Word Formation Process in EST

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WORD-FORMATION (II)THE MINOR PROCESS OF WORD-FORMATION构词法

INITIALISMS
• Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; a word formed by initialism is pronounced letter by letter. Try to figure out what the following initialisms mean? UN, ISBN, CC (closed circuit) TV, TB.
CHAPTER IV
WORD-FORMATION (II) THE MINOR PROCESS OF WORDFORMATION
Abbreviation
1.Clipping 2. Initialism 3. Acronym 4. Blending
CLIPPING
• The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (planeairplane, phone –telephone, gym – gymnastics • 1) apocope (截除词尾）or back clippings What are the full forms of the following words? ad, auto, coke, dorm, carbs, kilo, lab, tele. bookish input When are these words usually used? Other examples:

7. WORD FORMATION(II)

Word Formation (II)In addition to derivation, compounding and conversion as the three major word-formation processes, there are also minor types of word-formation, blending and those that come under the heading of shortening(clipping, backformation, acronymy, contraction, aphetic forms, etc.). Other minor processes also include reduplication, words from proper names, etc.I.BlendingBlending is a word-forming process in which a new word (or a new lexeme) is formed by combining parts of two (or possibly more) words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. It is a process of compounding and abbreviation, and a word so formed is called a blend, or a portmanteau word, for example, newscast (news + broad cast), sitcom (sit uation + com edy), medicare (medi cal + care) and bookmobile (book + auto mobile).Blending id a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established. Besides, they even serve as models for new formations. Hamburger, for example, is a popular fast food originating from the German seaport Hamburg. However, the word hamburger was later mistaken as a combination of ham + burger, and such words as beefburger, chickenburger, steakburger, shrimpburger and even vegeburger were created by analogy.1.Classification of blendsBlends are usually classified, according to the structure, into the following four types.1)head + tail (the first part of the first word + the last part of the second word)head tail blend meaning of blendavi ation electr onics avionics application of electronics in aviationch annel t unnel Chunnel railway tunnel under the English Channel, linking the coasts of England and Franceslan g lan guage slanguage slangy speech or writingm ean st ingy mingy mean, stingy, not at all generouselectro nic exe cute electrocute kill by passing electricity through the bodycam era re corder camcorder video camera and recorder in one machine that can be carried aroundbo at ho tel botel hotel for boat-owners; ship serving as hotel tele vision broad cast talecast broadcast by television2) head + head (the first part of the first word + the first part of the second word) 3) word + tail (the whole of the first word + the last part of the second word) 4) head + word (the first part of the first word + the whole of the second word) headheadblend meaning of blendcom munications sat ellite comsat communications services involving an artificial satellitemo tor ped al moped lightweight low-powered motor bike that can be pedaled hi gh tech nology hi-tech the use of most modern machines and methods in industry, business, etc.hi ghfi delityhi-fihigh quality electronic equipment for playing recorded music; way of playing recorded music that is very clear and of good qualitysci ence fi ctionsci-fi writing in which imaginary futuredevelopments in science and their effects onlife are described sit uation com edysitcoma radio or television comedy series that involves a continuing cast of characters in a succession of episodeswordtailblend meaning of blendlunar astro naut lunarnat astronaut who explores the moonslim gym natics slimnatics exercises designed to reduce one’s weight talk mar athon talkathon prolonged public oral discussion; a long session ofdiscussion or speech-makingblood auto mobile bloodmobile an automotive vehicle staffed and equipped for collecting blood from donorscheese ham burger cheeseburger a hamburger topped with a slice of cheese workwel fareworkfarea welfare program in which recipients are required to perform usually public-service workhead word blend meaning of blendmedi cal care medicare a government program of medical care especially for the ageddocu mentdramadocudramaa drama for television, motion pictures, or theater dealing freely with historical events especially of a recent and controversial naturemo tor town Motown nickname of Detroit, Michigan, USA, an important car-manufacturing city; (of a style of) rhythm and blues characterized by a strong, even beat Eur ope AsiaEurasianame given to Asia & Europe as one continent2.More about blending1)Many blends are journalistic coinages found in newspapers and magazines, for names of newinventions, political or social events or related to daily life;2)Only a few blends get established in the language and most are short-lived novelties.II.ShorteningShortening refers to word-formation processes through which shorter words are created from existing words by deleting parts of their original full forms. Among the most commonly used word-formation processes of this type are clipping, backformation, and acronymy.1.ClippingClipping is a word-forming process involving the deletion of one or more syllables from a word, usu. a noun, which is also available in its full form, for instance, plane from aeroplane / airplane, phone from telephone, taxi from taxicab, lunch from luncheon, math from mathematics, coke from coca cola, etc.Clipping are commonly divided into four main types as follows.A.Back clippingBack clipping involves deletion at the end of the word. This is the most common type of clipping.ad (advertisement) amp (ampere / amplifier) auto (automobile)c hamp (champion) dorm (dormitory) memo (memorandum)demo (demonstration) vet(veteran) expo (exposition)doc (doctor) disco (discothèque) gas (gasoline)gym (gymnasium) taxi(taxicab) bra (brassiere)B.Front clippingThe deletion in front clipping occurs at the beginning of the word.bus (omnibus) chute (parachute) dozer (bulldozer)cab (taxicab) quake (earthquake) van (caravan)cycle (bicycle) burger (hamburger) scope (telescope)phone (telephone) plane (aeroplane) copter (helicopter)C.Front and back clippingFront and back clipping is not a common type of clipping, in which case the deletion occurs at both ends of a word.flu (influenza) fridge (refrigerator) tec (detective)asst (assistant) dept (department)D.Phrase clippingPhrase clipping involves the shortening of a phrase, usually by keeping the first part of the first word while deleting the rest of the phrase.pop (popular music) pub (public house) narc / nark (narcotics agent)zoo (zoological garden) perm (permanent wave) noncom (noncommissioned officer)mob (mobile crowd)E.More about clipping1)Clipping often alters spelling; for example, business is changed to biz, bicycle to bike,perambulator to pram, sergeant to sarge, cucumber to cuke, refrigerator to fridge, facsimile to fax, and microphone becomes mike. Some clipped forms are altered by the addition of such endings as -y, -ie, or -o, like comfy from comfortable, telly from television, hanky from handkerchief, teeny from teenager, veggies from vegetables, postie from postman, mozzie from mosquito, milko from milkman, and ammo from ammunition.2)While many of clipped words like bus, taxi, plane and disco are now fully accepted, a largenumber of other clipped forms, such as ad, dorm, sarge, combo, and tec are still regarded as informal or even slangy by some linguists. These are usually used as oral forms to suit the convenience and casualness in speech.2.Back-formationNormally words are formed by adding affixes. Less commonly the reverse happens and a word is created by removing affixes from a base. This is back-formation, a word-formation process by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from an already existing longer form in the vocabulary. It can be considered a process of shortening and the reverse process of affixation. For example, the verb burgle is back-formed from the noun burglar, and edit, from editor.Many back-formed words are created by analogy, that is, by assuming that a longer word is the derivative from a back-formed word on the analogy of known derivatives. For example, since it is a common practice to add -er, -or, -ar to verb bases to form nouns denoting the agent of an action, people therefore make verbs by dropping the endings such as -or in escalat or, and -er in loaf er. Thisis how we derive edit and loaf, by taking it for granted that the endings -or and -er in these two nouns are suffixes.The majority of back-formed words are verbs, for verbs have a peculiar property to develop around them a number of deverbal nouns. There are also a few nouns back-formed from adjectives. Back-formed words may be categorized into the following types, according to their word class and the endings deleted:1)verbs back-formed from nouns ending in -tion, -sion, -er, -or, -ar, etc.automate (from automation) swindle (from swindler) beg (from beggar)aggress (from aggression) escalate (from escalator) emote (from emotion)donate (from donation)loaf (from loafer) destruct (from destruction) resurrect (from resurrection) edit (from editor) lase (from laser)auth (from author) revise (from revision) peddle (from peddler)burgle (from burglar) sculpt(sculptor)2)verbs back-formed from nouns ending in other formscalligraph (from calligraphy) diagnose (from diagnosis)vampire)concord (from concordance) vamp(fromdarkle (from darkling) sidle (from sidling)enthuse(enthusiasm)3)verbs back-formed from noun compoundsbaby-sit (from baby-sitter) caretake (from caretaker)housekeep (from housekeeper) mass-produce (from mass-production)vacuum clean (from vacuum cleaner)eavesdrop(from eavesdropper)merrymake (from merrymaking) stage-manage (from stage-manager)typewrite(typewriter) handwrite (from handwriting)air-condition (from air-conditioning)4)verbs back-formed from adjectivescustom-make (from custom-made) custom-build (from custom-built)lazy) drowse (from drowsy)laze(fromfrivol (from frivolous)5)nouns back-formed from adjectivesgreed (from greedy) gloom (from gloomy) peeve (from peevish)coze /cose (from cozy) grue (from gruesome)3.AcromymyAcronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of these words.A.InitialismsInitialisms, also known as alphabetisms or abbreviations, are words pronounced letter by letter. In cases like A.D. (Anno Domini), B.C. (Before Christ), and C.O.D. (cash on delivery), the letters are separated by periods, but most of them have no periods between the letters. Initialisms are chiefly found in the following three types.1)Those consisting of letters representing full words, the main type.CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) IOC (International Olympic Committee)disk) VCD (video compact disk) CD(compactDVD (digital video disk) CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System)CPU (central processing unit) CNN (Cable News Network)ISBN (International Standard Book Number) DIY (do it yourself)IDD (international direct dial) RSVP (répondez s’il vouz plaît; please reply)BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) ICU (intensive care unit)GPS (global positioning system) TLC (tender loving care)POW (prisoner of war)DJ (disc jockey)2)Those consisting of letters representing elements in a compound or just part of a word.ID (identification; identity card) TB (tuberculosis)DNA (deoxyribonucleicacid ETV (educational television)BBQ(barbecue) CCTV (closed-circuit television)GHQ (General Headquarters) http (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)3)Those consisting of a letter representing the first word / first two words, plus the second or thirdword in full form.H-bomb(hydrogen bomb) U-boat (undersea boat, a German submarine)email (electronic mail) GI Jane (Government Issue Jane; woman soldier)notice)D-notice (defenceD-Day (Day Day; a day set for launching an operation)G-man (government man, a special agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation)B.AcronymsAcronyms are also formed from the initial letters of words, but they differ from initialisms inthat they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. Acronyms are mostly spelledin capital letters except when used as a common word.BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers in Europe)IELTS (International English Language Testing System)UNESCO (the United Nations Education, Science, and Culture Organization)OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)ROM (read-only memory, as in CD-ROM) WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant)SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) SAM (surface-to-air missile)DINK (double income, no kids) NILK (no income, lots of kids)midi (musical instrument digital interface) pin (personal identification number)laser (lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)z More about initialisms and acronyms1)Both initialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War andthus extremely productive. With the advance of time, some of the words may fall out of use, whereas by far a great number of them will be added. Acronymy will undoubtedly remain an important contributor to contemporary English vocabulary.2)Though some initialisms and acronyms of organizations, such as WHO, WTO, NATO, andUNESCO, are used far more frequently, even in formal writing and speech, than the names they stand for, many initialisms and acronyms are colloquial, informal and even slangy, and should be avoided in formal writing, for example, BO(b ody o dour), VIP(v ery i mportant p erson), PE (p hysical e ducation), dinky (d ouble i ncome n o k ids), nilky (n o i ncome l ots of k ids) and PDQ (p retty d amn q uick). However, there are varieties of English in which initialisms and acronyms are used quite frequently, as in the case of military, technical and journalistic writings.4.Contraction and aphetic formsContraction is also a process of shortening in which a long form is shortened with the deleted part represented by an apostrophe (’).gov’t (government) rec’d (received) can’t (cannot)won’t (will not) int’l (international) rock ‘n’ roll (rock and roll)e’en(even) e’er (ever) o’er (over)h’cap (handicap)Sometimes, there are words that may undergo a special kind of shortening characterized by the omission of the initial unstressed syllable as in ’scuse me (from excuse me) and ’cause (from because), and ’fessor (from professor), which are known as aphetic forms.III.Other minor word-formation processes1.Words from proper namesThe coinage of common words from proper names is another type of word-formation. Such words come from all sources, from names of scientists, politicians and statesmen to trade marks and place names. Some have originated from characters in literature, TV films and movies, and some also come from book titles.A.Words from the names of scientistswatt(fromAlessandroV olta)Watt) volt(fromJamesohm (from Georg Ohm) farad (from Michael Faraday)Ampere) hertz (from Heinrich Rudolf Hertz) ampere(fromAndrepasteurize (from Louis Pasteur) fahrenheit (from Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit) Richter scale (from Charles Francis Richter) diesel engine (from Rudolf Diesel)curie (from Marie Curie) mackintosh (from Charles Macintosh)B.Words from the names of politicians, statesmen and historical figuresnicotine (from Jean Nicot) John Hancock (from John Hancock)quisling (from Vidkun Quisling) McCarthyism (from J.R. McCarthy)bobby (from Sir Robert Peel) bloomer (from Amelia Bloomer)sandwich (from John Montagu Sandwich, English diplomat)boycott (from Charles Boycott, a landlord in who was ostracized for refusing to reduce rents) cabal (a clique engaged in secret plans for political action, from the initial letters of the names of five ministers C lifford, A shley, B uckingham, A rlington and L auderdale)C.Words from the names of placeshamburger (from Hamburg, Germany) china (porcelain, from China)afghan (a knitted rug from Afghanistan) jersey (sweater from Jersey Island, the US) champagne (wine, from Champagne, France) japan (a hard varnish, from Japan)rugby (ball game, from a British Rugby School)a-go-go (a nightclub for dancing to pop music, from Whisky à Gogo, Paris)D.Words from trade namesfrisbeevaselinedacron rayonorlon Tampaxnylonkodak xerox kleenexE.Words from literary works, mythology and names of booksquixotic (from Don Quixote by Cervantes) sadism (from Marquis de Sade)odyssey (from Homer’s epic poem Odyssey) cherub (from the Bible)protean (from Proteus in Greek mythology)scrooge (a miserly person, from the story A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens)Pickwickian (from the novel Pickwick Papers by Charles Dickens)robot (a humanoid mechanical creature, from the play R.U.R. by Karel Capek)babbitt (from the novel Babbitt by Sinclair Lewis)utopia (from the book Utopia by Sir Thomas More)2.ReduplicationReduplication is one other minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is createdby the repetition (1) of one word like go-go, (2) of two almost identical words with a change in the vowels, such as ping-pong, or (3) of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, as in teeny-weeny. Most of the reduplicatives are informal and are characterized by being rhymed or alliterated, such as willy-nilly, wishy-washy, dilly-dally, and shilly-shally.The following are some of the common uses of reduplicatives.A.To imitate sounds, as in tick-tick or ticktack (of a clock), rat-a-rat or rat-a-tat-tat (of knocking,tapping, or cracking sounds), bow-wow (of dogs), ha-ha (of laughter) and quack-quack (of ducks),B.To suggest alternating movements, as in seesaw, flip-flop, ping-pong, tattle-tattle, and zigzag,C.To express one’s contempt of the character, appearance or behaviour of a person, as inclever-clever, dum-dum, yo-yo, shilly-shally,dilly-dally, wishy-washy, and hocus-hocus,D.To disparage by suggesting something in disorder, of small value or of inferior quality, as infiddle-faddle, higgledy- piggledy, hurry-skurry, no-no, and topsy-turvy, orE.To show one’s approval or to emphasize, as in super-duper, tip-top, and teeny-weeny.Reduplicatives should be used with care. Used appropriately, they can be very effective, as in the following example:“Our time is running out, and we must hurry-skurry with this fiddle-faddle, because willy-nilly this feature must end even if it is topsy-turvy.”Any rule of word-formation is “of limited productivity in the sense that not all words which result from the application of the rule is acceptable; they are freely acceptable only when they have gained an institutional currency in the language.”— Randolf Quirk。

Word Formation

Word Formation(构词法)pounding(合成)blood-brother bloodsucker bloodshot blood-money2.Conversion（转化）3.Derivation(派生)由一个词根加上前缀或后缀构成另一个词。

1）前缀：大部分表示特定的意义;除en-, a-等之外，基本上是改变词义不改变词性。

dis- disagree disappear discoverdisadvantage disorder discomfort disbeliefun- unable unfair unlimited uncertain unlucky unfortunate unluckily untie unlock uncover undo unbuttonunhappiness unfairnessunchanging unexpected unpreparedim- impossible impatient imperfectin- incomplete incorrect incredible inexpensive inefficient inequality inexpressible inescapable inexpertil- illegal illegality illogic illiterateir- irregular irreligious irresponsible irreplaceablenon- non-stop non-smoker non-stick non-essential non-profit non-violent non-competitivemis- misunderstand mislead misconceptionre- rewrite reconsider rebuildreuse reappear recycle remarrymulti- multi-cultural multi-channel multi-national multi-storeytele- telephone television telescope telegramkilo- kilometer kilogramvice- vice-chairman vice-premier vice-presidentwell- well-known well-behaved well-educatedsuper- super-clever super-cheap super-friendlysupermarket superstar supergirl superman supermodelsupernaturalunder- under-developed under-financed under-equippedunderground underwear underline undersignundergraduate undersecretarytrans- transport transfer transplant translate transmit transform transformation transAmerica transatlantic transAlaskaa- asleep aboard awake awaiten- enable enrich enlargeendanger encourage enslavesemi- semi-automatic semi-circle semi-conductor semi-annualbi- bilingual biannual bicycledouble- double bed double figures double standard double-edgedtri- triangle trilingual tricolor tricycle2)后缀：改变词性，词义基本不变A) ________词后缀-teen thirteen fifteen eighteen nineteen-ty twenty thirty eighty ninety-th twelfth fifth eighteenth thirtiethB) ________词后缀-ate motivate educate investigate appreciate decorate-en widen sharpen brighten sweeten lengthen shorten-ify beautify simplify purify-ize apologize criticize modernize organize realize recognizeC) ________词后缀-ly carefully finally suddenly gradually actually frequently fluently deadly badly happily-wards westwards backwards homeward eastwardsD) ________词后缀-ful careful helpful hopeful faithful beautiful forgetful-ous famous nervous dangerous humorous generous numerous poisonous religious adventurous-able valuable comfortable acceptable eatable suitable-y sunny rainy windy dirty muddy foggy stormy thirsty sleepy healthy -ly friendly orderly costly fatherly leisurely brotherly deadly daily-al cultural national logical original natural-ical classical economical-ic realistic economic electric-ant important pleasant ignorant tolerant-ent different dependent existent consistent-ive active effective attractive expensive creative-ish foolish childish selfish-less homeless careless hopeless endless useless harmless-worthy trustworthy praiseworthy noteworthy respectworthy-en golden woolen wooden earthen-ing amusing interesting exciting convincing misleading-ed amused interested excited bearded-ible responsible sensible-ern southern western eastern northernE) ________词后缀-an American Russian Asian African-ian musician librarian physician vegetarian-ist artist scientist psychologist biologist novelist pianist socialist-er teacher worker driver writer dancer reporter former hunter waiter villager-or actor sailor visitor competitor survivor calculator operator translator -ess actress waitress hostess millionairess princess goddess-ese Chinese Japanese Vietnamese-man fireman policeman chairman superman Englishman-mate workmate schoolmate classmate roommate playmate-ion action decision collection creation decoration admission permission -ation invitation examination pronunciation-ness happiness sadness weakness bitterness illness selfishness-ure failure pleasure pressure departure adventure-ment movement employment advertisement judgment agreement development argument amusement disappointment appointment entertainment -ance attendance guidance performance assistance entrance-ence difference existence preference diligence-ship friendship leadership relationship ownership membership-work homework housework schoolwork needlework paperwork-hood childhood neighborhood motherhood-dom freedom wisdom kingdom-y modesty difficulty discovery inquiry-ty safety loyalty cruelty penalty certainty-ity equality majority personality-ibility possibility responsibility flexibility-ability stability availability capability-al arrival survival withdrawal betrayal-ology biology psychology ecology-metre millimeter centimeter kilometer-ism socialism heroism Marxism materialism。

构词法（Wordformation）

构词法（Wordformation）构词法(Word Formation)三种主要的英语构词法：合成、转化和派生，其中用得最多的是“派生”。

I. 合成 (Compounding)1. 合成名词的构词法1) n. + n.cowboy craftsman fantasyland(幻境) newspapernightfall salesman snowstorm steamboat2) adj. + n.backbone(脊椎) blackboard broadcast darkroom greenhouse shorthand(速记)wildlife3) v-ing + n.dining-room sitting-room sleeping-pills reading-room4) v. + n.playground postcard pickpocket(扒手)5) n. + v-inghandwriting sightseeing sunbathing6) v. + adv./prep.break-through get-together cut-in go-between(中介)7) adv./prep. + n.afternoon downfall income outbreak(爆发)by-product(副产品)8) 其他grown-up passer-by well-being(福利) outgoing(郊游)2. 合成形容词的构词法1) n. + v-edhandmade man-made sunburnt state-run2) n. + v-ingEnglish-speaking peace-loving3) n. + adj.snow-white world-famous worldwide duty-free(免税的)4) adj./num. + n-edcold-blooded good-tempered(脾气好的) noble-mined warm-hearted three-legged5) adj./adv. + v-ingeasy-going funny-looking outgoing(开朗的)hard-working far-reaching(深远的)6) adj./adv. + v-ednew-born ready-made newly-built well-known7) 其evergreen face-to-face worn-out up-to-date part-time full-time3. 合成动词的构词法1) adv. + v.overthrow overwork underline uphold(支持)2) adj. + n.blacklist(列黑名单) whitewash(粉刷)3) n. + v.sleep-walk(梦游) sunbathe typewriteII. 转化 (Conversion)1) v. – n. / n. – v.break v. 打破– break n. 休息taste v. 品尝– taste n. 味道sleep v. 睡觉– sleep n. 睡眠hand n. 手 -- hand v. (递)交step n. 脚步– step v. 走；踏【注意】以下的名词与动词的读音有所不同：present n. 礼物– present v. 赠送use n. 用途– use v. 使用increase n. 增加– increase v. 增加export n. 出口– export v. 出口import n. 进口– import v. 进口transport n. 运输– transport v. 运输2) adj. – v. (-- n.)clean adj. 清洁的– clean v. 打扫clear adj. 清楚的– clear v. 清除close adj. 近的；亲密的– close v. 关闭own adj. 自己的– own v. 拥有– own n. & pron. 自己(的东西) waste adj. 废弃的– waste v. 浪费– waste n. 废物3) adj. – n./adv.back adj. 后面的– back n. 后面；背部front adj. 前面的– front n. 前面；前线left adj. 左(边)的– left n. 左(边)deep adj. 深的– deep adv. 深hard adj. 硬的；艰苦的– hard adv. 努力；艰苦地III. 派生 (Derivation)1. 前缀 (Prefix)a) 表示否定的前缀1) dis- (+ v.) 不agree – disagree appear – disappearcover – discover like – dislike2) un- (+ adj./v.) 不able – unable fair – unfairlimited – unlimited known – unknowndo – undo 解开 tie – untie 解开3) in-/ im-/ il-/ ir- (+ adj./n.) 不/无active – inactive capable – incapable(无能的) correct – incorrect complete – incomplete balance – imbalance n. mature – immature(不成熟的) patient – impatient adj. possible – impossible legal – illegal logical – illogicalregular – irregular religious – irreligious(无宗教的) 4) non- (+ n./ adj.) 不/无/非smoker – non-smoker stop – non-stopviolence – non-violence violent – non-violentb) 其他1) mis- (+ v.) 错误地lead – mislead understand – misunderstandapply – misapply address – misaddress(寄错信件) 2) re- (+ v.) 重；再consider – reconsider cycle – recyclestudy – restudy use – reuseview – review write – rewrite3) en- (+ adj.) 使(能) …able – enable danger – endangerlarge – enlarge rich – enrich4) multi- (+ adj./n.) 多…cultural – multicultural channel – multichannel5) tele- (+ n.) 长途的/远程的phone – telephone scope – telescope(望远镜)vision – television communication – telecommunication(电讯) 6) kilo- (+ n.) 千的gram – kilogram meter – kilometer7) anti- (+ n.) 反/抗/防…的aircraft – antiaircraft(防空的) caner – anticancer(抗癌的)8) bi- /tri- (+n./ adj.) 双/三...的cycle – bicycle weekly – biweekly(双周的)angle – triangle athlete – triathlete(三项全能运动员)9) fore- (+ n./v.) 前的/先的head – forehead leg – forelegcast – forecast see – foresee10) pre- (+ n./v./ adj.) 预先的face – preface(前言/序) arrange – prearrangebuilt – prebuilt11) post- (+ n.) 后的war – post-war liberation – post-liberation12) inter- (+ adj./v./n.) 之间的/交互的American – inter-American national – internationalact – interact(互相作用) connect – interconnect(互相连接) 13) co- (+ v./n.) 联合/共同operate – cooperate(合作) star – co-star(联合主演)worker – co-worker14) sub- (+ n./v.) 下面的/次的/副的way – subway heading – subheading(副标题)edit – sub-edit(担任助理编辑)15) super- (+ n.) 超级的man – superman market – supermarket16) auto- (+ n.) 自动的/自己的mobile – automobile(汽车)graph – autograph(亲笔签名；手稿)2. 后缀 (Suffix)a) 加后缀变成的名词可表示人或仪器等1) -er/ -or/ -ee/ -ess (v./n. + ~)teach – teacher village – villagertranslate – translator interpret – interpreter(口译员) act – actor employ – employer – employeeact – actress wait – waitresscalculate – calculator erase –eraser2) -ese/ -an/ -ian/ -ish/ -ist/ -ant (n. + ~)China – Chinese Japan – Japanesemusic – musician library – librarianIndia – Indian America – AmericanBritain – British Spain – Spanishphysics – physicist social – socialistassist – assistant account -- accountantb) 加后缀变成的名词可表示行为、动作、性质、状态等1) -ance/ -ence/ -cy (adj. + ~) 表性质或状态important – importance independent – independence agent – agency2) -ment/ -tion/ -ation/ -sion (v. + ~) 表示行为或动作move – movement act – actiondecide – decision conclude – conclusioneducate – education pronounce – pronunciation3) -ness/ -ship (adj./n. + ~) 表示性质、状态、关系或身份sad – sadness sick – sicknesshard – hardship friend – friendshipcitizen – citizenship4) -ty/ -ety/ -ity (adj. + ~) 表示性质或状态safe – safety anxious – anxietyable -- ability responsible – responsibilitycurious – curiosity various – variety5) -ism (adj. + ~)主义social – socialism material – materialism(唯物主义) 6) -ing (v. + ~) 表示行为或动作act – acting feel – feeling build – building7) -dom/ -th (adj./n. + ~)表示性质或状态free – freedom wise – wisdom king – kingdomdead – death true – truth warm – warmth8) -hood/-hold (n. + ~) 表示时期、身份或关系boy – boyhood girl – girlhood child -- childhood brother – brotherhood mother – motherhood house – household(一家人；家族)9) -ful (n. + ~) 满满一…hand – handful(一把) house – houseful(满屋)mouth – mouthful plate – plateful(满盘)c) 构成形容词的后缀有1) -able/ -ible (v./n. + ~) 可以accept – acceptable respect – respectable response – responsible(负责的；可依靠的)2) -al/ -ful (n./v. + ~) 有…(性质)的/culture – cultural nation – nationalcare – careful forget – forgetful3) -less (n. + ~) 无care – careless hope – hopeless use – useless4) -ish (n. + ~) 有…(性质)的/像…的child – childish fool – foolish woman – womanish5) –ive/ -ous (n./v. + ~) 有…(性质)的act – active create – creative effect – effective(有效的) fame – famous humour – humorous6) -en/ -ent/ -y/ -ly (n./v./adj. + ~) …做的/能…的/是…的gold – golden wood – woodendepend – dependent patience – patientsalt – salty thirst – thirstyfriend – friendly lone – lonelyday – daily month – monthlyd) 构成动词的后缀有1) -fy/ -ify/ -ize/ -ise (adj./n. + ~) 使…化beauty – beautify simple – simplify apology – apologize memory – memorize real – realize modern – modernize 2) -en (adj./n. + ~) 使… 变为deep – deepen length – lengthenshort – shorten strength – strengthene) 构成副词的后缀有1) -ly (adj. + ~) … 地bad – badly lucky – luckily sweet – sweetlygentle – gently loud – loudly weak – weakly2) -ward(s) (n./prep./adv. + ~) 朝/向…back – backward(s) for – forward(s)down – downward(s) south – southward(s)。

构词法(Word Formation)_英语语法学习

C．合成词（Compound Words）
定义：由两个或两个以上独立且语义不相同的词结合成一个表达新的语义和语词功能的词称为合成词。
class（班级）+room（房间）→classroom（教室）
black（黑色的）+board（木板）→blackboard（黑板）
3．合成词（Compound Words）
A．词根（Root）
定义：英文词形成的“根基”部分称为词根（亦称字根）。
现以“like”为例列示如下：
Root
like................................................... 像
（刚经过的那位女士是我们的英语老师。）
解说：上面各例都是句子。例A是表示我们生活中周边的静态事物，例B是表达事物的动态现象，例C所表达的是两者都有。
那么句子是由什么来组成的呢？由上面各例可以了解句子的组成要素如下：
由上面的解说我们可以了解：
定义：词、短语、从句等称为句子组成的要素（Element）。
friend-ly.......................................... 友善的
friend-less................................................................. 友谊
此时重读音节原则上都是落在词根，例如“a-like，like-ness，un-like-ness”。
B．派生词（Derivative）
定义：由词根利用前缀或后缀派生而成的词称为派生词（亦称转成语）。现以“friend”为例列示如下：
前缀词根后缀

现代英语词汇学4 word-formation讲解

15
Give clippings for the following words
influenza business parachute refrigerator taxicab
flu biz chute fridge taxi or cab
English Lexicology(II)
ammo conchy telly Aussie rookie trig ump vet
English Lexicology(II)
21
2.2.3 Front Clipping
bus (= omnibus) / bo (= hobo) / chute (=parachute) / coon (=raccoon) / copter (= helicopter) / dozer (=bulldozer) / mum (=chrysanthemum) / phone (= telephone) / quake (=earthquake) 1.2.4 front and back clippings flu (= influenza) / fridge (=refrigerator) / tec (=detective) / scrip (=subscription)/ vic (=convict)
hippo info lab lav math mec
English Lexicology(II)
20
Give clippings for the following words
ammunition conscious objector television Australian recruit trigonometry umpire veterinarian

Word-Formation 词汇学论文构词法-

Word-Formation 词汇学论文构词法- Word-FormationAbstract : A further way besides borrowing in which the vocabulary of English has expanded to accommodate to the natural and social world in which it is used has been to employ means internal to the language itself for devising new word. This is the area of word-formation. Morphological productivity can be defined as the property of a given word formation process to be used to derive a new word in a systematic fashion. Most linguists divide the word-formation into major word-formation and minor word-formation .The major word-formational processes are :- Affixation- Compounding- ConversionThe minor word-formational processes are :- Abbreviation- Back formation- OnomatopoeiaKey Word : affixation, derivative, compounding, abbreviation, onomatopoeia1 AffixationAffixation, also called derivation, is a process in which a free morph is combined with a bound morph, a prefix, or a suffix. It isgenerally defined as the formation of words by adding derivationalaffixes to different types of bases . There are two types of derivative . One bases on free root with affix or bound root , the other bases on bound with affix or other bound root .1.1 Types of affixes- prefixes- suffixes- infixesModern English has a number of highly productive affixes. For example, the prefix over can be added to verbs which express activities to indicate that too much has taken place, i.e. something has been overdone, cf. overcook, overcoat, overstay.Likewise, the suffix –ness can be added to an adjective make a noun designating the quality express by the adjective, its nouniness, so to speak.1.2 Two types of derivative’s structure1.2.1 Free root + affix/bound root1) prefix + free roote.g.: Indefinite (a. uncertain), unforgettable (a. memorable) ,minibus (coach)2) free + suffixe.g. : wealthy (a. rich) , successful (a, achieving aims) ,extremely(adv, to a very high de.g.ree) , comfortably (adv. in a comfortableway)3) prefix +free root + suffixe.g. : enrichment (a. sb/sth being rich or richer) , international (a.connected with two or more countries) , unchangeable (a. that can notbe changed)4) combining form + free roote.g. Afro-American , Afro-Asian , techno-chemistry , microwave1.2.2 Bound root + affix/bound root1) prefix + bound root (without formation)e.g. contradict (v. to say sb has said is wrong) , descend (v. go down) ,despair (v. give up all hope)2) bound root (without formation)+ suffixe.g. confidence (n. trust in) , liberate (v. emancipation) , linguist (n. aperson who knows several foreign languages well)3) prefix + bound root (without formation)e.g. distinctive (a. special ) , intolerable (a. can’t bear) , contradiction(n. a lack of agreement between facts)24) combining form + combining forme.g. macrobiosis (n. long life) , microscope (n. an instrument used inscientific study for making very small thing look larger) 2 CompoundingComposition or compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, that is, a compound. Compounding is perhaps the most common way of expanding the vocabulary of English. It allows users to combine two familiar words to form a new lexeme.Very often compounds are written as two words, which means that they are accepted into dictionaries a little reluctantly. Certainly, dictionaries seem not to list compounds in anything like the numbers in which they are in use. This may be justified perhaps because compounds are frequently transparent and their meanings are relatively accessible without a dictionary. Furthermore, many of them do not become lexicalized, but have a very transitory life.According to the words’ characteristic, there are compound nouns, compound adjectives , compound pronouns , compound verbs , compound adverbs , etc . 2.1 Compound Nounsn. + n.: bar code , mouse mat , Websitea. + n.: blueprint , compact discadv. + n.: off chance , overdose , underclothes-ing + n.: learning strate.g.y , marketing campaign , parking meter n. + v.: daybreak , earthquake , parking meteradv + n : downfall , income , offset , output , upliftv. + adv.: get-together , handout , makeupn. + -ing: air-conditioning , brainstorming , family planningprep.+n.: afternoon , by-product , overcoat2.2 Compound AdjectivesAs adjective is a core : airsick , band-new ; dark-blue , icy-cold ;3all-mighty , evergreen , overripeAs noun is a core : blue-collar , present-day ; breaknecl , cross-country ;chicken-hearted , dog-eared , wine-coloredAs –ing or –ed is a core : energy-saving , epoch-marking ; easy-going ,far-reaching ; mass-produced , poverty-stricken ; absent-minded , half-done , newly-built2.3 Compound Verbs1) Formed by back-formation : house-keep from housekeeperwindowshop from window-shoppinghenpeck from henpecked2) Formed by conversion : to blue-printto cold-shoulderto honeymoon3) adv. + v. : cross-questionoffsetoverthrow3 ConversionConversion is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation. In other words, conversion or zero derivation is a type word class change without the addition, removal ,or change of any element in the word. In this process a noun maybe used as a verb or a verb can be used as a noun. Furthermore, a noun can be used attributively as an adjective. The most frequent type of conversion is from noun to verb, probably because there are so relatively few verbalizing affixes in English. 3.1 n.? v.1) to put in/on, such as, bottle(n.)?to bottle(=to put …into a bottle)2) to give, to provide with, such as, butter(n.) ?to butter(=to spread butteron)3) to deprive of, such as, skin(n.) ?to skin(=to remove the skin from)44) to…with, such as, hammer(n.) ?to hammer(=to strike with a hammer)5) to be/act as …with respect to, such as, ape(n) ?to ape(=toimitate like aape)6) to make/change…into, such as, fool(n.) ?to fool(=to make a fool of)7) to send…/go by, such as, bicyc le(n.) ?to bicycle(=to go by bicycle)3.2 adj.? v.bare(adj.) ?to bare, calm(adj.) ?to clam, brave(adj.) ?to brave3.3 v.? n.Verb converting into noun express the verb’s original action or conditionmostly, such as, attempt, look, swim, smile, walk, etc.3.4 adj.? n.Most adjective can be used as noun, such as, an American, an Canadian,etc. There are three type of conversion, full conversion, partial conversionand special conversion.3.5 n.? adj.a brick garage (The garage is brick.)a cotton dress (The dress is cotton.)a gold watch, an iron box, the job market4 ShorteningAbbreviation or shortening is the way of shortening or simplifying syllables to make new words. There are various forms of abbreviation, but main forms are four: clipped word, initialism, acronym, blend.4.1 ClippingsSpeakers of English have a great tendency to shorten words. This term refers to the process by which a word of two or more syllables is shortened without a change in its function taking place. It includes apocope, aphaeresis, front and back clipping, and syncope.1) Apocopeapprox.? approximately, auto? automobile52) Aphaeresisburger? hamburger, bus? omnibus3) Front and back clippingsThe shortening may occur at the start and the end of the word. e.g., flu(=influenza) / fridge(=refrigerator) / tec(=detective)4) Syncopefluidics? fluidonics, fossilation? fossilizationContractions which is the clipping word with punctuation also can be regarded as this type.4.2 Initialisms and AcronymsInitialisms are words from the initial letters of words which are pronounced as sequences of letters e.g., EEC. Acronyms are also formed from the initial letters of words, but are pronounced as a word, e.g. radar(radio detecting and ranging). Acronyms have always been an integral part of computer culture, and they have since spawned a new language on the Internet. Commonly thought of as a series of lettersthat make up a “word” there is a distinction between acronyms and shorthand.4.3 BlendsBlends are words formed by combining the first element of the first word and the last element of the second word. Blends are created originally for comic effect. Following are some examples: Chunnel(=channel + tunnel) / brunch(=breakfast + lunch) /motel(=motorist+hotel)5 Back-formationBack-formation is the process of word-building by which elements are subtracted from a complex word.e.g. beggar---beg burglar---burgleThe majority of backformed words are verbs. There are two types of syntactic relation in verb compounds formed by backformation:1) Object + verb as sightsee (from sight-seeing) meaning somebody sees6sights. Similar examples are: globe-trot(from globe-trotter orglobe-trotting).2) Adverbial + verb, as spring-clean (from spring-cleaning) meaningsomebody cleans in the spring.Back-formations of all kinds are more frequently found in informal than in formal language.6 OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is a word-formation which imitate the sound. Imitative words are words formed by imitation of sound. Imitative words divide into primary onomatopoeia and secondary onomatopoeia.The barking of a dog.The crack of a whip.The roll of thunder.The tinkling of bells.There are three types of words formed by imitation of sound:1) The repetition of words: quack; ticktack2) The repetition of words with a vowel change: clitter-clatter; ping-pong;tick-tack.3) Repeating one or more syllables with a consonant change : rub-a-dubt;ran-danReference: Wang Rongpei, Wang Zhijiang, An Advanced Reader of EnglishLexicology, Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006汪榕培，王之江，《英语词汇学》，上海外语教育出版社，20087。

英语语言学课件Chapter 7 Words and Word-formation Processes

• Alcohol (Arabic), boss (Dutch), croissant (French), lilac (Persian), piano (Italian), pretzel (German), robot (Czech), tycoon (Japanese), yogurt (Turkish), zebra (Bantu)
Derivation
• The most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words.
• By means of a large number of small ‘bits’ of the English language: affixes
Words and Word-formation Processes
• Spangler – spanglering – spanglered – spanglerish – spanglerism
• Hoovering (not spanglering) in Britain today
• Can quickly understand a new word in our language (a neologism) and accept the use of different forms of that new word.
Blending
• The combining of two separate forms to produce a single new term
• Gasohol: gasoline + alcohol • Smog: smoke + fog • Smaze: smoke + haze • Bit: binary + digit • Sitcom: situation + comedy • Simulcast: simultaneous + broadcast

构词法 Word Formation

构词法Word Formation1.合成Compounding由两个或两个以上的词结合成一个新词的方法。

1）合成名词：①n.+n. fisherman, homework②adj.+n. nobleman (贵族), shorthand③ing分词+n. reading-room, dining-room④v.+n. pick-pocket(扒手), break-water(防波堤)2）合成形容词：①adj.+n.+ed分词cold-blooded, good-tempered②adj.+ing分词funny-looking, ordinary-looking③n.+ed分词man-made, machine-made3）合成动词：①adv.+v. overcome, oversleep②n.+v. ears drop (偷听), sleep-walk(夜游)③adj.+v. white-wash(刷白，粉刷)，blacklist(黑名单)2.转化Conversion一个词由一种词类（parts of speech）转化为另一种词类，而不发生词形的变化的构词法。

①n.→v.a. 拼法相同，汉语意思相同：study (n.) study (v.)work (n.) work (v.)b. 拼法相同，汉语意思有所不同：cook (n.) cook (v.)water (n.) water (v.)②adj.→v. empty (adj.) empty (v.)free (adj.) free (v.)③adj.→n. native (adj.) native (n.)right (adj.) native (n.)④v.→n. record (v.) record (n.)conduct (v.) conduct (n.)use(v.) use (n.)excuse (v.) excuse (n.)advise (v.) advice (n.)believe (v.) belief (n.)3.派生Derivation在词根上加前缀或后缀构成新词。

(词汇学)Word_Formation

Ⅰ. Word Formation
There are three major processes of word formation: derivation, compounding and conversion.
<Ⅰ>. Derivation: 〔派生
Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.
<2> vt﹢object:
pickpocket, reading-material,haircut,letter-writing,
chopstick, pastime, <3> Subject﹢object:
gas-light〔汽灯："gas produces light," sugar-cane〔甘蔗："cane produces sugar,"
7. "time and order"prefixes <fore-, pre-, post-, ex-, > eg: forecast <v,n> 预报, foresee <v> 预见, forehead <n> 前额 preview <v> 预习, pre-read <v> 预先阅读, prepay <v> 预付, postwar <adj> 战后的, postgraduate <n> 研究生, postscript <n> 附言, ex-president <n> 前任总统, ex-monitor <n> 前任班长, ex-wife <n> 前妻,

words formation—构词法

waitress
-ician
加在以-ic结尾 physician,
表示
...(专)家，的名词或形容 politician
词上
musician
人 -ist 从事...职业加在名词上， artist,
的人，从事或 –ize 结尾的 socialist
某种...文艺、动词上，或以-
学术的人 al结尾的其它
Word-formation 构词法
构 Derivation派生法词 Compound 合成法
法 Conversion 转化法
知
简略词
识
合成词
缩略词
掌握基本的构词法知识，对于正确地识记单词，扩大词汇量，提高记忆速度和记忆效果，培养自学能力，具有非常重要的意义。
派生法 Derivation
progress, proceed,
18) sub-, suc-, suf-, sug-, sum-, sup-, sur-, sus-, 表示“在下面，下”
subway, submarine, suffix, suppress,
supplement
19) super-, sur-, 表示“在…..之上” superficial, surface,
性质
形容词上
-ance 表示动作或性质
加在动词上
-th 表示动作、度量、性由形容词及
质、状态
少数动词构
成
-dom 表示地位、领域、集加在名词及
体、状态、性质
少数形容词
上
抽 -age
storage, package, orphanage, marriage, luggage, postage

Word Formation：词汇构成详解

Word Formation：词汇构成详解Word formation is the process of constructing words from their constituent parts. It involves both the creation and alteration of existing words, which are known as morphological operations. Word formation includes the use of prefixes, suffixes, infixes, compounding, reduplication and more.Prefixes are word elements added to the beginning of a word that modify its meaning. They come from other languages, such as Latin and Greek, and have been adapted into English. Examples of common prefixes include “un-” (not), “dis-” (opposite or reverse), and “re-” (again).Suffixes are word elements added to the end of a word that modify its meaning. Examples of common suffixes in English include "-ing" (present participle), "-ed" (past tense), and "-ize" (to make).Infixes are word elements that are added within a word, usually to modify its meaning. In English, there are few true infixes; most examples are truncated versions of words, such as the informal past tense form "-ed" ("I walk-ed").Compounding is the process of combining two or more words to create a new, single word. Examples of compound words in English include "sunflower," "sunlight," and "sunshine." Reduplication is a type of word formation that involves either repeating part or all of a word. Reduplication can be used to convey emphasis or to add a humorous effect. Examples of reduplication in English include "pitter-patter" and "fancy-shmancy."Blending is another type of word formation in which two words are combined to create a new one. Commonly used blends include "chillax" (chill+relax) and "bromance" (brother+romance).Clipping is a type of word formation in which part of a word is removed. This is done to create a shorter version of the word, often for convenience or to reduce ambiguity. Examples of clipped words used in English include "fridge" (refrigerator) and "fax" (facsimile).Back-formation is a process of word formation in which a “new” word is created by removing a suffix from an existing word. Often the resulting word has a different meaning than the original. Examples of back-formation in English include "edit" (from editor) and "burgle" (from burglar).Conversion is a type of word formation in which a word changes its part of speech without any changes to its spelling or pronunciation. It involves taking a verb or noun and turning it into an adjective or adverb. Examples of conversion in English include "careless" (from "to care"), "homely" (from "home"), and "slowly" (from "slow").Word formation is an important part of language, as it allows us to expand our vocabulary and communicate more effectively. By understanding the various processes involved in word formation, we can communicate more accurately and clearly.。

Word Formation 英语词缀总结

Word Formation: Adj. suffixes
(n.+) -ous: full of, having …
e.g. dangerous: full of danger victorious: having victory (1)It is such a voluminous report that I am tired of reading it. (2)She welcomed her guests in a gracious manner. (3)Their dining room is very spacious.
(v.) + -ible / -able: capable of being (n.) + -ible / -able: causing
e.g. reliable: capable of being relied readable: capable of being read pleasurable: causing pleasure comfortable: causing comfort (1)Heat is convertible into electricity. (2)Your dress is absolutely adorable. (3)This essay is admirable in all respects.
Word Formation: n. suf.

–tion, -ation, -ition, -sion: (v. + ~ = n.) state / condition of …
(1)What she said was a useful simplification of the theory. (2) The exclusion of women from the temple made them feel sad. (3)She complained about the omission of her name from the list. (4)It's annoying to have to get authorization for spending such piddling amounts of money.

英语语言学课件Chapter 7 Words and Word-formation Processes

Acronyms
• Formed from the initial letters of a set of other words.
• MADD (mothers against drunk driving) • WAR (women against rape) • PIN (personal identification number) • ABS (anti-block system)
Derivation
• The most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words.
• By means of a large number of small ‘bits’ of the English language: affixes
Blending
• The combining of two separate forms to produce a single new term
• Gasohol: gasoline + alcohol • Smog: smoke + fog • Smaze: smoke + haze • Bit: binary + digit • Sitcom: situation + comedy • Simulcast: simultaneous + broadcast
• Other languages borrow from Eng as well • Loan translation (calque): there is a direct translation of
the elements of word into the borrowing language • Boyfriend – boyifurendo – nan pengyou (calque) loan

英语语言学Chapter 7 Words and Word-formation Processes(

.
Conversion
• A change in the function of a word; also called category change or functional shift
• Converted forms shift substantially in meaning when they change category. To doctor, total your car, give you a runaround, etc.
barbaric misuses of L • 19th Century cries over Handbook/aviation • Constant evolution of new terms and new uses
of old terms: a reassuring sign of vitality and creativeness of L
.
Derivation
• The most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words.
• By means of a large number of small ‘bits’ of the English language: affixes
• Examples on P67 • Hypocorisms: a longer word is reduced to
a single syllable , then, -y or –ie is added to the end. Eg: movie evision), etc.
.
Words and Word-formation Processes

Word Formation词的形成(增词法部分)

The adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems.
曲折变化指通过附加曲折词缀来表现语法关系。附加词缀并不会改变被附加词的语法类。(P61-62)

Number（数）: table/ tables apple/ apples Person, finiteness and
maneating (N + V-ing)
d) Preposition compounds (介词复合词)
In + to
into
Compounds are written in different ways.
1.Some appear as a single word. (seashore) 2.Some others are joined with a hyphen “-”. (traffic-light) 3.Some others can be written with ordinary spaces between the two parts. (washing machine) The right member serves as the head.
a)
Word class changed（P62）
N V: length + en un + horse lengthen unhorse
N
Adj :
fool + ish foolish speech + less speechless
b) Word class unchanged (P63)
N N:
non + smoker ex + president V V: dis + obey disobey nonsmoker expresident

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