth. This motif became very popular in the love poetry of the seventeenth century.
Chapter 5 The 17th century (The period of revolution)
John Donne (1571 – 1631)
Life experience: (P74) His literary career: Donne’s literary career can be divided into two periods. 1. 1st period: Most of The Elegies and Satires and a good many of the Songs and Sonnets were written. 2. In the later period: he mainly wrote religious poems and prose works, esp. sermons, which reveal his spiritual devotion to God as a passionate preacher.
Βιβλιοθήκη Parliament felt insecure and invited his brother-in-law, William Orange, in 1688 to come with an army to protect the English people. This was the “Glorious Revolution”, glorious because bloodless. The Bill of Rights which the new king signed with Parliament endowed Parliament as the de facto ruler of the nation and the king became a titular head. Now the struggle between king and Parliament came to an end, and no king or queen has ever again thought of competing with Parliament.
欧洲文化常识测试英语题型
《欧洲文化入门》复习题（一）Division One: Greek Culture and Roman CultureGreek CultureI.填空1.European culture is made up of many elements, two of these elements are consideredto be more enduring and they are the Greco-Roman element and the Judeo-Christian element.2.Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century.3.In the second half of the 4th century B. C., all Greece was brought under the ruleof Alexander, king of Macedon.4.In 146 B. C. the Romans conquered Greece.5.Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century.6.Revived in 1896, the Olympic Games have become the world’s foremost amateursports competition.7.Ancient Greeks considered Homer to be the author of their epics.8.The Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece,led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy.9.The Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseus after the Trojan war to his home,island of Ithaca.10.Of the many lyric poets of ancient Greece, two are still admired by readers today:Sappho and Pindar.11.Sappho was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece.12.Pindar is best known for his odes celebrating the victories at the athletic games,such as the 14 Olympic odes.13.The three great tragic dramatists of ancient Greece are Aeschylus, Sophocles,and Euripides.14.Aeschylus wrote such plays as Prometheus Bound, Persians and Agamemnon.15.Sophocles wrote such tragic plays as Oedipus the King, Electra, and Antigone.16.Euripides wrote mainly about women in such plays as Andromache, Medea, and TrojanWomen.edy also flourished in the 5th century B. C.. Its best writer was Aristophanes,who has left eleven plays, including Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds.18.Herodotus is often called “Father of History”. He wrote about the wars be tweenGreeks and Persians.19.Thucydides described the war between Athens and Sparta and between Athens andSyracuse, a Greek state on the Island of Sicily.20.Pythagoras was a bold thinker who had the idea that all things were numbers.21.Pythagoras was the founder of scientific mathematics.22.Heracleitue believed fire to the primary element of the universe, out of whicheverything else had arisen.23.The greatest names in European philosophy are Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.24.Democritus was one of the earliest philosophical materialists and speculatedabout the atomic structure of matter.25.In the 4th century B. C., four schools of philosophers often argued with eachother, they arethe Cynics, the Sceptics, the Epicureans, and the Stoics.26.Euclid is well-known for his Elements, a textbook of geometry.27.To illustrate the principle of the level, Archimedes is said to have told theking: “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.”28.Greek architecture can be grouped into three styles: the Doric style which isalso called the masculine style; the Ionic style which is also called the feminine style; and a later style that is called the Corinthian style.29.The Acropolis at Athens and the Parthenon are the finest monument of Greekarchitecture and sculpture in more than 2000 years.30.In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’smodernist masterpiece Ulysses.II.选择1.Which culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B. C.?A.Greek CultureB.Roman CultureC.Egyptian CultureD.Chinese Culture2.In ___________ the Roman conquered Greece.A.1200B.C.B.700 B.C.C.146 B. C.D.The 5th century3.Which of the following works described the war led by Agamemnon against the cityof Troy?A.Oedipus the KingB.IliadC.OdysseyD.Antigone4.Which of the following is NOT the plays written by Aeschylus?A.AntigoneB.AgamemnonC.PersiansD.Prometheus Bound5.Which of the following is NOT the plays written by Sophocles?A.ElectraB.AntigoneC.Trojan WomanD.Oedipus the King6.Which of the following is the play written by Euripides?A.AntigoneB.PersiansC.ElectraD.Medea7.Which of the following is NOT the greatest tragic dramatist of ancient Greece?A.AristophanesB.EuripidesC.SophoclesD.Aeschylus8.Who ever said that “You can not step twice into the same river”?A.PythagorasB.HeracleitusC.Aristotle9.Who was the founder of scientific mathematics?A.HeracleitusB.AristotleC.SocratesD.Pythagoras10.Who is chiefly noted for his doctrine that “man is the measure of all things”?A.ProtagorasB.PythagorasC.PyrrhonD.EpicurusIII.名词解释1.Aeschylus2.Plato3.The CynicsIV.简答与问答1.What are the major elements in European culture?2.What were the main features of ancient Greek society?3.Who were the outstanding dramatists of ancient Greece? What important plays dideach of them write?4.Tell some of Plato’s ideas. Why do people call him an idealist?5.Give some examples to show the enormous influence of Greek culture on Englishliterature.Roman CultureI.填空1.The burning of Corinth in 146 B. C. marked Roman conquest of Greece, which wasthen reduced to a province of the Roman Empire.2.The Roman writer Horace said: “Captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”.3.In 27 B. C. Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus.4.The Romans enjoyed a long period of peace lasting two hundred years, a remarkablephenomenon in history known as the Pax Romana.5.In the 4th century, the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome toByzantium, renamed it Constantinople ( modern Istanbul ).6.In 476 the last emperor of the west was deposed by the Coths and marked the endof the West Roman Empire.7.The East Roman Empire collapsed when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453.8.Julius Caesar recorded what he did and saw in the various military campaignshe took part in and these writings, collected in his Commentaries, are models of succinct Latin.9.Virgil was the greatest of Latin poets and wrote the great epic, the Aeneid.10.The Pantheon is the greatest and the best preserved Roman temple, which was builtin 27 B. C. And reconstructed in the 2th century A. D..11.She-wolf is the statue which illustrates the legend of creation of Roman.II.选择1.Who wrote, “I came, I saw, I conquered”?A.HoraceB.Julius CaesarC.VirgilD.Marcus Tullius Cicero2.The author of the philosophical poem On the Nature of things is ___________.A.VirgilB.Julius CaesarC.HoraceD.Lucretius3.Which of the following is not Roman architecture?A.The ColosseumB.The PanthenonC.The ParthenonD.Pont du Gard4.Who wrote, “Captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”?A.SapphoB.PlatoC.VirgilD.HoraceIII.名词解释1.Julius Caesar2.The Pax RomanaIV.简答与问答1.What did the Romans have in common with the Greeks? And what was the chiefdifference between them?2.What is the book for which Virgil has been famous throughout the centuries? Inwhat way is the book linked with the Greek past?3.Why do we say Aeneas is a truly tragic hero?Division Two: The Bible and ChristianityThe Old TestamentⅠ填空题1.Among all the religions by which people seek to worship, Christianity is by farthe most influential in the West.2.Both Judaism and Christianity originated in Palestine the hub of migration andtrade routes, which led to exchange of ideas over wide areas.3.Some 3800 years ago the ancestors of the Jews –the Hebrews –wandered throughthe deserts of the Middle East.4.About 1300 B.C., the Hebrews came to settle in Palestine, known as Canaan atthat time, and formed small kingdoms.5.The king of the Hebrews was handed down orally from one generation to anotherin the form of folktales and stories, which were recorded later in the Old Testament.6.The Bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the OldTestament and the New Testament.7.The old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of whichare first five books, called Pentateuch.8.When the Hebrews left the desert and entered the mountainous Sinai, Moses climbedto the top of the mountain to receive from God message, which came to be known as the Ten Commandments.9.Chronologically Amos is the earliest prophet in the Old Testament.10.In Babylon in the 6th century B.C., the Hebrews, now known as Jews, formedsynagogues to practise their religion.II 选择题1.Which of the following is by far the most influential in the West?_______A. BuddismB. IslamismC. ChristianityD. Judaism2.The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of whichare the first five books, called __________.A. ExodusB. CommandmentsC. AmosD. Pentaeuch3.Which of the following is NOT the content of the Ten Commandments?_______A.Honour your father and your motherB.Do not commit suicideC.Do not desire your neighbour’s wifeD.Do not take the name of God in vain4.When in Babylon the Hebrews formed synagogues to practise their religion? ______A. in 169B.C. B. in the 4th centuryC. in 76 B.C.D. in the 6th centuryⅢ名词解释1.the Bible2.the Pentateuch3.Ten CommandmentsⅣ简答与问答1.What was the Hebrews major contribution to world civilization?2.Why do we say Judaism and Christianity are closely related?3.What are the Ten Commandments about?Rise of ChristianityⅠ填空题1.At the age of 30, Jesus received the baptism at the hands of John Baptist.2.Jesus spent most of his life in Galilee, where he apparently made a sensation.3.Jesus of Nazareth lived in Palestine during the reign of the first Roman EmperorAugustus.4.Jesus went with his disciples to Jerusalem for the Passover, but was betrayedby Juda.5.In 313 the Edict of Milan was issued by Constantine I and granted religiousfreedom to all and made Christianity legal.6.In 392 A.D, Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religions of theempire and outlawed all other religions.7.After Jesus died, St. Peter and St. Paul led the disciples of Jesus to spreadgospel in the Mediterranean regions.Ⅱ选择题1.After the _______ century Nestorianism reached China.A. sixthB. fifthC. secondD. third2.Which of the following emperors made Christianity the official religion of theempire and outlawed all other religions? __________A. TheodosiusB. AugustusC. Constantine ID. Nero Caesar3.Which of the following emperors issued the Edict of Milan and made Christianitylegal in 313? __________A. AugustusB. ThedosiusC. NeroD. Constantine I4.At the age of 30, Jesus Christ received the baptism at the hands of _________.A. St. PeterB. St. PaulC. John BaptistD. JohnWycliffⅢ名词解释1.The Edict of MilanⅣ简答与问答1.How did the relations between Christians and the Roman government change?The New TestamentⅠ填空题1.By 300 A.D. each local church was called a parish and had a full time leader2.Towards the end of he fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of theNew Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.3.When as Jesus’ mother Mary was espoused to Joseph, befor e they came together,she was found with child of the Holy Ghost4.Jesus went with his disciples to Jerusalem for the Passover, but was betrayedby Juda and caught at the Last Supper.Translations of the BibleⅠ填空题1.Except a few passages in the related Armaic dialect the Old Testament wasoriginally written in Hebrew. And the New Testament was originally written ina popular form of Greek.2.The oldest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament is known as theSeptuagint, as according the fictional letter of Aristeas, it was translated by 72 translators in 72 days.3.The most ancient extant Latin version of the whole Bible is the Vulgate edition,which was done in 384 –405 A.D. by St. Jerome in common people’s language.4.The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgatein 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.5.The most important and influential of English Bible is the “Authorized” orKing James’ version, first published in 1611.Ⅱ选择题1.By 1693, the whole of the Bible had been translated in _________languages.A. 228B. 974C. 1202D. 1542.The oldest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament is known as ________.A. the Latin VulgateB. the AristeasC. the “Authorized”D. the Septuagint3.When printing was invented in the 1500’s, the _______ Bible was the firstcomplete work printed.A. EnglishB. LatinC. AramaicD. Hebrew4.When did the standard American edition of the Revised Version appear? _______A. 1885B. 1611C. 1901D. 1979Division Three: The Middle AgesManor and ChurchⅠ填空题1.In European history, the thousand year period following the fall of the WestRoman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.2.Between the fifth and eleventh centuries, West Europe was the scene of frequentwars and invasions.3.The Middle Age is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritage merged.4.Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding – a system of holdingland in exchange for military service.5.In 732 Charles Martel, a Frankish ruler gave his soldiers estates known as fiefsas a reward for their service.6.The center of medieval life under feudalism was the manor.7.By the 12th century manor houses came to be called castle, which were made ofstone and designed as fortress.8.As a knight, he was pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, tobe loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.9.In the medieval days a knight was trained for war by fighting each other in mockbatters called tournaments.10.After 1054, the Church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the EasternOrthodox Church.11.The most important of all the leaders of Christian thought was Augustine of Hippowho lived in North Africa in the fifth century.12.Under feudalism, people of western Europe were mainly divided into three classes:clergy, lords and peasants.13.The Pope not only ruled Roman and parts of Italy as a king, he was also the headof all Christian churches in western Europe.14.In the Medieval times the Church set up a church court – the Inquisition tostamp out so-called heresy.15.One of the most important sacraments was Holy Communion, which was to remindpeople that Christ had died to redeem man.16.To express their religious feelings, many people in the Middle Ages went onjourneys to sacred places where early Christian leaders had lived. The most important of all was Jerusalem.17.With a return attack against the Moslems, the Western Christians launched aseries of holy wars called the Crusades.Ⅱ选择题1.In the later part of the 4th century, which of the following tribes swept intoEurope from central Asia, robbing and killing a large numbers of the half civilized Germanic tribes? ________A. the MongoliansB. the HunsC. the TurkishD. the Syrians2.The Middle Ages is also called the _________.A. “Age of Christianity”B. “Age of Literature”C. “Age of Holy Spirit”D. “Age of Faith”3.According to the code of chivalry, which of the following is not pledged to dofor a knight? _______A. To be loyal to his lordB. To fight for the churchC. To obey without question the orders of the abbotD. To respect women of noble birth4.In 732, who gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as a reward for their service?_________A. Charles Martel, a Frankish rulerB. Charles I, a Turkish rulerC. Constantine I, a Frankish rulerD. St. Benedict, a Italian ruler5.When was the Church divided into the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern OrthodoxChurch?_________A. after 1066B. after 1296C. after 1054D. after4766.Which of the following about the knight or noble in the Middle Ages in WesternEurope is NOT true?____________A.Almost all nobles were knights in the Medieval days.B. A noble began his education as a page at the age of seven.C.As a knight, he was pledged to fight for the church.D.At about fourteen, the page became a knight.7.When was a noble crowned as a knight in the Middle Ages in Western Europe? _______A.At the age of 14.B.When he was taught to say his prayers, learned good manners and ran errandsfor the ladies.C.At a special ceremony known as dubbing.D.When he was pledged to fight for the church.8.Which of the following is NOT true about what the monks must do before enteringthe monastery according to the Benedictine Rule?A.They had to attend service 6 times during the day and once at midnight.B.They could promise to give up all their possession before entering themonastery.C.They were expected to work 5 hours a day in the fields surrounding themonastery.D.They had to obey without question the orders of the abbot.9.Under feudalism, what were the three classes of people of western Europe?________A. clergy, knights and serfsB. Pope, bishop and peasantsC. clergy, lords and peasantsD. knights, nobles and serfs10.By which year the Moslems had taken over the last Christian stronghold and wonthe crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the crusaders had fought to control? ________A. 1270B. 1254C. 1096D. 1291Ⅲ名词解释1.the Middle Ages2.Manor3.Code of Chivalry4.Benedictine Rule5.the CrusadesⅣ简答与问答1.Who was Charles Martel?2.What was the difference between a serf and a free man?3.Into what three groups were people divided under feudalism?4.What happened in Western Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire?Learning and Science, Literature, Art and ArchitectureⅠ填空题1.Charlemagne, who temporarily restored order in western and central Europe, wasperhaps the most important figure of the medieval period.2.Charlemagne was crowed “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope in 800.3.The Summa Theologica by St. Thomas Aquinas forms an enormous system and sumsup all the knowledge of medieval theology.4.Roger Bacon was one of the earliest advocates of Scientific research and calledfor careful observation and experimentation.5.“National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages – thatis, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages.6.Beowulf is an Anglo-Sexon epic, in alliterative verse, originating from thecollective efforts of oral literature.7.Dante Alighieri was the greatest poet of Italy, his masterpiece, The DivineComedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.8.Chaucer was a great English poet, The Canterbury Tales were his most popularwork for their power of observation, piercing irony, sense of humor and warm humanity.9.Chaucer writers in dialect used by Londoners, and by the sheer weight andpopularity of his writings he sets it firmly on the way towards Modern English.10.The style of architecture under Romanesque art is characterized by massiveness,solidity and monumentality with all overall blocky appearance.11.The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of westernEurope.Ⅱ选择题1.Which of the following was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope in 800?______A. St. Thomas AquinasB. CharlemagneC. ConstantineD. King James2.Who was the ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex and contributed greatlyto the medieval European culture? _________A. Charles IB. Constantine IC. Alfred the GreatD. Charles the Great3.Does Song of Roland belong to which co untry’s epic? _________A. EnglishB. GermanicC. HebrewD. French4.Who is the author of the Opus Maius? ________A. Roger BaconB. Dante AlighieriC. ChaucerD. St. Thomas AquinasⅢ名词解释1.Carolingian Renaissance2.Beowulf3.Song of Roland4.The Canterbury tales5.Romanesque6.GothicⅣ简答与问答1.What was the merit which Charlemagne and Alfred the Great share?Division IV: Renaissance and ReformationRenaissance in ItalyⅠ填空题1.Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid17th century.2.Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance.3.In essence, Renaissance was a historical period in which the European humanistthinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of bourgeoisie, to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman Church authorities. 4.Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings,sculpture and architecture.5.Beginning from the 11th century, cities began to rise in central and north Italy.6.Decameron is a collection of 100 tales told by 7 young ladies and 3 youngergentlemen on their way to escape the Black Death of 1348.7.Petrach was best known for Canzoniers, a book of lyrical songs written in hisItalian dialect.8.The Renaissance artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomyand perspective.9.The four representative artists of High Renaissance in Italy are Leonardo daVinci, michelangelo, Raphael and Titian.10.Loenardo da Vinci’s major works: Last Supper is the most famous of religiouspictures; Mona Lisa probably is the world’s most famous portrait.11.Michelangelo created a style of art in which he freed himself from the oldtradition of decoration on the one hand and documentary realism on the other.12.Titian’s painting is acknowledged to have established oil colour on canvas asthe typical medium of the pictorial tradition in western art.13.In world trade, Italy had lost its supremacy because of the discovery of Americain 1492 and the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, the opening of an all-water route to India which provided a cheaper means of transport.14.Petrach is looked up as the father of modern poetry.15.Italy is regarded as the birthplace of the Renaissance.Ⅱ选择题1.Where did the Renaissance start with the flowering of paintings, sculpture andarchitecture? _______A. in Greece and RomeB. in Florence and VeniceC. in Milan and FlorenceD. in Italy and Germany2.When did the Renaissance reach its height with its center moving to Milan, thento Rome, and created High Renaissance? ___________A. in the 11th centuryB. in the 15th centuryC. in the 16th centuryD. in the 17th century3.Which of the following works is written by Boccaccio? _______A. DecameronB. CanzoniersC. DavidD. Moses4.Who is the author of the painting, Betrayal of Judas? ________A. GiottoB. BrunelleschiC. DonatelloD. Giorgione5.Which of the following High Renaissance artists is the father of the modern modeof painting? _______A. RaphaelB. TitianC. da VinciD.Michelangelo6.Which of the following High Renaissance artists was best known for his Madona(Virgin Mary)?A. TitianB. da VinciC. MichelangeloD. Raphael7.Which of the following paintings was based on the story in the Bible with Mariariding on a donkey ready to face the hardship ahead? ________A. TempestaB. Sacred and Profane LoveC. Flight into EgyptD. The Return of the HuntersⅢ名词解释1.Renaissance2.DecameronⅣ简答与问答1.What made Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance?2.What are the main elements of humanism? How are these elements reflected in artand literature during the Italian Renaissance?3.How did Italian Renaissance art and architecture break away from medievaltradition?4.In what way was Leonardo da Vinci important during the Renaissance?Reformation and Counter-ReformationⅠ填空题1.The Reformation led by Martin Luther which swept over the whole of Europe wasaimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible.2.Martin Luther was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation. His doctrinemarked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church.3.When the Pope refused to recognized Henry’s mar riage with Anne Boleyn, BritishParliament, in 1534, passed the Act of Supremacy which marked the formal break of the British with the Papal authorities.4.Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits, members of the Societyof Jesus.5.John Calvin put his theological thoughts in his Institutes of the ChristianReligion, which was considered one of the most influential theological works of all times.Ⅱ选择题1.Who took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first time? ________A. Jan HusB. John WyliffC. Martin LutherD. John Calvin2.Who is the author Institutes of the Christian Religion?A. John WycliffB. Jan HusC. John CalvinD.Erasmus3.In whose reign did the formal break of the British with the papal authorities take place?____A. Elizabeth IB. William IC. Edward IIID. Henry VIII4.After the formal break of the British with the papal authorities, who was the head of the church? _______A. KingB. PopeC. BishopD. QueenⅢ名词解释1.Calvinism2.the Council of Trent3.Counter-ReformationⅣ简答与问答1.What are the doctrines of Martin Luther?2.What was the significance of the Reformation in European civilization?Renaissance in other CountriesⅠ填空题1.The Protestant group in France was known as the Huguenots whose rivalry withthe Catholic Church led to the wars of religion from 1562 to 1598.2.In 1492 the Moors that had ruled Spain for four centuries were driven out fromtheir last stronghold.3.In 1492 Columbus discovered American and claimed America for Spain.4.The author of Don Quixote is Cervantes.5.Albrecht Dürer was the leader of the Renaissance in Germany. His engravings areunsurpassed and his paintings of animals and plants are exceedingly sensitive.6.Under the reign of Elizabeth I, England began to embark on the road tocolonization and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday of capitalist development.7.Thomas More was a great humanist during the Renaissance. Among his writings thebest known is Utopia.8.Cervantes crowned literature of Spain and Shakespeare of England during theRenaissance.Ⅱ选择题1.Which of the following works was written by Rabelais, in which he praises thegreatness of man, expresses his love of love and his reverence and sympathy for humanist learning? _______A.Gargantua and PantagruelB. Don QuixoteC. The Praise of FollyD. Utopia2.Whose motto put down in his essays “What do Know” is world famous?________A. CervantesB. RabelaisC. MontaigneD. Shakespeare3.Which of the following works is worth reading for Montaigne’s humanist ideasand a style which is easy and familiar? ________A. SonnetsB. DecameronC. RabelaisD. Of Repentance4.Which of the following is NOT French writer poet? _______A. CervantesB. Pierre de RonsardC. RabelaisD. Montaigne5.In 1516 who published the first Greek edition of the New Testament?_________A. BruegelB. ErasmusC. El GrecoD. Rabelais6.“To be, or not to be, -- that is the question ” from whose works? _______A. ChaucerB. DanteC. Roger BaconD. ShakespeareⅢ简答与问答1.Why did England come later than other countries during the Renaissance? In whatway was English Renaissance different from that of other countries? Who were the major figures and what were their contributions?Science and Technology during the RenaissanceⅠ填空题1.The Renaissance was the golden age of geographical discoveries: by the year of1600 the surface of the known earth was doubled.2.Columbus was a Genoese-born navigator and discoverer of the New World.3.Dias was a Portuguese navigator who discovered the Cape of Good Hope.4.Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese navigator, who discovered the route to India roundthe Cape of Good Hope between the year of 1497 and 1498.5.Amerigo Vespucci was the Italian navigator in whose honor America was named6.Amerigo Vespucci discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon and acceptedSouth America as a new continent.7.Copernicus came to be known as father of modern astronomy.8.During his life time Leonardo da Vinci dissected more than thirty corpse and。
初中英语分析长难句
1. First put forward by the French mathematician Pierre de Format in the seventeenth century, the theorem had baffled and beaten the finest mathematical minds, including a French woman scientist who made a major advance in working out the problem, and who had to dress like a man in order to be able to study at the Ecolab polytechnique.这个定理，先是由十七世纪法国数学家皮尔法特提出，曾使一批杰出的数学大师为难，包括一位法国女科学家，她在解决这个难题方面取得了重大的进展，她曾女扮男装为了能够在伊科尔理工学院学习。
简析：夹杂过去分词短语，现在分词短语，动名词及两个定语从句。
2. It is difficult to measure the quantity of paper used as a result of use of Internet-connected computers, although just about anyone who works in an office can tell you that when e-mail is introduced, the printers start working overtime. That is, the growing demand for paper in recent years is largely due to the increased use of the Internet.由于因特网的使用，计算所使用的纸张的数量是很难的，然而几乎任何在办公室工作的人能告诉你，当引进电子邮件后，打印机就开始超时工作。
高考英语长难句100句精选
他们已有一千多年与外界没有联系，这给他们充足的时间来修建1000多座巨大的石
像，被称为莫艾，因为有这个东西这个岛屿极其出名。
简析：夹杂有现在分词短语，过去分词短语及定语从句。
15. Our parties are aimed for children 2 to 10 and they’re very interactive and creative in that they build a sense of drama based on a subject. （NMET2002. E篇）
直到有一天他在阿帕斯尔公园碰巧看见两个石制的十字架，他才懂得在1773年修建
这两个十字架是为了向她表示敬意。
简析：关键词come across碰巧遇见，in one’s honor纪念某人。
19. It is Sue Townsend’s musical play, based on her best-selling book. （NMET2002. C篇）
简析：关键词the mass media and government white papers大众传播媒介和政府白皮书
（正式报告）。
8.Tales from Animal Hospital will delight all fans of the programme and anyone who was a lively interest in their pet, whether it be a cat 、dog or snake! （NMET2003.C篇）
据盐湖城的ITA的观点，闪烁的棕色眼睛，摇着尾巴，并有无条件的爱心，狗能成
为无判断力的（忠实的）听者，这是刚开始搞阅读的小孩所需要的。
欧洲文化史--The-Seventeenth-Century
The Seventeenth CenturyGeneral IntroductionIn the 17th century, Europe advanced from the Middle Ages to the modern times."The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the seventeenth century".----Bertrand Russell: A History of Western PhilosophyThis advance began in science, in astronomy, physics and pure mathematics, owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes. Their work helped to create modern science and in a sense the modern world.These scientists abandoned the traditional reliance on authority and the accepted method of deductive reasoning. Instead, they attached great importance to direct observation of nature and experimentation.Numerous revolutionary concepts and inventions were developed during this period."Almost everything that distinguishes the modern world from earlier centuries is attributable to science, which achieved its most spectacular triumphs in the seventeenth century".----Bertrand Russell: A History of Western PhilosophyThe outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of men's place in the universe which revived human pride.This new outlook shattered the deeply established Scholasticism and brought about modern philosophy, which was materialist in nature.The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie, and other classes.The 17th century saw the intense political struggle, shown in revolution in England and the end of absolute monarchy in France, which marked the growth of modern state power.ScienceThe sciences advanced in logical progression through modern history.First, a breakthrough in physics and mathematics in the 17th century, followed by rapid developments in the field of chemistry in the 18th century and then advances in biology in the 19th century and psychology in the 20th century.From Copernicus to KeplerThe first major advance of modern science occurred in astronomy and Italy was the scene with Copernicus(1473-1543) as the leading figure.Although he did not belong to the 17th century,Nicolaus Copernicus was the immediate forerunner of modern science.The Revolutions of Heavenly Orbs (1543)Copernicus put forward his theory that the sun, not the earth, is the center of the universe."In the middle of all sits the Sun enthroned. In this most beautiful temple, could we place this luminary in any better position from which he can illuminate the whole at once? He is rightly called the Lamp, the Mind, the Ruler of the Universe, ... So the Sun sits as upon a royal throne, ruling his children, the planets which circle round him."By this time, the Ptolematic system had been accepted by almost all learned men, which said that the earth was the center of the universe, which was in agreement with religious doctrines.Using logic and mathematics, Copernicus concluded that Ptolemy's system was wrong. Copernicus's hypothesis was regarded as heresy, for according to Scripture, Joshua had caused the sun to stand still in heaven.Copernicus had no wish to quarrel with the church. It was only at the urging of other scholars and scientists that he allowed his book to be published.The publication of the Copernican theory was the first serious irruption of science. It laid the foundation for many future scientific discoveries."The revolutionary act by which nature science declared its independence ... was the publication of the immortal work by which Copernicus threw down the gauntlet to ecclesiastical authority in the affairs of nature. The emancipation of natural science from theology dates from this act."----Engles, Dialectics of NatureHowever, Copernicus's heliocentric theory was put forward only as a hypothesis.No doubt, it was the boldest one in his own time, but Copernicus was not in a position to give any conclusive evidence in favor of his hypothesis.German scientist Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler's Law published in 1609 and 1619.Each planet moves in an ellipse, not a perfect circle, with the sun at one focus;Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it.The distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period the planet took to complete a revolution around the sun.A mathematical formula: the square of the period of revolution of a planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the mean distance of the planet from the sun.Kepler's laws supported, clarified and amended the Copernican system and turned the system from a general description of the sun and the planets into a precise mathematical formula.These three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton's discovery of the laws of gravitation.Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Galileo is the greates name in the field of physics of this period.His father, a Florentine, taught him Latin, Greek, mathematics and music. He also liked to draw and paint.At 17, he was sent to study medicine at the University of Pisa, but soon his interest was drawn to physics and mathematics.A convinced Copernican, Galileo was eager to use newly invented instruments to observe heavenly bodies.He was the first to apply the telescope to the study of the skies.His telescope magnified objects a thousand times.Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger), 1610"By the aid of a telescope anyone may behold this in a manner which so distinctly appeals to the senses that all the disputers which have tormented philosophers through so many ages are exploded aat once by the irrefragable evidence of our eyes, and we are freed from wordy disputesupon this subject, for the Galaxly is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in cluster...""Upon whatever part of it you direct the telescope straightway a vast crowd of stars presents itself to views; many of them are tolerably large and extremely bright, but the number of small ones is quite beyond determination".Proved that Ptolemy's geocentric system would not work and that Copernicus's powerful hypothesis had been right.Discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics.Every body, if left alone, will continue to move in a straight line with uniform velocity; any change, either in the rapidity or the direction of motion, requires to be explained as due to the action of some "force".This principle is called the law of inertia.The first to establish the law of falling bodies.When a body is falling freely, its acceleration is constant, except in so far as the resistance of the air may interfere, and the acceleration is the same for all bodies, heavy or light, great or small. The acceleration of a falling body does not depend on its mass.Galileo's discoveries proved the validity of the Copernican theory and struck a frightening blow at the holy establishment.Many theologians felt that Copernican astronomy was sharply incompatible with the Bible and that if this theory was widely accepted, the Bible would lose authority and Christianity would suffer.Galileo's disputes with the church finally led to his trial by the Inquisition.He was forced to give up his view in public declaration but later published a book about the Copernican and anti-Copernican systems.Put in prison, allowed to return home after falling ill, technically remained a prisoner.Died in the arms of his pupils, blind and deaf and still a prisoner.His findings had an unsettling and disturbing effect on the conventional thinking, but his impact on the thoughtful mind was overwhelming.Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)As a school boy, "idle" and "inattentive".Took his degree from Tirinity College, Cambridge and became a mathematics teacher (not successful).Few students went to his lectures and fewer could understand him, sometimes he had so few auditors that he read his lectures to the wall.As a mathematician, he invented calculus.In optics, he discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum.(red, orange, yellow, green, indigo, blue, violet)It was in the field of physics that Newton established his name as one of the most outstanding and influential figure in the history of natural science.The law of the universal gravitationEvery body attracts every other with a force directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.To put it simply, all bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation.From this law, Newton was able to deduce the orbits of comets, the tides, and even the minute departures from elliptical orbits on the part of the planet.The law of universal gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science.Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)His analytical method, the way he approached natural laws by observation, experiment and calculation, began to be applied to human society, to all branches of knowledge and thought.For centuries, Newton had been regarded as a perfect scientist, the greatest one that ever lived in the entire history of science."Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night,God said, "Let Newton be," and all was light."____ Alexander Pope However, since Einstein discovered the law of relativity, the Newtonian system has been questioned.As a matter of fact, modern theoretical physics has abandoned Newton's absolute space and time. As explained by Einstein, motion and space are relative too.Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, historian and diplomat.Early university studies made him familiar with the Aristotelian tradition and the ideas from the Scholastics, but later decided in favor of the modern thought.He and Newton invented independently the differential and integral calculus.he describes space and time as merely system of relationship or order, and calls Newton's treatment of time and space as absolute entities a reversion to medieval notions.In his book New Essays Concerning Human Understanding (1704), he refutes John Locke's major premise that the senses are the source of all understanding.He distinguishes three levels of understanding: the self-conscious, the conscious and the unconscious or subconscious.Many of his theories have given rise of important developments of modern science, ranging from Freudian psychology and Einsteinian physics.Discourse and Metaphysics (1686)New System of Nature (1695)Invention of New InstrumentsThe microscope was invented in 1590.the telescope in 1608 by a DutchmanGalileo invented the thermometer and one of his pupils made the barometer.The pendulum clock in 1656.Scientific observation became immensely more exact and more extensiveMerits Shared by ScientistsFirst, they showed boldness in framing hypotheses. They had the courage to challenge the deep-rooted beliefs and assume that what had been accepted as true since ancient times might be false.Second, they all had immense patience in observation. They put their hypotheses to tests and drew conclusions on the basis of patient observation and careful collection of facts. Modern scientific method emphasized observation and experimentation before formulating a final explanation or generalization.Philosophy and PoliticsFrancis Bacon (1561-1626)The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions.He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.In his Novum Organum, Bacon begins by declaring that "Man, being the servant and interpreter of Nature, can do and understand so much and so much only as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature; beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything.""Nature to be commanded must be obeyed."Man can command and conquer nature, the power to do so is knowledge, therefore knowledge is power.He examined the contemporary logic and method and founded modern inductive method.He argued that the contemporary syllogism started by Aristotle did more harm than good. Induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.The deductive method emphasizes reasoning from a known principle to the unkown and from the general to the specific.The Great InstaurationTo expect any great advancement in science, we must begin anew. The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconception, prejudices and assumptions, sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs, in a word, to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world.Baconian Materialism"To Bacon, natural philosophy is the only true philosophy, and physics based upon the experience of the senses is the chiefest part of natural philosophy."___ Marx & Engels, The Holy FamilyThomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Author of Leviathan(1651), one of the most celebrated political treatises in European literature. During the English Revolution, he took refuge in France and wrote Leviathan on account of his royalist convictions.He argues that our knowledge comes from experience."The cause of sense is the external body, or object, which presseth the organ proper to each sense either immediately, as in the taste and touch; or mediately, as in seeing, hearing and smelling."He believes that only material things are perceptible, and knowable to us. Our own experience alone is ceratin.He said men could not know anything about the existence of God because they could not have any idea of Him in their minds answerable to His nature.Concerning motion, Hobbes said that when a thing lies still, unless sth. else stirs it, it will lie still for ever. When a body is once in motion, it moves (unless sth. else hinders it) eternally.Hobbes systematized Baconian materialism, but basically he was a mechanical materialist.The Natural State of WarHobbes held that men are by nature equal in bodily and mental capacity.From this equality of ability arises equality of hope in the attaining of their ends.If any two men desire the same thing, which they can not both enjoy, they become enemies.The fact that every individual seeks his own conservation and his own enjoyment leads to competition and mistrust of others. So, Hobbes believed that man is selfish by nature.Unless such times as men live under a common power, they are in a state of war with one another. This natural state of war, therefore, is the state of affairs in which the individual is dependent for his own security on his own strength and his own wits, and where "every man is enemy to every man."The Laws of NatureBecause the condition of man is a condition of war of every man against every man, it is obviously in man's interest to emerge from this natural state of war.The possibility of doing so is provided by nature itself; for by nature men have their passions and their reasons.It is human passions that bring about the state of war; the fear of death and need for security drive man to accept certain laws of nature.Reason tells men that peace is necessary for survival and also suggests certain articles of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement. These articles are called the Laws of nature.In Leviatha n, Hobbes stated nineteen laws of nature.According to Hobbes, the fundamental law of nature is the general rule of reason that every man ought to endeavor for peace.The Theory of Social ContractHobbes maintained that in order to get men out of the miserable condition of war, keep them in awe, and tie them by fear of punishment to the performance of their agreements, and observation of the laws of nature, it is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.Individuals should "confer all their power and strength upon one man or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills by plurality of voices, unto one will."The transfer of rights takes place "by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner, as if every man should say to every man, I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition that thou give gup thy right to him andauthorize all his actions in like manner. This done, the multitude so united in one person, is called a Commonwealth, in Latin, Civitas. This is the generation of that great Laviathan".To escape anarchy, men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign. in return for conferring all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain peace and security. In Hobbes' s thoery, the powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided.The sovereign is not a party himself to the social contract.The subjects cannot either change the form of government or repudiate the authority of the sovereign. Rebellion is wrong, which will lead men back to the natural state of war.As to the form of government, monarchy.Hobbes believed that government was not created by God, but by men themselves."The merits of Hobbes appear most clearly when he is contrasted with earlier political theorists. He is completely free from superstition; he does not argue from what happened to Adam and Eve at the time of the Fall."____Russell, A History of Western PhilosophyJohn Locke (1632-1704)Oxford, philosophyDisliked Scholasticism and regarded it as perplexed with obscure terms and useless questions. Locke inherited and developed the materialist views expounded by Bacon and Hobbes.Materialist ViewsEssay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)All our ideas are ultimately derived from sensation or from reflection, that these two make up experience and that all our knowledge springs from experience.Locke argued against Plato, Descartes and the scholastics, that neither principles nor ideas are innate.Political PhilosophyTreatises of Civil Government (1690)Rejected the theory of divine right of king.Ridiculed the theory of transmission of royal authority by saying that there was no evidence that Adam possessed a divinely granted royal authority, nor is there any evidence that his heirs had it. “All men are naturally free and equal in the state of nature.”“Men living together according to reason without a common superior on earth, with no authority to judge between them, is properly the state of nature”“The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone, and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty of possession”.The Social ContractLocke believed that society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, therefore, society is natural to man. Political society and government should rest on a rational foundation.The institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent of those who are incorporated into political society and subject themselves to government.Locke emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.The absolute monarchy is contrary to the original social contract and the danger to liberty comes mainly from absolute monarchy.Locke believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. If he violates the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved. In this case, rebellion is justified.As to who is to judge when circumstances render rebellion legitimate, Locke replied, “The people shall be judge”, which is welcomed by the Americans during the American Revolution.Question?Both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke used the term “social contract”, what is the difference between them?Hobbes argued men enter a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued men are equal and that they enter a social contract by reason.Hobbes argued that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole. According to Locke, by majority vote, a representative is chosen, but his power is not absolute. If the fails to implement the people’s will, the people have the right to ovethrow him.The English Revolutionin the middle of the 17th century.The causes:1) the growth of capitalism2) the break-up of serfdom3) the Puritan movementThe Growth of CapitalismCapitalism had started growing in England much earlier and faster than any other European country.The leading industry in the early development was textile, which pushed the development of coal-mining and other industries.The English bourgeoisie was not only economically powerful, but also politically strong.The English bourgeoisie had a political body, the parliament, to speak for them.SerfdomThe serfdom in the English countryside had begun breaking up from the 15th century as a result of the Enclosure Movement.Many serfs and poor peasants were driven out of their farm lands and homes, who went to the cities and became the source of cheap labor for the early capitalists.PuritansBy the end of the 16th century, Calvinism had spread to England. As a result,the Puritan Movement started in England.The Puritan principle emphasized the liberty of the individual soul before God, which reflected the desire of the early rising bourgeoisie for free development of capitalism.The Puritans were subjected to the suppression and persecution by the feudal monarchy. This was the religious cause of the English Revolution.MayflowerThe Land of the FreeThanksgivingThe English RevolutionIn 1642, Civil War broke out between the king and the Parliament.With the support of the people and the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, the English bourgeoisie won the victory.Charles I was captured and beheaded in front of his own palace in 1649.A republic was born, Cromwell became the head of the government known as the Protector. Oliver CromwellAfter the death of Cromwell in 1658, the country was in confusion and revolutionary movement was again on the rise.Fearing that the people might take over power, the upper bourgeoisie and feudal nobles collaborated and staged the restoration of the Stuart.In 1660, Charles II returned from France and was put on the throne.During the restoration, many revolutionary leaders were persecuted.Charles II was planning to turn England into a Catholic country.In 1688, the representatives of the parliament went to Holland to negotiate withe Dutch King William and his wife Mary, a member of the English royal family and yet a Protestant.William and Mary were invited to be the joint ruler of England. Thus, the shortlived restoration ended.The Glorious RevolutionIn December, 1689, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the Parliament.It established the supremacy of the parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England. The Bill of RightsThe power of suspending the laws by royal authority was declared to be illegal; Parliament was responsible for all the law making;The king levy no money except by grant of parliament;The king should not keep a standing army in time of peace without consent of Parliament.No Roman Catholic, nor anyone marrying a Roman Catholic should succeed to the throne.The Bill of Rights is the foundation on which the constitutional monarchy of England rests."The bourgeoisie was victorious in these revolutions, but the victory of the bourgeoisie was at thattime the victory of a new social order, the victory of bourgeois ownership over feudal ownership... These revolutions reflected the need of the world at that time rather than the needs of those parts of the world where they occurred, that is England and France".___ Collected Works of Marx and EnglesRene Descartes (1596-1650)Philosopher, physicist and mathematicianIt is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with Francis Bacon in England and with Rene Descartes in France.He enlisted in the Dutch army and spent years of undisturbed quiet in Holland where he worked at geometry and philosophy.After serving in the army, he continued to live in Holland for twenty years as some of his contemporaries also found Holland a country of freedom of thought.Rules for the Direction of the Mind (1628)Discourse on Method(1637)Meditations Concerning First Philosophy and Objections and Replies (1642)His method of doubt is known as the method of Cartesian doubt.He believed that the overthrow of the present opinion and the break-up with the past philosophy, Scholasticism included, are necessary condition of establishing sth. first and lasting in eh science. "It is now some years since I detected how many were the false beliefs that I had from my earliest youth and admitted as true, and how doubtful was everything I had since constructed on this basis; and from that time I was convinced that I must once for all seriously undertake to rid myself of all the opinion which I had formerly accepted, and commence to build anew from the foundation, if i want to establish any firm and permanent structure in the science".In Discourse on Method, Descartes formulated four rules in expressing his method:The first was to accept nothing as true which i did not clearly recognize to be so.Carefully avoid precipitation and prejudice in judgments, and to accept in them nothing more than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly that I could have no occasion to doubt it. The second was to divide up each of the difficulties which I examined into as many parts as possible, and as seemed requisite in order that it might be resolved in the best manner possible. The third was to carry on my reflections in due order, commencing with objects that were the most simple and easy to understand, in order to rise little by little, or by degrees, to knowledge of the most complex.The last was in all cases to make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that i should be ceratin of having omitted nothing.Theory of KnowledgeDescartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable truth.He found his truth in this motto: "dubito ergo cogito; cogito ergo sum".I doubt, therefore I think; I think, therefore I am.This Cartesian doubt is the most important point in his philosophy.He believed that a thing that is thinking is one that doubts, understands, conceives, affirms, denies, wills, imagines, and feels.Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind.All things that we conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and theat knowledge of things must be by the mind.As to the senses, Descartes believed that they are not dependable.Innate IdeasDescartes believed that some ideas are innate.He claimed he discovered the first principles or first causes of everything which can be in the world without "deriving them from any other source than certain germs of truth which exist naturally in our souls".___ Discourse on MethodWe can construct metaphysics and physics by logic deduction from a number of innate ideas implanted in the mind by nature ,or by God.All clear and distinct ideas are innate. All scientific knowledge is knowledge of or by means of innate ideas.Knowledge of the universe and certain principles and laws of physics is innate.DualismDescartes turned his back on theological controversy and instead set out to apply the techniques of mathematical reasoning to questions of philosophy, attempting to build up a rigorous philosophy on the basis of reason alone.He argued that thought was the foundation of all knowledge while senses might deceive. (idealist) He believed that the external world existed, which is independent of the human mind. (materialist) In the Cartesian system, mind and matter are completely apart from one another.Descartes thus brought to completion the dualism of mind and matter which began with Plato.In mathematics, Descartes culminated in inventing analytical geometry.American linguist Noam Chomsky: "innate grammar".Pierre GassendiIn his early years, he began attacking Aristotelianism, and in 1641 he wrote his objections to Descartes's Meditation.He tried to show that the Cartesian criterion of true knowledge was useless, and insisted that our knowledge comes only from sensory experience."ambulo ergo sum" (I walk, therefore I am)French ClassicismSocial backgroundAfter the Hundred Years War between French and English invaders, France entered a period of comparatively steady development. In the latter half of the 17th century, Henry IV started a。
英文1-31序数词
英文1-31序数词序数词是指表示顺序或排位的词语，常用于表示日期、年龄、名次等。
下面将为您提供1-31的序数词及其相关参考内容。
1st - first: the first day of the month, the first place in a race, the first chapter of a book2nd - second: the second day of the month, the second highest score, the second part of a movie3rd - third: the third day of the month, the third letter of the alphabet, the third season of a TV show4th - fourth: the fourth day of the month, the fourth book in a series, the fourth quarter of a game5th - fifth: the fifth day of the month, the fifth element, the fifth course in a meal6th - sixth: the sixth day of the month, the sixth player on a team, the sixth sense7th - seventh: the seventh day of the month, the seventh wonder of the world, the seventh inning of a baseball game8th - eighth: the eighth day of the month, the eighth note in music, the eighth grade in school9th - ninth: the ninth day of the month, the ninth planet in the solar system, the ninth symphony of Beethoven10th - tenth: the tenth day of the month, the tenth anniversary, the tenth floor of a building11th - eleventh: the eleventh day of the month, the eleventh hour, the eleventh commandment12th - twelfth: the twelfth day of the month, the twelfth month of the year, the twelfth night of Christmas13th - thirteenth: the thirteenth day of the month, the thirteenthfloor in a building, the thirteenth amendment14th - fourteenth: the fourteenth day of the month, the fourteenth amendment, the fourteenth century15th - fifteenth: the fifteenth day of the month, the fifteenth floor in a building, the fifteenth of the month16th - sixteenth: the sixteenth day of the month, the sixteenth president of the United States, the sixteenth century17th - seventeenth: the seventeenth day of the month, the seventeenth century, the seventeenth letter of the alphabet18th - eighteenth: the eighteenth day of the month, the eighteenth amendment, the eighteenth century19th - nineteenth: the nineteenth day of the month, the nineteenth amendment, the nineteenth century20th - twentieth: the twentieth day of the month, the twentieth floor in a building, the twentieth century21st - twenty-first: the twenty-first day of the month, the twenty-first amendment, the twenty-first century22nd - twenty-second: the twenty-second day of the month, the twenty-second letter of the alphabet, the twenty-second chapter of a book23rd - twenty-third: the twenty-third day of the month, the twenty-third president of the United States, the twenty-third Psalm24th - twenty-fourth: the twenty-fourth day of the month, the twenty-fourth amendment, the twenty-fourth hour of the day25th - twenty-fifth: the twenty-fifth day of the month, the twenty-fifth anniversary, the twenty-fifth amendment26th - twenty-sixth: the twenty-sixth day of the month, the twenty-sixth letter of the alphabet, the twenty-sixth chapter of a book27th - twenty-seventh: the twenty-seventh day of the month, the twenty-seventh amendment, the twenty-seventh state28th - twenty-eighth: the twenty-eighth day of the month, the twenty-eighth president of the United States, the twenty-eighth week of the year29th - twenty-ninth: the twenty-ninth day of the month, the twenty-ninth amendment, the twenty-ninth state30th - thirtieth: the thirtieth day of the month, the thirtieth anniversary, the thirtieth floor of a building31st - thirty-first: the thirty-first day of the month, the thirty-first chapter of a book, the thirty-first state以上是1-31的序数词及其相关参考内容。
23-2 Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture
Seventeenth-Century Dutch AgricultureAgriculture and fishing formed the primary sector of the economy in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century. Dutch agriculture was modernized and commercialized new crops and agricultural techniques raised levels of production so that they were in line with market demands, and cheap grain was imported annually from the Baltic region in large quantities. According to estimates, about 120,000 tons of imported grain fed about 600,000 people: that is about a third of the Dutch population. Importing the grain, which would have been expensive and time consuming for the Dutch to have produced themselves, kept the price of grain low and thus stimulated individual demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods.Apart from this, being able to give up labor-intensive grain production freed both the land and the workforce for more productive agricultural divisions. The peasants specialized in livestock husbandry and dairy farming as well as in cultivating industrial crops and fodder crops: flax, madder, and rape were grown, as were tobacco, hops, and turnips. These products were bought mostly by urban businesses. There was also a demand among urban consumers for dairy products such as butter and cheese, which, in the sixteenth century, had become more expensive than grain. The high prices encouraged the peasants to improve their animal husbandry techniques; for example, they began feeding their animals indoors in order to raise the milk yield of their cows.In addition to dairy farming and cultivating industrial crops, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized-horticulture. In the sixteenth century, fruit and vegetables were to be found only in gardens belonging to wealthy people. This changed in the early part of the seventeenth century when horticulture became accepted as an agricultural sector. Whole villages began to cultivate fruit and vegetables. The produce was then transported by water to markets in the cities, where the consumption of fruit and vegetables was no longer restricted to the wealthy.As the demand for agricultural produce from both consumers and industry increased, agricultural land became more valuable and people tried to work the available land more intensively and to reclaim more land from wetlands and lakes. In order to increase production on existing land, the peasants made more use of crop rotation and, in particular, began to apply animal waste to the soil regularly, rather than leaving the fertilization process up to the grazing livestock. For the first time industrial waste, such as ash from the soap-boilers, was collected in the cities and sold in the country as artificial fertilizer. The increased yield and price of land justified reclaiming and draining even more land.The Dutch battle against the sea is legendary. Noorderkwartier in Holland, with its numerous lakes and stretches of water, was particularly suitable for land reclamation and one of the biggest projects undertaken there was the draining of the Beemster lake which began in 1608. The richest merchants in Amsterdam contributed money to reclaim a good 7,100 hectares of land. Forty-three windmills powered the drainagepumps so that they were able to lease the reclamation to farmers as early as 1612, with the investors receiving annual leasing payments at an interest rate of 17 percent. Land reclamation continued, and between 1590 and 1665, almost 100,000 hectares were reclaimed from the wetland areas of Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. However, land reclamation decreased significantly after the middle of the seventeenth century because the price of agricultural products began to fall, making land reclamation far less profitable in the second part of the century.Dutch agriculture was finally affected by the general agricultural crisis in Europe during the last two decades of the seventeenth century. However, what is astonishing about this is not that Dutch agriculture was affected by critical phenomena such as a decrease in sales and production, but the fact that the crisis appeared only relatively late in Dutch agriculture. In Europe as a whole, the exceptional reduction in the population and the related fall in demand for grain since the beginning of the seventeenth century had caused the price of agricultural products to fall. Dutch peasants were able to remain unaffected by this crisis for a long time because they had specialized in dairy farming industrial crops, and horticulture. However, toward the end of the seventeenth century, they too were overtaken by the general agricultural crisis.Paragraph 1: Agriculture and fishing formed the primary sector of the economy in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century. Dutch agriculture was modernized and commercialized new crops and agricultural techniques raised levels of production so that they were in line with market demands, and cheap grain was imported annually from the Baltic region in large quantities. According to estimates, about 120,000 tons of1. By indicating that production was in line with market demands the author means that○ exceed other European countries in agricultural production○ produce crops mat were similar to those popular in other European countries○ supply sufficient quantities of the agricultural products that the Dutch population wanted to buy○ satisfy the demand for high quality agricultural products from the Baltic regionthe passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○ Buying imported grain led to the Dutch demanding that other foodstuffs and consumer goods be imported.○ Because the Dutch were able to import inexpensive grain, they had money available to createa demand for other food products and consumer goods.○ Keeping the price of grain low was a primary goal of the Dutch at a time when they could not produce enough grain to provide for all their needs.○ The demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods forced the Dutch to import grain and other products at a time when maintaining low prices was especially important.and the workforce for more productive agricultural divisions. The peasants specialized in livestock husbandry and dairy farming as well as in cultivating industrial crops and fodder crops: flax, madder, and rape were grown, as were tobacco, hops, and turnips. These products were bought mostly by urban businesses. There was also a demand among urban consumers for dairy products such as butter and cheese, which, in the sixteenth century, had become more expensive than grain. The high prices encouraged the peasants to improve their animal husbandry techniques; for example, they began feeding their animals indoors in order to raise the milk yield of their cows.○ Besides○ Despite○ As a result of○ Instead of4. According to paragraph 2, the increases demands on Dutch agriculture made by urban consumers had which of the following results?○ Seasonal shortages of the products consumers most wanted○ Increased production of high-quality grain products○ Raised prices charged by peasants to urban consumers○ Different ways of caring for dairy-producing animalsParagraph 3: In addition to dairy farming and cultivating industrial crops, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized-horticulture. In the sixteenth century, fruit and vegetables were to be found only in gardens belonging to wealthy people. This changed in the early part of the seventeenth century when horticulture became accepted as an agricultural sector. Whole villages○ sale○ storage○ exportation○ utilization6. According to paragraph 3, the modernization of agriculture in the Netherlands was evident in all of the following ways EXCEPT:○ The production of fruits and vegetables became a commercial venture.○ The wealthy stopped growing fruits and vegetables in their gardens and grew flowers instead.○ Horticultural produce was transported to city markets by water.○ Many more people were able to afford to eat fresh fruits and vegetables.Paragraph 4: As the demand for agricultural produce from both consumers and industry increased, agricultural land became more valuable and people tried to work the available land more intensively and to reclaim more land from wetlands and lakes. In order to increase production on existing land, the peasants made more use of crop rotation and, in particular, began to apply animal waste to the soil regularly, rather than leaving the fertilization process up to the grazing livestock. For the first time industrial waste, such as ash from the soap-boilers, was collected in the cities and sold in the country as artificial fertilizer. The increased yield and price of land justified reclaiming and draining even more land.7. Select the TWO answer choices that, according to paragraph 4, indicate two methods people used to increase the productivity of their land. To receive credit you must select TWO answers○ They planted different crops in different sections of the farm each year.○ They used improved irrigation methods to increase the yield of crops.○ They increased the use of fertilizers to supply more nutrients to plants.○ They used new horticultural practices to produce different varieties of plants in the same section of the farm.Paragraph 5: The Dutch battle against the sea is Noorderkwartier in Holland, with its numerous lakes and stretches of water, was particularly suitable for land reclamation and one of the biggest projects undertaken there was the draining of the Beemster lake which began in 1608. The richest merchants in Amsterdam contributed money to reclaim a good 7,100 hectares of land. Forty-three windmillswith the investors receiving annual leasing payments at an interest rate of 17 percent. Land reclamation continued, and between 1590 and 1665, almost 100,000 hectares were reclaimed from the wetland areas of Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. However, land reclamation decreased significantly after the middle of the seventeenth century because the price of agricultural products began to fall, making land reclamation far less profitable in the second part of the century.○ merchants○ hectares○ windmills○ drainage pumps9. According to paragraph 5, which of the following was an important reason why land-reclamation projects in the first half of the seventeenth century proceeded rapidly?○ Windmills became powerful enough to run drainage pumps efficiently.○ Merchants invested large amounts of money in reclamation.○ High interest rates discouraged people from buying land already available.○ Reclaimed land was much more suitable for agriculture than the existing land.○ continuous○ well documented○ famous○ expensiveParagraph 6: Dutch agriculture was finally affected by the general agricultural crisis in Europe during thelast two decades of the seventeenth century. However, what about this is not that Dutch agriculture was affected by critical phenomena such as a decrease in sales and production, but the fact that the crisis appeared only relatively late in Dutch agriculture. In Europe as a whole, the exceptional reduction in the population and the related fall in demand for grain since the beginning of the seventeenth century had caused the price of agricultural products to fall. Dutch peasants were able to remain unaffected by this crisis for a long time because they had specialized in dairy farming industrial crops, and horticulture. However, toward the end of the seventeenth century, they too were overtaken by the general agricultural crisis.○ incredible○ unfortunate○ predicted○ evident12. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?○ A presentation of a theory and the evidence in favor of it○ A general statement followed by examples and relevant details○ A analysis of a problem and its solution○ A series of statements leading to a conclusionParagraph 3: In addition to dairy farming and cultivating industrial crops, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized-horticulture. ■In the sixteenth century, fruit and vegetables were to be found only in gardens belonging to wealthy people. ■This changed in t he early part of the seventeenth century when horticulture became accepted as an agricultural sector. ■Whole villages began to cultivate fruit and vegetables. ■The produce was then transported by water to markets in the cities, where the consumption of fruit and vegetables was no longer restricted to the wealthy.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passageSome villages specialized in growing cabbages and carrots; others grew onions, mustard, and coriander; and still others produced fruit and cultivated trees in nurseries.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provides below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Agriculture formed one of the primary sectors of the economy in seventeenth-century Netherlands.●●●Answer Choices○ The Baltic region produced large quantities of grain for export to other regions, including the Netherlands.○ The richest people grew enough fruits and vegetables to supply the entire country with fresh produce.○ An agricultural crisis that began in Europe did not affect Dutch land-reclamation projects.○ Specialization in dairy farming, industrial crops, and horticulture allowed the Dutch to be more productive than some other regions in Europe.○ Land reclamation and improvement allowed the Dutch to meet demands for their agricultural products.○ Because the Dutch had specialized their agricultural output they were less susceptible to the crisis that Europe experienced from the beginning of the century.参考答案：1. ○32. ○23. ○14. ○45. ○46. ○27. ○1,38. ○19. ○210. ○311. ○112. ○213. ○414.Specialization in dairy…Land reclamation…Beca use the Dutch…。
新概念英语第四册第二十七单元课文原文
新概念英语第四册第二十七单元课文原文Lesson 27 The ‘V asa’“瓦萨”号From the seventeenth-century empire of Sweden, the story of a galleon that sank at the start of her maiden voyage in 1628 must be one of the strangest tales of the sea. For nearly three and a half centuries she lay at the bottom of Stockholm harbor until her discovery in 1956. This was the V asa, royal flagship of the great imperial fleet.King Gustavus Adolphus, 'The Northern Hurricane', then at the height of his military success in the Thirty Y ears' War, had dictated her measurements and armament. Triple gun-decks mounted sixty-four bronze cannon. She was intended to play a leading role in the growing might of Sweden.As she was prepared for her maiden voyage on August 10, 1628, Stockholm was in a ferment. From the Skeppsbron and surrounding islands the people watched this thing of beauty begin to spread her sails and catch the wind. They had laboured for three years to produce this floating work of art; she was more richly carved and ornamented than any previous ship. The high stern castle was a riot of carved gods, demons, knights, kings, warriors, mermaids, cherubs; and zoomorphic animal shapes ablaze with red and gold and blue, symbols of courage, power, and cruelty, were portrayed to stir the imaginations of the superstitious sailors of the day.Then the cannons of the anchored warships thundered a salute to which the V asa fired in reply. As she emerged from her drifting cloud of gun smoke with the water churned to foam beneath her bow, her flags flying, pennants waving, sails filling in the breeze, and the red and gold of her superstructure ablaze with color, she presented a more majestic spectacle than Stockholmers had ever seen before. All gun-ports were open and the muzzles peeped wickedly from them. As the wind freshened there came a sudden squall and the ship made a strange movement, listing to port. The Ordnance Officer ordered all the port cannon to be heaved to starboard to counteract the list, but the steepening angle of the decks increased. Then the sound of rumbling thunder reached the watchers on the shore, as cargo, ballast, ammunition and 400 people went sliding and crashing down to the port side of the steeply listing ship. The lower gun-ports were now below water and the inrush sealed the ship's fate. In that first glorious hour, the mighty V asa, which was intended to rule the Baltic, sank with all flags flying—in the harbor of her birth. (NCE Book Four)1。
Part V English Literature of the 17th Century
Chapter 5 English Literature of the 17th Century一. Historical background1.The period of English Revolution and the Restoration(复辟).2. With the weakening of the tie between monarchy and bourgeoisie, the clashes between the King and Parliament deepened, resulting in the outburst of the English Revolution (1642-1649), which was led by Oliver Cromwell. Monarchy was abolished, and England was declared a republic.3.There arose a split（分化）between the Revolutionary Camp, and a compromise（妥协）between the bourgeoisie and feudal remnants during the Glorious Revolution(光荣革命)——Glorious because it was bloodless and there was no revival of the revolutionary demands. And from then on, the state structure of England was settled.4.the religious cloak of the English Revolution——Puritanism(清教主义).Puritanism is the religious doctrine of the revolutionary bourgeoisie during the English Revolution. It preaches thrift（节俭）, sobriety(严肃), hard work and unceasing labor in whatever calling one happen to, but with no extravagant（奢侈的）enjoyment of the fruits of labor. Worldly pleasures are condemned as harmful. The adherences are called Puritans or Protestants（清教徒）.二、The Overview of the Literature (1640-1688)1. The revolution period(1) John Milton and John Bunyan(2) The metaphysical poets（玄学派）and the Cavalier poets.（骑士派）2. The restoration period.(1) emphasize rationalism（理性主义）.(2) Clear and simple prose as an instrument of rational communication.(3) The restoration drama. John DrydenJohn Milton1. Life: educated at Cambridge—visiting the continent—involved into the revolution—persecuted （迫害）—writing epics.2. Literary career.(1) The 1st period was up to 1641, during which time he is to be seen chiefly as a son of the humanists and Elizabethans.L‘Allegre IL《快乐的人》Pens eroso《幽思的人》Lycidas《利西达斯》, a pastoral elegy on the death of a college mate.(2) The second period is from 1641 to 1654, when the Puritan was in such complete ascendancy （统治）that he wrote almost no poetry. In 1641, he began a long period of pamphleteering（撰写小册子）for the puritan cause. For some 15 years, he became the spokesman of the Revolution. He sacrificed his poetic ambition to the call of the liberty for which Puritans were fighting. Defence of the English People《为英国人民声辩》Second Defence of the English People《为英国人民再辩》Areopagitica 《论出版自由》(3) The third period is from 1655 to 1671, which is the greatest in his literary life, epics and some famous sonnets.The three long poems are the fruit of the long contest within Milton of Renaissance tradition andhis Puritan faith，and they form the greatest accomplishments of any English poet except Shakespeare.In these works we find humanism and Puritanism merged in magnificence.3、Paradise Lost《失乐园》Paradise Regained《复乐园》Samson Agonistes《力士参孙》Paradise Lost⏹It is a long epic（史诗）in 12 books，written in blank verse.⏹Plot：Although defeated by God，Satan is not discouraged, he chooses the Garden ofEden for the battlefield ，where live the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, who are allowed by God to enjoy the supreme beauties of Paradise, if they do not eat the fruit that grows on the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Satan desires to tear them away from the influence of God and make them tools in his struggle against God’s authority.⏹Satan assumes the shape of a serpent and appears before Eve, He persuades her to breakGod’s command. Eve eats an apple from the forbidden tree and plucks（摘）another for Adam. God sees all this, and Adam and Eve are both deprived of immortality, exiled（逐出）from Paradise and doomed to an earthly life full of hardship and sufferings.⏹characterizationGod: a selfish, cruel, and unjust depot.Adam and Eve: em body Milton’s belief in the powers of man. Their craving for knowledge is highly praised.Satan: real hero, brave, strong-minded, represent the spirit questioning the authority of God.4. Features of Milton’s works.⏹(1) Milton is one of the very few truly great English writers who is also a prominentfigure in politics, and who is both a great poet and an important prose writer. The two most essential things to be remembered about him are his Puritanism and his republicanism.⏹(2) Milton wrote many different types of poetry. He is especially a great master of blankverse. He learned much from Shakespeare and first used blank verse in non-dramatic works.⏹(3) Milton is a great stylist. He is famous for his grand style noted for its dignity andpolish, which is the result of his life-long classical and biblical study.⏹(4) Milton has always been admired for his sublimity of thought and majesty ofexpression.John Bunyan（班扬，1628—1688 ）1. life:⏹(1) puritan age;⏹(2) poor family; tinker（补锅匠）⏹(3) parliamentary army（17）;⏹(4) Baptist society（浸信会dissenting sect）, preacher（牧师）;⏹(5) prison, 12 years；making shoe laces，and writing the book. “If you let me out today，I will prea ch again tomorrow”⏹(6)fever，died2. The Pilgrim Progress(1) The allegory (寓言)in dream form.(2) the plot.It tells of the spiritual pilgrimage (朝圣之旅)of Christian who flies from the City of Destruction, meets with the perils（危险）and temptations of the Slough of the Despond（绝望潭）, Vanity Fair（名利场）, and Doubting Castle（疑惑城）, faces and overcomes the demon （魔鬼）Appollyon, and finally comes to the Delectable Mountains （愉悦山）and Celestial City （圣城）.(3) the theme.⏹Describes the spiritual sufferance of the poor people at a time of great changes, and theiraspiration for “the land that flow with milk and honey” .”There you will not see such things as sorrow, sickness, affliction, and death”.（4）characteristics⏹Through his work we hear the lowest classes before and since the English Revolution.⏹Its characters impress the readers like real persons. (Mr Worldly, Mr Legality, Faithful)⏹He cherished a deep hatred(憎恨) of both the king and his government. He saw anddetested(厌恶) the injustice of laws ,trials, and magistrates, between whom and his saints(圣徒）there was a perpetual war. That is why his pilgrim’s progress had won immediate success among people from all walks of life and has become one of the most widely-read and popular works in the English language.⏹Bunyan’s prose is admirable. It is popular speech (平实的语言)ennobled by the solemndignity and simplicity of the English Bible.Metaphysical Poets and Cavalier Poets1. Metaphysical Poets（玄学派诗人）⏹The term “metaphysical poetry” is commonly used to designate the works of the 17thcentury writers who wrote under the influence of John Donne （多恩）. Pressured by the harsh, uncomfortable and curious age, the metaphysical poets sought to shatter （打碎）myths and replace them with new philosophies, new sciences, new words and new poetry.⏹They tried to break away from the conventional fashion of Elizabethan love poetry, andfavoured in poetry for a more colloquial language and tone, a tightness of expression and the single-minded working out of a theme or argument.⏹The works of the Metaphysical poets are characterized by mysticism(神秘性)in contentand fantasticality （奇异性）in form.John Donne，the founder of the Metaphysical school of poetry.⏹(peculiar conceits巧妙的构思，sensualist感觉主义者，often seeks out complexrhythms and strange images)⏹Sometimes he goes to preposterous(荒谬的) dimensions. For example，he asks hismistress not to kill a flea（跳瘙）because:“It sucked me first, and now sucks you,And in this flea, our two bloods mingled be;This flea is you and I, and thisOur marriage bed, and marriage temple is；”⏹George Herbert, the saint of the Metaphysical schol.2. Cavalier Poets(骑士派)⏹The other group prevailing in 17th century was that of Cavalier poets. They were oftencourtiers who stood on the side of the king, and called themselves “sons” of Ben Jonson.The Cavalier poets wrote light poetry, polished and elegant, amorous（爱情的）and gay, but often superficial.⏹Most of their verses were short songs, pretty madrigals（情歌）, love fancies characterizedby lightness of heart and of morals. Cavalier poems have the limpidity （清澈）of the Elizabethan lyric（抒情诗）without its imaginative flights. They are lighter and neater （简洁）but less fresh than the Elizabethan’s.John Dryden.1. Life:⏹(1) the representative of classicism in the Restoration.⏹(2) most famous for his dramas.⏹(3) changeable in attitude.⏹(4) Literary career—four decades.⏹(5) Poet Laureate2. His influences.⏹(1) He advocated the heroic couplet（英雄双韵体）as the fashion for satiric（讽刺的）,didactic, and descriptive poetry.⏹(2) He developed a direct and concise prose style.⏹(3) He developed the art of literary criticism in his essays and in the numerous prefaces tohis poems.。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文23--2 Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO23(试题+答案+译文)第2篇:Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture托福阅读原文【1】Agriculture and fishing formed the primary sector of the economy in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century. Dutch agriculture was modernized and commercialized new crops and agricultural techniques raised levels of production so that they were in line with market demands, and cheap grain was imported annually from the Baltic region in large quantities. According to estimates, about 120,000 tons of imported grain fed about 600,000 people: that is about a third of the Dutch population. Importing the grain, which would have been expensive and time consuming for the Dutch to have produced themselves, kept the price of grain low and thus stimulated individual demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods.【2】Apart from this, being able to give up labor-intensive grain production freed both the land and the workforce for more productive agricultural divisions. The peasants specialized in livestock husbandry and dairy farming as well as in cultivating industrial crops and fodder crops: flax, madder, and rape were grown, as were tobacco, hops, and turnips. These products were bought mostly by urban businesses. Therewas also a demand among urban consumers for dairy products such as butter and cheese, which, in the sixteenth century, had become more expensive than grain. The high prices encouraged the peasants to improve their animal husbandry techniques; for example, they began feeding their animals indoors in order to raise the milk yield of their cows. 【3】In addition to dairy farming and cultivating industrial crops, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized-horticulture. In the sixteenth century, fruit and vegetables were to be found only in gardens belonging to wealthy people. This changed in the early part of the seventeenth century when horticulture became accepted as an agricultural sector. Whole villages began to cultivate fruit and vegetables. The produce was then transported by water to markets in the cities, where the consumption of fruit and vegetables was no longer restricted to the wealthy.【4】As the demand for agricultural produce from both consumers and industry increased, agricultural land became more valuable and people tried to work the available land more intensively and to reclaim more land from wetlands and lakes. In order to increase production on existing land, the peasants made more use of crop rotation and, in particular, began to apply animal waste to the soil regularly, rather than leaving the fertilization process up to the grazing livestock. For the first time industrial waste, such as ash from the soap-boilers, was collected in thecities and sold in the country as artificial fertilizer. The increased yield and price of land justified reclaiming and draining even more land.【5】The Dutch battle against the sea is legendary. Noorderkwartier in Holland, with its numerous lakes and stretches of water, was particularly suitable for land reclamation and one of the biggest projects undertaken there was the draining of the Beemster lake which began in 1608. The richest merchants in Amsterdam contributed money to reclaim a good 7,100 hectares of land. Forty-three windmills powered the drainage pumps so that they were able to lease the reclamation to farmers as early as 1612, with the investors receiving annual leasing payments at an interest rate of 17 percent. Land reclamation continued, and between 1590 and 1665, almost 100,000 hectares were reclaimed from the wetland areas of Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. However, land reclamation decreased significantly after the middle of the seventeenth century because the price of agricultural products began to fall, making land reclamation far less profitable in the second part of the century.【6】Dutch agriculture was finally affected by the general agricultural crisis in Europe during the last two decades of the seventeenth century. However, what is astonishing about this is not that Dutch agriculture was affected by critical phenomena such as a decrease in sales and production, but the fact that the crisis appeared only relatively late in Dutch agriculture. In Europe as a whole, the exceptional reduction in thepopulation and the related fall in demand for grain since the beginning of the seventeenth century had caused the price of agricultural products to fall. Dutch peasants were able to remain unaffected by this crisis for a long time because they had specialized in dairy farming industrial crops, and horticulture. However, toward the end of the seventeenth century, they too were overtaken by the general agricultural crisis.托福阅读试题1.By indicating that production was in line with market demands (paragraph 1) the author means that Dutch farmers were able toA.exceed other European countries in agricultural production.B.produce crops mat were similar to those popular in other European countries.C.supply sufficient quantities of the agricultural products that the Dutch population wanted to buy.D.satisfy the demand for high quality agricultural products from the Baltic region.2.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage (paragraph 1)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Buying imported grain led to the Dutch demanding that other foodstuffs and consumer goods be imported.B.Because the Dutch were able to import inexpensive grain, they had money available to create a demand for other food products and consumer goods.C.Keeping the price of grain low was a primary goal of the Dutch at a time when they could not produce enough grain to provide for all their needs.D.The demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods forced the Dutch to import grain and other products at a time when maintaining low prices was especially important.3.The phrase “Apart from” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning toA.Besides.B.Despite.C.As a result of.D.Instead of.4.According to paragraph 2, the increases demands on Dutch agriculture made by urban consumers had which of the following results?A.Seasonal shortages of the products consumers most wanted.B.Increased production of high-quality grain products.C.Raised prices charged by peasants to urban consumers.D.Different ways of caring for dairy-producing animals.5.The word “consumption” in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning toA.sale.B.storage.C.exportation.D.utilization.6.According to paragraph 3, the modernization of agriculture in the Netherlands was evident in all of the following ways EXCEPT:A.The production of fruits and vegetables became a commercial venture.B.The wealthy stopped growing fruits and vegetables in their gardens and grew flowers instead.C.Horticultural produce was transported to city markets by water.D.Many more people were able to afford to eat fresh fruits and vegetables.7.Select the TWO answer choices that, according to paragraph 4, indicate two methods people used to increase the productivity of their land. To receive credit you must select TWO answersA.They planted different crops in different sections of the farm each year.B.They used improved irrigation methods to increase the yield of crops.C.They increased the use of fertilizers to supply more nutrients to plants.D.They used new horticultural practices to produce different varieties of plants in the same section of the farm.8.The word “they” in the passage (paragraph 5) refers toA.merchants.B.hectares.C.windmills.D.drainage pumps.9.According to paragraph 5, which of the following was an important reason why land-reclamation projects in the first half of the seventeenth century proceeded rapidly?A.Windmills became powerful enough to run drainage pumps efficiently.B.Merchants invested large amounts of money in reclamation.C.High interest rates discouraged people from buying land already available.D.Reclaimed land was much more suitable for agriculture than the existing land.10.The word “legendary” in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning toA.continuous.B.well documented.C.famous.D.expensive.11.The word “astonishing” in the passage (paragraph6) is closest in meaning toA.incredibleB.unfortunateC.predictedD.evident12.Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage (in paragraph 6)?A.A presentation of a theory and the evidence in favor of it.B.A general statement followed by examples and relevant details.C.A analysis of a problem and its solution.D.A series of statements leading to a conclusion.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage. Some villages specialized in growing cabbages and carrots; others grew onions, mustard, and coriander; and still others produced fruit and cultivated trees in nurseries.Paragraph 3: In addition to dairy farming and cultivating industrial crops, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized-horticulture. ■【A】In the sixteenth century, fruit and vegetables were to be found only in gardens belonging to wealthy people. ■【B】This changed in the early part of the seventeenth century when horticulture became accepted as an agricultural sector. ■【C】Whole villages began to cultivate fruit and vegetables. ■【D】Theproduce was then transported by water to markets in the cities, where the consumption of fruit and vegetables was no longer restricted to the wealthy.14. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provides below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Agriculture formed one of the primary sectors of the economy in seventeenth-century Netherlands.A.The Baltic region produced large quantities of grain for export to other regions, including the Netherlands.B.The richest people grew enough fruits and vegetables to supply the entire country with fresh produce.C.An agricultural crisis that began in Europe did not affect Dutch land-reclamation projects.D.Specialization in dairy farming, industrial crops, and horticulture allowed the Dutch to be more productive than some other regions in Europe.nd reclamation and improvement allowed the Dutch to meet demands for their agricultural products.F.Because the Dutch had specialized their agricultural output they wereless susceptible to the crisis that Europe experienced from the beginning of the century.托福阅读答案1.以market demands做关键词定位至第二句，说农业现代化，commercialized 的作物和先进的agricultural technique使得产量升高，从而可以满足市场的需要，因此这些人满足市场需要的原因是作物的产量高，所以正确答案是C。
(完整word版)世纪和年代的读法
(完整word版)世纪和年代的读法1。
世纪
1）用“定冠词+序数词+century”表示
例：在十七世纪
写作:in the 17th century
读作：in the seventeenth century
2）用“定冠词+百位进数+s"表示
例：在十七世纪
写作：in the 1600s
读作：in the sixteen hundreds
注意:这种情况下,实际表达的世纪数是阿拉伯数字本身加一。
2。
年代
用“定冠词+(世纪百位进数+十位年代数）+s”表示
例：在二十世纪三十年代
写作：in the 1930s /in the 1930’s
读作：in the thirties of the twentieth century或in the nineteen thirties
表示某年代的早期、中期和晚期，可以在定冠词后添加early, mid-和late，例如:
在二十世纪二十年代早期in the early 1920s
在二十世纪五十年代中期in the mid—1950s。
课文听力文本 Unit 8 Cash or Cheque
Unit 8 Cash or Cheque?Part ⅠGetting readyExercise B1.Man: I'd like to open a savings and a checking account.Woman: Our minimum deposit for a savings account is $25.Man: What is the interest rate?Woman: It's 4.5%.Man: Do you charge for cheques?Woman: Each cheque that you write will cost 20 cents.2.Woman: I'd like to withdraw some money from my savings account. Teller: First you'll have to fill out one of these withdrawal forms. Woman: Oh, no. It asks for my account number. I forgot my bank book. Teller: I'm afraid you'll need that first.3.Man: Can I cash a cheque here?Teller: Do you have an account with us?Man: Yes, I have a checking account here.Teller: Please write your account number on the back of the cheque. Man: Is that all you need?Teller: Could I see one more piece of identification?Man: Will a driver's license do?Teller: Yes. That'd be fine.4.Man: I would like to ask about taking a loan.Loan Officer: Do you have an account here?Man: Yes, I've been a customer here for several months.Loan Officer: How much do you want to borrow?Man: Three thousand dollars.5.Clerk: Yes?Man: I want to cash this traveller's cheque.Clerk: Do you have your passport?Man: Yes.Clerk: Thank you. Sign here, please. Here you are.Man: Thank you.Exercise CCharlie is a short way of saying a man’s first name, Charles. It is what his friends or family might call him. Cheap means something that is low in cost, not expensive. It can also mean someone who is not willing to spend money. So the expression “Cheap Charlie” means someone who will not spend money.The Random House Historical Dictionary of American Slang lists words and expressions used in American English. Slang words are not used in standard English, but may be used by a special group of people/This dictionary lists tow expressions that mean someone who does not want to spend much money. They are “Cheap John” and “Cheap Charlie”. The dictionary says “Cheap John” was first used as an expression in about 1827.The dictionary says “Cheap Charlie” developed as an expression much later. It may have first been used in 962 in South Vietnam. A popular eating place on Hai Ba Trung Street in Saigon was called the Chong Nam Restaurant. It provided good food at a very low price. Americans who ate there began calling it “Cheap Charlie’s”.After a while, in South Vietnam, anyone who would not spend a lot of money was called a “Cheap Charlie”. A suit of clothes that did not cost a lot of money was called a “Cheap Charlie”suit. Inexpensive shoes were called “Cheap Charlie” shoes. You get this idea.Part ⅡUsing a bank accountExercise A TranscriptForeign exchange dealing is, as its name implies, the exchange of the currency of one country for the currency of another. The rate of exchange is the value of one unit of the foreign currency expressed in the other currency concerned. A bank may make gains on buying and selling currencies on the inter-bank market. Making a profit on the transaction is the basic idea of foreign exchange dealing.Exercise BAlex: Good morning.Cashier: Good morning.Alex: I would ... I would want to know how to make out this cheque.Cashier: Right. Erm ... do you want to draw out some money?Alex: Yes, ￡20.Cashier: ￡20 OK. (Yes) Well, the first thing you need to do, is to write today's date in the top right-hand corner where you see the line (Yes) at the top you write just today's date (Yes) and the year. You must put the year in. And if you want to draw out money after it says pay ... can you see over on the left-hand side?Alex: The first ... er ... line?Cashier: That's it. On the first line it says PAY and you write "Cash" afterwards.Alex: In letters.Cashier: Yes. CASH (Yes) you write cash. OK. Then underneath that, right underneath, you have to write the amount of money you want. So just twenty pounds and then you write ONL Y at the end in words. Then at the end of that line where you can see the box, see over on the right-handside, you have to write the amount you want in numbers.Alex: In numbers?Cashier: Mm-mm.Alex: Yes.Cashier: And then underneath that box, the last thing you have to do in the bottom right-hand corner is just write your signature.Alex: Thank you very much.Cashier: OK. Bye-bye then.Alex: Bye.Part ⅢMaking phone calls to chase late paymentsCall 1Smythe: This is Paul Smythe calling from Birmingham.Martinez: Good morning, Mr. Smythe. How are you?Smythe: Fine, thanks. And you?Martinez: Yes, I'm fine, too.Smythe: Mr. Martinez, I'm ringing about our last invoice.Martinez: Yes, I remember we got it before the summer.Smythe: Exactly, Mr. Martinez. The invoice was raised more than three months ago.Martinez: I'm sorry, I don't quite follow you.Smythe: We sent you the invoice on the 13th of July.Martinez: On the 30th of July.Smythe: Not the 30th. The 13th. And we still haven't received payment.Martinez: OK, Mr. Smythe. I'll check and get back to you.Smythe: When can you contact me?Martinez: This afternoon.Smythe: That's fine. I look forward to hearing from you.Martinez: Bye.Smythe: Bye.Call 2Martinez: Well, Mr. Smythe, I've looked into your invoice and found out why it hasn't been paid. Smythe: And why is that?Martinez: We asked our bank to transfer the money but they couldn't. They said that your bank details are wrong.Smythe: What do you mean, our bank details are wrong? They are printed on our invoice. And you received the same invoice as all our other customers.Martinez: I'm sorry, what did you say?Smythe: I said our bank details are printed on the invoice.Martinez: Well, I have the invoice here. Can we just check? The account number is 40211686. Is that right?Smythe: Yes, that's right.Martinez: At the Bank of Scot land at 46 Portland Street in …Smythe: Hang on a minute, did you say "Bank of Scotland"?Martinez: Yes.Smythe: It's the Royal Bank of Scotland-not the Bank of Scotland.Martinez: You mean there are two?Smythe: Exactly.Martinez: OK, Mr. Smythe. I'll ask our bank to transfer the amount to the Royal Bank of Scotland. Smythe: As soon as possible, Mr. Martinez.Martinez: Manana, Mr. Smythe, as soon as the bank opens. And, Mr. Smythe, I'm sorry about the mistake.Smythe: Well,I'm glad we sorted it out.Martinez: Yes! Bye.Smythe: Bye.Call 3Clerk: Account enquiries.Smythe: Good afternoon. I'd like to check if a transfer has been received from Spain.Clerk: Could you give me your account number and the account name please?Smythe: Yes, the number is 40211686 and the company name is Paul Smythe and Partners. Clerk: Could you spell Smythe, please?Smythe: Yes, it's S-M-Y-T-H-E.Clerk: And your address,please?Smythe: Unit 7, Parkdown Trading Estate.Clerk: And when did you expect the money to be credited?Smythe: This week.Clerk: One moment, please. Yes, we received a credit of ￡3 476.28 on Wednesday.Smythe: Sorry,could you repeat the amount?Clerk: Yes, ￡3 476.28.Smythe: I was expecting a round figure of ￡3 500. Did the bank make a charge?Clerk: I'm afraid I can't see that from my screen. I've only got the final figure which was credited to your account.Smythe: But we get lots of payments from abroad and we never have to pay charges.Clerk: Let me check, sir ... Yes, the amount was transferred in Spanish pesetas. We had to convert it into pounds. So, after bank charges, your account was credited with ￡3 476.28.Smythe: I see. OK, thank you.Clerk: You're welcome.Smythe: Bye.Clerk: Bye.Part ⅣMore about the topic: E-money--Money of the Future?When we think of money today, we picture it either as round, flat pieces of metal which we call coins, or as printed paper notes.However, the earliest method of exchange was barter in which goods were exchanged directly for other goods. Problems arose when either someone did not want what was being offered inexchange for the other good, or if no agreement could be reached over how much one good was worth in terms of the other.Valuable metals such as gold and silver began acting as a medium of exchange. Governments then decided to melt down these metals into coins. By the seventeenth century people were leaving gold with the local goldsmith for safe keeping. Receipts of ￡1 and ￡5 were issued which could then be converted back into gold at any time. Soon these receipts were recognized as being "as good as gold" and were readily taken in exchange for goods. Goldsmiths became the first specialist bankers and their receipts began to circulate as banknotes.Nowadays, however, notes are not usually used to buy expensive items such as cars. The buyer is more likely to write out a check which instructs his bank to transfer money from his account into the account of the seller. Hence bank deposits act as money.Part ⅤMemory test: Judy's Weekly SpendingTranscript:Judy: Let me see, first I did the weekly shopping at the supermarket, that was about ￡9.50, as far as I remember, a bit up from last week, we must be more careful. Then I bought some petrol for the car, didn't I? Yes that's it, ￡7 or so. I must have had lunch a couple of times, yes I went to Browns, that was ￡3.20, and then there was that terrible meal in a pub in Headington, ￡2. I think I paid the newspapers, that's usually about ￡3, really we shouldn't spend so much but I think it's important to know what's going on in the world. Oh I went to the cinema, terrible film, and that was a waste of ￡2. I don't think there was anything else, a couple of coffees, say 50p and a chocolate bar, 20p, not very healthy but I do need a bit of luxury from time to time! Hold on a minute, there was a T-shirt ￡5.95, not bad at that price really.Questions for memory test:1．How much did she spend in all?2．Did Judy spend more or less than last week at the supermarket?3．How much did Judy pay for petrol?4．Where did she go for lunch?5．Why does Judy buy newspapers?6．Did she enjoy going to the cinema?7．Does she drink tea or coffee?8．Does she really think chocolate is unhealthy?9．How much did she spend on a T-shirt?10．Was it of good value?。
新外研版八年级下册英语 Module 2 检测卷及答案
Module 2 检测卷第一部分听力（20分）Ⅰ.听句子，根据所听句子选择与其相匹配的图片, 每个句子读一遍。
A B CD E1.________2.________3.________4.________5.________Ⅱ.听句子，选择适当的答语, 每个句子读一遍。
6. A. Yes, she does. B. No, she hasn't. C. Yes, she is.7. A. Sorry, I don't know. B. I've visited many places. C. I traveled there by taxi.8. A. That's a pity. B. Good luck. C. I think so.9. A. Really? B. Twice. C. Yes, she has.10. A. In two days. B. After two days. C. For two days.Ⅲ.听对话，根据所听内容选择最佳答案, 对话读两遍。
11. Where is Betty from?A. Beijing.B. London.C. New York.12. How long has Betty been in Beijing?A. For about two weeks.B. For about two months.C. For about two years.13. What place hasn't Betty been to yet?A. The Summer Palace.B. Tian'anmen Square.C. The Great Wall.14. What does Betty want to be?A. A Chinese teacher.B. An English teacher.C. A doctor.15. What does Betty think of Chinese?A. Boring.B. Easy.C. Difficult.Ⅳ.听短文，选择最佳答案, 短文读两遍。
The Seventeenth Century
• John Bunyan occupies the most important place in the field of prose writing of the puritan age .his most famous work is The Pilgrim’s Progress .Bunya n is know for his simple and lively prose style .
The 17th century
In England the seventeenth century was a time of political and religous turmoil punctuated with violence that suprised and shocked England‘s neighbors on the Continent. Two powers ------ Parliament and Throne
Literature of the Revolution Period
The main literary form of the period was poetry. Among the poets Milton was the greatest . Besides him ,there was two other groups of poets ,the metaphysical and the cavalier poets .
• Paradise lost is Milton’s masterpiece and the greatest English epic . The poem was written in 12books . In the poem god is no better than a selfish despot ,who is cruel and unjust in punishing Satan ,the rebel .Adam and Eve embody Milton’s belief in the powers of man . Satan is the real hero of the poem .
托福TPO10（试题+答案+译文...
托福TPO10(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Seventeenth-CenturyEuropeanEconomicGrow托福TPO是托福备考小伙伴们最重要的参考资料，并且这个是在备考时候一定要认真多多练习，托福TPO是非常重要的希望大家一定要重视起来，小编为广大的托福考生整理了TPO10(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Seventeenth-Century European Economic Growth，下面就来跟小编一起来看下面精彩内容吧!托福阅读原文In the late sixteenth century andinto the seventeenth, Europe continued the growth that had lifted it out of therelatively less prosperous medieval period (from the mid 400s to the late1400s). Among thekeyfactors behind this growth were increasedagricultural productivity and an expansion of trade.Populations cannot grow unlessthe rural economy can produce enough additional food to feed more people.During the sixteenth century, farmers brought more land into cultivation at theexpense of forests and fens (low-lying wetlands). Dutch land reclamation in theNetherlands in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries provides the mostspectacular example of the expansion of farmland: the Dutch reclaimed more than36.000 acres from 1590 to 1615 alone.Much of the potential forEuropean economic development lay in what at first glance would seem to havebeen only sleepy villages. Such villages, however, generally lay in regions ofrelatively advanced agricultural production, permitting not only the survivalof peasants but also the accumulation of an agricultural surplus forinvestment. They had access to urban merchants, markets, and trade routes.Increased agricultural productionin turn facilitated rural industry, an intrinsic part of the expansion ofindustry. Woolens and textilemanufacturers, in particular, utilized ruralcottage (in-home) production, which took advantage of cheap and plentiful rurallabor. In the German states, the ravages of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)further moved textile production into the countryside. Members of poor peasantfamilies spun or wove cloth and linens at home for scant remuneration in anattempt to supplementmeagerfamily income.More extended trading networksalso helped develop Europe's economy in this period.English and Dutch shipscarrying rye from the Baltic states reached Spain and Portugal. Populationgrowth generated an expansion of small-scale manufacturing, particularly ofhandicrafts, textiles, and metal production in England, Flanders, parts ofnorthern Italy, the southwestern German states, and parts of Spain. Only ironsmelting and mining required marshaling a significant amount of capital (wealthinvested to create more wealth).The development of banking andother financial services contributed to the expansion of trade. By the middleof the sixteenth century, financiers and traders commonly accepted bills ofexchange in place of gold or silver for other goods. Bills of exchange, whichhad their origins in medieval Italy, were promissory notes (written promises topay a specified amount of money by a certain date) that could be sold to thirdparties. In this way, they provided credit. At mid-century, an Antwerpfinancier only slightly exaggerated when he claimed, “0ne can no more tradewithout bill s of exchange than sail without water." Merchants no longerhad to carry gold and silver over long, dangerous journeys. An Amsterdammerchant purchasing soap from a merchant in Marseille could go to an exchangerand pay the exchanger the equivalent sum in guilders, the Dutch currency. Theexchanger would then send a bill ofexchange to a colleague in Marseille,authorizing the colleague to pay the Marseille merchant in the merchant's owncurrency after the actual exchange of goods had taken place.Bills of exchange contributed tothe development of banks, as exchangers began to provide loans. Not untilthe eighteenth century, however, did such banks as the Bank ofAmsterdam and the Bank of England begin to provide capital for businessinvestment. Their principal function was to provide funds for the state.The rapid expansion in internationaltrade also benefitted from an infusion of capital, stemming largely from goldand silver brought by Spanish vessels from the Americas. This capital financedthe production of goods, storage, trade, and even credit across Europe andoverseas. Moreover an increased credit supply was generated by investments andloans by bankers and wealthy merchants to states and by joint-stockpartnerships—an English innovation(the first major company began in1600). Unlike short-term financial cooperation between investors for a singlecommercial undertaking, joint-stock companies provided permanent funding ofcapital by drawing on the investments of merchants and other investors whopurchased shares in the company.托福阅读试题1.According to paragraph 1, what was trueof Europe during the medieval period?A. Agricultural productivity declined.B.There was relatively little economicgrowth.C.The general level of prosperity declined.D.Foreign trade began to play an importantrole in the economy.2.The word key in the passage(Paragraph1)is closest in meaning toA.historicalB. manyC. importantD.hidden3.According to paragraph 2, one effect ofthe desire to increase food production was thatA. land was cultivated in a different wayB.more farmers were neededC.the ruraleconomy was weakenedD. forests and wetlands were used forfarming4.According to paragraph 3, what was onereason villages had such great economic potential?A.Villages were located in regions whereagricultural production was relatively advanced.B.Villages were relatively small inpopulation and size compared with urban areas.C.Some village inhabitants made investmentsin industrial development.D.Village inhabitants established markets withintheir villages.5.Paragraph 4 supports the idea thatincreased agricultural production was important for the expansion of industryprimarily because itA.increased the number of available workersin rural areasB.provided new types of raw materials foruse by industryC. resulted in an improvement in the healthof the rural cottage workers used by manufacturersD. helped repair some of the ravages of theThirty Years’ War6.The word “meager” in thepassage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning toA.very necessaryB. very lowC.traditionalD.primary7.Why does the author mention that “Englishand Dutch ships carrying rye from the Baltic states reached Spain andPortugal”(Paragraph 5)?A.T o suggest that England and theNetherlands were the two most important trading nations in seventeenth-centuryEuropeB.T o suggest how extensive tradingrelations wereC.To contrast the importance ofagricultural products with manufactured productsD.To argue that shipping introduced a rangeof new products8.By including the quotation in paragraph 6by the financier from Antwerp, the author is emphasizing thatA.sailing was an important aspect of theeconomyB. increasing the number of water routesmade trade possibleC.bills of exchange were necessary forsuccessful tradingD.financiers often exaggerated the need forbills of exchange9.According to paragraph 6, merchants wereable toavoid the risk of carrying large amounts of gold and silver ing third parties in Marseille to buygoods for themB. doing all their business by using DutchcurrencyC. paying for their purchases through billsof exchangeD. waiting to pay for goods until the goodshad been delivered10.According to paragraph 7, until theeighteenth century, it was the principal function of which of the following toprovide funds for the state?A.Bills of exchangeB.Exchangers who took loansC. BanksD. Business investment11.The phrase “an English innovation” inthe passage(Paragraph 8)is closest in meaning toA.a new development introduced by theEnglishB.an arrangement found only in EnglandC. a type of agreement negotiated inEnglishD.a type of partnership based on Englishlaw12.According to paragraph 8, each of thefollowing was a source of funds used to finance economic expansion EXCEPTA.groups of investors engaged in short-termfinancial cooperationB. the stateC.wealthy merchantsD.joint-stock companies13. Look at the four squares [■] thatindicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Wherewould the sentence best fit? They could also avoid having to identify andassess the value of a wide variety of coins issued in many different places.The development of banking and otherfinancial services contributed to the expansion of trade. By the middle of thesixteenth century, financiers and traders commonly accepted bills of exchangein place of gold or silver for other goods. Bills of exchange, which had theirorigins in medieval Italy, were promissory notes (written promises to pay aspecified amount of money by a certain date) that could be sold to thirdparties. In this way, they provided credit. ■【A】Atmid-century, an Antwerp financier only slightly exaggerated when he claimed, “0ne can nomore trade without bills of exchange thansail without water." ■【B】Merchants nolonger had to carry gold and silver over long, dangerous journeys. ■【C】An Amsterdammerchant purchasing soap from a merchant in Marseille could go to an exchangerand pay the exchanger the equivalent sum in guilders, the Dutch currency. ■【D】Theexchanger would then send a bill of exchange to a colleague in Marseille,authorizing the colleague to pay the Marseille merchant in the merchant's owncurrency after the actual exchange of goods had taken place.14. Directions: An introductory sentencefor a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary byselecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in thepassage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideasthat not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestion is worth 2 points.In late sixteenth-and earlyseventeenth-century Europe, increased agricultural production and the expansionof trade were important in economic growth.A.Bringing more land under cultivationproduced enough food to create surpluses for trade and investment as well asfor supporting the larger populations that led to the growth of rural industry.B.Most rural villages established an arrangementwith a nearby urban center that enabled villagers to take advantage of urbanmarkets to sell any handicrafts they produced.C. Increases in population and theexpansion of trade led to increased manufacturing, much of it small-scale incharacter but some requiring significant capital investment.D.Increased capital was required for theproduction of goods, for storage, for trade, and for the provision of creditthroughout of Europe as well as distant markets overseas.E.Bills of exchange were invented inmedieval Italy butbecame less important as banks began to provide loans formerchants.F.The expansion of trade was facilitated bydevelopments in banking and financial services and benefitted from the hugeinflux of capital in the form of gold silver from the Americas.托福阅读答案1.以medieval period做关键词定位至第一句，说medievalperiod不那么prosperous繁荣，但如果只看这句的话很容易错选答案C，C的decline叫做减少，也就是说C说medieval时期prosperity下降了，但原文说不prosperous，是一种低的状态，不是下降的趋势，所以C错;而B的经济几乎没有增长是less prosperous 的同义替换，正确;A与C错的原因类似;D没说2.key众所周知的意思是钥匙，当然还有关键的意思，所以important正确。
文艺复兴英文介绍
文艺复兴英文介绍The Renaissance, a period in European history that spanned from the 14th to the 17th century, is oftenreferred to as the "rebirth" of art, culture, and learning. It was a time of great intellectual and artistic achievement, marked by a renewed interest in classical antiquity and a shift towards humanism. The Renaissance saw a revival of interest in literature, philosophy, science, and the arts, with scholars and artists looking back to the works of ancient Greece and Rome for inspiration.One of the defining characteristics of the Renaissance was the emergence of a new artistic style known as "Renaissance art." This style was characterized by a focus on realism, perspective, and human anatomy, as well as a greater emphasis on individualism and the portrayal of the human experience. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael are among the most famous figures of the Renaissance, known for their groundbreaking work in painting, sculpture, and architecture.In addition to the arts, the Renaissance also saw significant advancements in science and technology. The period witnessed the development of new scientific theories, such as those of Copernicus and Galileo, which challenged long-held beliefs about the universe and the natural world. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenbergin the mid-15th century also played a crucial role in spreading knowledge and ideas throughout Europe, leading to an increase in literacy and the dissemination of new scientific and philosophical thought.The Renaissance was not just a period of artistic and intellectual achievement; it was also a time of political and social change. The rise of powerful city-states in Italy, such as Florence and Venice, led to a flourishing of trade and commerce, as well as the patronage of the arts by wealthy merchants and rulers. The printing press alsoplayed a role in the spread of new ideas and the rise of a more educated middle class, who began to questiontraditional authority and challenge established norms.Overall, the Renaissance was a transformative period in European history, characterized by a renewed interest in learning, a flourishing of the arts, and significant advancements in science and technology. It laid the foundation for the modern world, shaping the development of Western culture and thought in profound ways. The legacy of the Renaissance continues to influence our understanding of art, science, and society to this day, making it a pivotal moment in human history.。
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to That Which Is to Come
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allegory: a work of art intending to be meaningful on at least two levels of understanding: a literal level and an abstract (figurative, or moral) level. The term derives from the Greek “allegorein”, meaning “to speak in other words”
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Beelzebub: A term used by both Jesus and his opponents for Satan, the chief of devils. The word comes from Baal-zebub, a Philistine god who was believed to be the creator of flies. n.魔王, 魔鬼 Apollyon: from Greek, meaning destroyer. n. 恶魔, 亚玻伦(《圣经》中的人物,无底坑的使者 Legion: represents immense power and force, for the demonic hosts of Satan.
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2. English Literature of the First Quarter of the 17th Century:
The King James Bible of 1611;
Francis Bacon; Metaphysical Poetry and Cavalier Poetry
Life: Born in London; studied at Cambridge; studied law later; appointed Lord Chancellor during the reign of James Ⅰ. Imprisoned for corruption. Bacon’s only predecessor in the field of the essay was Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), the French country squire; Bacon’s chief contribution lies in his role as the founder of materialism in philosophy and science in England. He employs what may be called the dialectical method by balancing opposing arguments before drawing his conclusions.
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Major Works by Bunyan
The Pilgrim’s Progress (Part Ⅰ, 1678) The Pilgrim’s Progress (Part Ⅱ,1684)
( deals with the pilgrimage of Christiana, Christian’s wife, and her children, accompanied by her neighbor Mercy.) Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666) The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680) The Holy War (1682)
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3. English Literature during the English Bourgeois Revolution
John Milton : Milton as the Spokesman of the Revolution . “When I Consider How My Light Is Spent”; Milton the revolutionary , Milton the epic poet ; Every progressive English poet since Milton draws inspiration from him. a pamphlet to justify the execution of Charles Ⅰ: “ Defence of the English People” (1651) Persecution after the Restoration of Charles Ⅱ
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2.1 The King James Bible of 1611
History of Bible: History of English Bible King James’ Bible of 1611 Also known as the 1611 Authorized Version of
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4.2 John Dryden (1631-1700) :
a poet, playwright and critic; a prolific writer. He turned with the tide, “time-server”; The forerunner of the English classical school of literature in the 18th Century From Dryden to Johnson, English critics value poetry according to its power to affect an audience.
the Bible;
47 scholars worked on it. The project was presided over by Bishop Lancelot Andrewes The basis: Tyndale text
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2.2 Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Part Ⅴ The Seventeenth Century
1603-1688
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1. Historical Background
The English Bourgeois Revolution and Restoration: The weakening of the tie between monarchy and bourgeoisie; The clashes between the King and Parliament; The outburst of the English Revolution; The split within the revolutionary camp; The bourgeois dictatorship and the Restoration
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Features of Literary Criticism of the Time 1. It does not stress literary theories, but particular works 2. It does not give comprehensive commentary, but just a few points 3. Impression rather than reasoning
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4. English Literature of the Restoration John Bunyan John Dryden
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4.1 John Bunyan (1628-1688)
Bunyan: a pilgrim; a man of innocence, diligent; With sensitive imagination Once enlisted in the Parliamentary army Bunyan lived at a time when political struggles adopted the form of religious struggles. The Pilgrim’s Progress from This World
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2.3 Metaphysical Poets and Cavalier Poets
Two antagonistic camps: the Royalists and the Puritans. The Metaphysical Poets: John Donne, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert John Donne: “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” (1611) The Cavalier Poets: Sir John Suckling, Robert Herrick, Ben Johnson Carpe Diem: a Latin phrase meaning “seize the day”. The philosophy of carpe diem asserts the notion that since life is short, one must make the most of one’s youth. This motif became very popular in the love poetry of the seventeenth century.
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