外文文献翻译
知识产权论文中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献1外文参考文献译文the well-known trademarks and dilute anti-diluted First, well-known trademarks SummaryWell-known trademarks is a long-term use, in the market enjoy a high reputation, known for the relevant public and by certain procedures that the trademark. Since the "Paris Convention" was first introduced the concept of well-known trademarks, the well-known trademarks for special protection legislation has become the world trend.Paris Convention stipulates: all of the members were identified as the well-known trade marks, or registered First, the first to ban others, and the other is to prohibit the use of others with identical or similar logo. Trips further provides: 1, the Paris Convention for the special protection and extension of the services of well-known trademarks, 2, the scope of protection does not extend to prohibit similar goods or services with the well-known trademarks for use on the same or similar logo, 3, on how to That a well-known trademarks in principle a simple requirement.National legislation on the practice, the well-known trade marks that standards vary, often based on specific trade mark promotion of public awareness of related areas, logo merchandise sales and the scope of national interests, and other factors identified. From an international treaty to protect the well-known trademarks mind, that well-known trade marks and protection of well-known trade marks are closely linked.Second, the well-known trademarks protected modeOn the protection of the main trademarks of relative and absolute protectionism two models.The former refers to ban others with well-known trademarks identical or similar trademark with the trademark owner the same or similar industries in the registration or use of similar goods in non-use of the same or similar trademarks is permitted, "the Paris Convention "That is, relative to protectionism.While the latter refers to ban others in any industry, including the well-known trade mark goods with different or similar to those in the industry to register with the well-known trade marks and the use of the same or similar trademarks, TRIPS agreement that is taken by the expansion of the absolute protectionism.In simple economic form, as specified by the trade mark goods at a single, specific trade mark goods and the link between more closely. With, a valuable well-known trademarks have been more and more use of different types of commodities, which are among the types of goods on the property may be totally different, in a trademark associated with the commodity groups and the relative weakening of trade marks Commodity producers and the relative isolation. Not well-known trademarks such as cross-category protection and allow others to register, even if the goods obvious differences, the public will still be in the new goods and reputable well-known trademarks to establish a link between people that the goods may be well-known trademark, the new commodities , Or the well-known trademarks of goods and people between the existence of a legal, organizational or business association, thus leading to the misuse of consumers purchase. The rapid development of the commodity today, the relative protectionism has not improved the protection of the public and well-known trademark owner's interests.In view of this, in order to effectively prevent the reputation of well-known trademarks, and the identification of significant features and advertising value by the improper use of the damage, many countries on the implementation of a well-known trademarks is protectionism, which prohibits the use of any products on the same or with the well-known trademarks Similar to the trademark.TRIPS Agreement Article 16, paragraph 3 states: Paris Convention 1967 text, in principle, applicable to the well-known trademarks and logos of the commodities or services are not similar goods or services, if not similar goods or services on the use of the trademark will be Suggest that the goods or services with the well-known trademarks on a link exists, so that the interests of all well-known trademarks may be impaired.Third, the well-known trademarks dilutedThe protection of trademark rights, there are mainly two: one for the confusion theory, a theory for desalination.The main traditional trademark protection for trade marks the difference between functional design, and its theoretical basis for the theory of confusion. In summary, which is to ensure that the trademark can be identification, confirmation and different goods or services different from the significant features, to avoid confusion, deception and E Wu, the law gives first use of a person or persons registered with exclusive rights, which prohibits any Without the permission of the rights to use may cause confusion among consumers in the same or similar trademarks. Clearly, the traditional concept of trademark protection, to stop "the possibility of confusion" is the core of trademark protection.With the socio-economic development and commercialization of the continuous improvement of the degree, well-known trademarks by the enormous implication for the growing commercial value have attracted the attention of people. Compared with ordinary marks, bearing well-known trademarks by the significance and meaning beyond the trademark rights to the general, and further symbol of product quality and credit, contains a more valuable business assets - goodwill. Well-known trade mark rights of people to use its excellent reputation of leading the way in the purchasing power, instead of the use of trademarks to distinguish between different products and producers.When the mark beyond the role of this feature to avoid confusion, then, this factor is obviously confused and can not cover everything, and other factors become as important as or more important. Thus, in theory confusion on the basis of further development of desalination theory.Trademark Dilution (dilution), also known as trademark dilution, is one of trademark infringement theory. "Watered down", according to the U.S. "anti-federal trademark law dilute" means "regardless of well-known trade mark rights and theothers between the existence of competition, or existence of confusion, misunderstanding or the possibility of deception, reduce and weaken the well-known trademarks Its goods or services and the identification of significant capacity of the act. " In China, some scholars believe that "refers to dilute or weaken gradually weakened consumer or the public will be trademarks of the commercial sources with a specific link between the ability." Trademark faded and that the main theory is that many market operators have Using well-known trademarks of the desire of others, engage in well-known trademarks should be to prevent others from using its own unique identification of special protection.1927, Frank • Si Kaite in the "Harvard Law reviews" wrote the first trademark dilute theory. He believes that people should not only be trademarks of others prohibit the use of the mark, he will compete in the commodity, and should prohibit the use of non-competitive goods on. He pointed out: the real role of trade marks, not distinguish between goods operators, but satisfied with the degree of difference between different commodities, so as to promote the continuous consumer purchase. From the basic function of trademarks, trade mark used in non-competitive goods, their satisfaction with regard to the distinction between the role of different commodities will be weakened and watered down. Trademarks of the more significant or unique, to the public the impression that the more deeply, that is, should be restricted to non-compete others in the use of goods or services.Since then, the Intellectual Property Rights Branch of the American Bar Association Chairman Thomas • E • Si Kaite Smith on the theory made a fu rther elaboration and development. He said: "If the courts allow or laissez-faire 'Rolls Royce' restaurants, 'Rolls-Royce' cafeteria, 'Rolls-Royce' pants, 'Rolls-Royce' the candy, then not 10 years, ' Rolls-Royce 'trademark owners will no longer have the world well-known trademarks. "Si Kaite in accordance with the theory of well-known trade marks have faded because of the effect of non-rights holders with well-known trademarks in the public mind the good image of well-known trademarks will be used in non-competitivegoods, so as to gradually weaken or reduce the value of well-known trademarks, That is, by the well-known trademarks have credibility. Trademark tag is more significant or unique characteristics, which in the public mind the impression that the more deep, more is the need for increased protection, to prevent the well-known trade marks and their specific goods was the link between the weakening or disappearance.In practice, trademarks diluted share a wide range of operating methods, such as:A well-known trademarks of others will still use as a trademark, not only in the use of the same, similar to the goods or services. For example, household appliances, "Siemens" trademark as its own production of the furniture's trademark.2. To other people's well-known trademarks as their corporate name of the component. Such as "Haier" trademark for the name of his restaurant.3. To the well-known trademarks of others as the use of domain names. For example, watches trademark "OMEGA" registered the domain name for themselves ().4. To the well-known trademarks of others as a commodity and decorating use.5. Will be others as well-known trade marks of goods or services using the common name. For example, "Kodak" interpreted as "film, is a camera with photographic material", or "film, also known as Kodak,……" This interpretation is also the mark of the water down. If the "Kodak" ignored the trademark owner, after a period of time, people will Kodak film is, the film is Kodak. In this way, the Kodak film-related goods has become the common name, it as a trademark by a significant, identifiable on limbo. The public well-known Jeep (Jeep), aspirin (Aspirin), freon (Freon), and so was the registration of foreign goods are due to improper use and management and the protection of poor, evolved into similar products common name, Thus lost its trademark logo features.U.S. "anti-diluted Federal trademark law" before the implementation of the Federal Court of Appeal through the second from 1994 to 1996 case, identified thefollowing violations including the Trademark Dilution: (1) vague, non-means as others in similar goods not on Authorized the use of a trademark so that the sales of goods and reduce the value of trademarks or weakened (2) pale, that is because of violations related to the quality, or negative, to demonize the acts described a trademark goods may be caused to others The negative effects of the situation, (3) to belittle, or improperly changed, or derogatory way to describe a trade mark case.The majority of our scholars believe that the well-known trademarks diluted There are two main forms: watered down and defaced. The so-called dilute the people will have no right to use the same or similar trademark with the well-known trademarks used in different types of commodities, thus making the mark with the goods weakened ties between the specific acts the so-called defaced is that people will have no right to use the same Or similar marks for the well-known trade marks will have to belittle good reputation, tarnished the role of different types of goods on the act.Some scholars believe that the desalination also refers to the three aspects of well-known trademarks damage. First, in a certain way to demonize the relevant well-known trademarks; Second, some way related to well-known trademark dark; Third is the indirect way so that consumers will distort trade mark goods for the general misunderstanding of the name.In general, can be diluted in the form summarized as follows:1, weakeningWeakening is a typical diluted form, also known as dark, is that others will have some visibility in the use of a trademark is not the same, similar to the goods or services, thereby weakening the mark with its original logo of goods or services The link between, weakening the mark was a significant and identifiable, thus bearing the trade mark by the damage caused by acts of goodwill. Weakening the mark of recognition of the significant damage is serious, it can be the recognition of trademark dilution, was significant, or even make it completely disappeared, then to the mark bycarrying the reputation of devastating combat.First, the weakening of the identification is the weakening and lower. Any unauthorized person, others will have some visibility in the use of a trademark is not the same, similar to the goods or services, will reduce its recognition of. But consumers were referred to the mark, it may no longer think of first is the original goods or services, not only is the original or goods or services, consumers simply will not even think of goods or services, but the Trademark Dilution of goods Or services. There is no doubt that this marks the recognition of, is a heavy blow.Weakening of the mark is significantly weakened and the lower. Mark is significantly different from other commercial trademark marked characteristics. A certain well-known trademarks, which in itself should be a very significant, very significant and can be quickly and other signs of its own separate. However, the Trademark Dilution of the same or similar trademarks used in different goods or services, so that was the trademark and other commercial marked difference in greatly reduced, to the detriment of its significant.Of course, regardless of the weakening of the mark was a significant or identifiable, are the ultimate impact of the mark by the bearer of goodwill. Because the trade mark is the carrier of goodwill, the mark of any major damage, the final performance for all bearing the trade mark by the goodwill of the damage.2, tarnishedMeans others will have some well-known trademarks in the use of the good reputation of the trademark will have to belittle, defaced role of the goods or services on the act. Contaminate the trademarks of others, is a distortion of trade marks to others, the use of the damage, not only reduced the value of the mark, even on such values were defaced. As tarnished reputation is a trademark of damage, so tarnished included in the diluted acts, is also relatively accepted view. Moreover, in the field of trademark faded, tarnished than the weakening of the danger of even greater acts, the consequences are more serious.3, degradationDegradation is due to improper use of trademarks, trade mark goods for the evolution of the common name recognition and loss of function. Trademark Dilution degradation is the most serious kind. Degradation of the event, will completely lose their identification marks, no longer has the distinction function as the common name of the commodity.Fourth, protection against diluteBased on the well-known trademarks dilute the understanding, and accompanied by a serious weakening of well-known trademarks, all countries are gradually legislation to provide for the well-known trademarks to protect anti-diluted. There are specific models:1, the development of special anti-dilute the protection of well-known trademarksThe United States is taking this protection on behalf of the typical pattern.1995, in order to prevent lower dilute "the only representative of the public eye, the unique image of the trademark" to protect "the trademark value of advertising," the U.S. Congress passed the National reunification of the "anti-federal trademark law watered down", so as to the well-known trademarks All provide the unified and effective national anti-dilute the protection.U.S. anti-diluted in trademark protection has been added a new basis for litigation, which is different from the traditional basis of trademark infringement litigation. Trademark infringement of the criteria is confusing, the possibility of deception and misleading, and the Trademark Dilution criteria is unauthorized to others well-known trademarks of the public to reduce the use of the trademark instructions for goods and services only and in particular of Feelings. It is clear that the U.S. law is anti-diluted basis, "business reputation damage" and the possibility of well-known trade mark was a significant weakening of the possibility of providingrelief. Moreover, anti-faded law does not require the application of competitive relations or the existence of possible confusion, which is more conducive to the exercise of trademark right to appeal.2, through the Anti-Unfair Competition Law ProtectionSome countries apply anti-unfair competition law to protect famous trademarks from being watered down. Such as Greece, "Anti-Unfair Competition Law," the first one: "Prohibition of the Use of well-known trademarks in order to take advantage of different commodities on the well-known trademarks dilute its credibility was significant." Although some countries in the Anti-Unfair Competition Law does not explicitly prohibits trademark faded, but the Trademark Dilution proceedings, the application of unfair competition litigation.3, through or under well-known trademark protection within the scope of trademark protectionMost civil law countries is this way. 1991, "the French Intellectual Property Code," Di Qijuan trademark law section L.713-5 of the provisions that: not in similar goods or services on the use of well-known trade marks to the trademark owner or a loss caused by the improper use of trademarks , Against people should bear civil liability.Germany in 1995, "the protection of trademarks and other signs of" Article 14 also stipulates that: without the consent of the trademark rights of third parties should be banned in commercial activities, in and protected by the use of the trademark does not like similar goods or services , And the use of the trademark identical or similar to any signs.4, in the judicial precedents in the application of anti-dilute the protection ofIn some countries there are no clear legislative provisions of the anti-dilute well-known trademarks, but in judicial practice, they are generally applicable civil law on compensation for the infringement of the debt to protect the interests of allwell-known trademarks, through judicial precedents to dilute the protection of applicable anti.China's well-known trademarks in the protection of the law did not "water down" the reference, but on the substance of the relevant legal provisions, protection of anti-diluted. 2001 "Trademark Law" amendment to increase the protection of well-known trademarks, in particular, it is important to the well-known trademarks have been registered to conduct cross-category protection. Article 13 stipulates: "The meeting is not the same as or similar to the trademark application for registration of goods is copied, Mofang, translation others have been registered in the well-known trademarks, misleading the public, the standard of the well-known trade mark registration may be the interests of the damage, no registration And can not be used. "But needs to be pointed out that this provision does not mean that China's laws for the well-known trademarks has provided an effective anti-dilute the protection. "Trademark Law" will prohibit only well-known trademarks and trademarks of the same or similar use, without the same or similar goods not on the behavior, but the well-known trade marks have faded in various forms, such as the well-known trademarks for names, domain names, such acts Detract from the same well-known trademarks destroyed the logo of the ability to make well-known trade mark registration of the interests of damage, this is not a legal norms.It must be pointed out that the trade mark that should be paying attention to downplay acts of the following:1, downplay acts are specifically for the well-known registered trade marks.Perpetrators diluted one of the main purpose is the free-rider, using the credibility of well-known trademarks to sell their products, and general use of trademarks do not have this value. That acts to dilute limited to well-known trademarks, can effectively protect the rights of trademark rights, have not excessively restrict the freedom of choice of logo, is right to resolve the conflict right point of balance. "Trademark Law" will be divided into well-known trademarks have beenregistered and unregistered, and give different protection. Anti-has been watered down to protect only against the well-known trade marks registration, and for China not only well-known trade marks registered in the same or similar ban on the registration and use of goods. This reflects the "Trademark Law" the principle of protection of registered trademarks.2, faded in the different categories of goods and well-known trademarks for use on the same or similar logo.If this is the same or similar goods with well-known trademarks for use on the same or similar to the logo should be in accordance with the general treatment of trademark infringement. There is also a need to downplay the use of the tags are similar to a well-known trademarks and judgments.3, not all the non-use of similar products on the well-known trade marks and logos of the same or similar circumstances are all faded.When a trademark has not yet become well-known trademarks, perhaps there are some with the same or similar trademarks used in other types of goods on. In the well-known trademarks, the original has been in existence does not constitute a trademark of those who play down.4, acts that play down the perpetrator does not need to consider the subjective mental state.Regardless of their out of goodwill or malicious, intentional or fault, is not watered down the establishment. But the acts of subjective mental state will assume responsibility for its impact on the manner and scope. Generally speaking, if the perpetrator acts intentionally dilute the responsibility to shoulder much weight, in particular, bear a heavier responsibility for damages, if the fault is the commitment will be less responsibility. If there are no mistakes, just assume the responsibility to stop infringement.5, due to anti-faded to protect well-known trade marks with a specific goods orservices linked to well-known trademarks a long time widely used in a variety of goods, will inevitably lead to trademark the logo of a particular commodity producers play down the link, well-known trademarks A unique attraction to consumers will also be greatly reduced. So that should not be watered down to conduct a source of confusion for the conditions of goods, after all, not all the water down will cause consumers confusion. For example, a street shop's name is "Rolls-Royce fruit shop," people at this time there will be no confusion and that the shop and the famous Rolls-Royce trademark or producers of the contact. However, such acts can not be allowed, a large number of similar acts will dilute the Rolls-Royce trademark and its products linked to undermine the uniqueness of the trademark, if things continue this way when the mention of Rolls-Royce trademark, people may think of is not only Automobile, food, clothing, appliances, etc.. That faded as to cause confusion for the conditions, some will not dilute norms and suppression of acts, makes well-known trade marks are not well protected. Therefore, as long as it is a well-known trademark detract from the logo and unique ability to act on the behavior should be identified as diluted.1. Zheng Chengsi: "Intellectual property law", legal publishers 2003 version.2. Wu Handong editor: "Intellectual Property Law," China Politics and Law University Press 2002 edition.3. Susan. Sela De: "The United States Federal trademark law dilute the anti-legislation and practice," Zhang Jin Yi, contained in the "Law on Foreign Translation" 1998 No.4.4. Kong Xiangjun: "Anti-Unfair Competition AFP theory," People's Court Press, 2001 edition.5. Liu Ping, Qi Chang: "On the special protection of famous trademarks", in "law and commercial" 1998 No.6.6. Well-Tao, Lu Zhou Li: "On the well-known trademarks to protect the anti-diluted", in "Law" 1998 No. 5.2 外文参考文献原文浅谈驰名商标之淡化与反淡化一、驰名商标概述驰名商标是指经过长期使用，在市场上享有较高声誉，为相关公众所熟知，并经一定程序认定的商标。
外文文献及翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿DATABASEA database may be defined as a collection interrelated data store together with as little redundancy as possible to serve one or more applications in an optimal fashion .the data are stored so that they are independent of programs which use the data .A common and controlled approach is used in adding new data and in modifying and retrieving existing data within the data base .One system is said to contain a collection of database if they are entirely separate in structure .A database may be designed for batch processing , real-time processing ,or in-line processing .A data base system involves application program, DBMS, and database.THE INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSThe term database is often to describe a collection of related files that is organized into an integrated structure that provides different people varied access to the same data. In many cases this resource is located in different files in different departments throughout the organization, often known only to the individuals who work with their specific portion of the total information. In these cases, the potential value of the information goes unrealized because a person in other departments who may need it does not know it or it cannot be accessed efficiently. In an attempt to organize their information resources and provide for timely and efficient access, many companies have implemented databases.A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example, the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of all the people you know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette using a personalcomputer and software such as DBASE Ⅲor Lotus 1-2-3. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a database.The above definition of database is quite general. For example, we may consider the collection of words that made up this page of text to be usually more restricted. A database has the following implicit properties:● A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment of data cannot be referred to as a database.● A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose. It has an intended group of user and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested.● A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the miniworld. Changes to the miniworld are reflected in the database.In other words, a database has some source from which data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in the real world, and an audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database.A database management system (DBMS) is composed of three major parts: (1) a storage subsystem that stores and retrieves data in files; (2)a modeling and manipulation subsystem that provides the means with which to organize the data and to add, delete, maintain, and update the data; and (3) an interface between the DBMS and its users. Several major trends are emerging that enhance the value and usefulness of database management systems.●Managers who require more up-to-date information to make effective decisions.●Customers who demand increasingly sophisticated information services and more current information about the status of their orders, invoices, and accounts.●Users who find that they can develop custom applications with database systems in a fraction of the time it takes to use traditional programming languages.●Organizations that discover information has a strategic value; they utilize their database systems to gain an edge over their competitors.A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search, probe, and query database contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that aren’t available in regular reports. These questions might initially be vague and/or p oorly defined, but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “mange” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who aren’t programmers. In a file-oriented system, user needing special information may communicate their needs to a programmer, who, when time permits, will write one or more programs to extract the data and prepare the information. The availability of a DBMS, however, offers users a much faster alternative communications path.DATABASE QUERYIf the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database ,as well as interrogate it ,this capability allows for managing personal database. However, it does not automatically leave an audit trail of actions and does not provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization .There controls are only available when a set of application programs is customized for each data entry and updating function.Software for personal computers that perform some of the DBMS functions has been very popular .Individuals for personal information storage and processing intended personal computers for us .Small enterprises, professionals like doctors, architects, engineers, lawyers and so on have also used these machines extensively. By the nature of intended usage ,database system on there machines are except from several of the requirements of full-fledged database systems. Since data sharing is not intended, concurrent operations even less so ,the software can be less complex .Security and integrity maintenance are de-emphasized or absent .as data volumes will be small, performance efficiency is also less important .In fact, the only aspect of a database system that is important is data independence. Data independence ,as stated earlier ,means that application programs and user queries need not recognize physical organization of data on secondary storage. The importance of this aspect , particularly for the personal computer user ,is that this greatly simplifies database usage . The user can store ,access and manipulate data at ahigh level (close to the application)and be totally shielded from the low level (close to the machine )details of data organization.DBMS STRUCTURING TECHNIQUESSpatial data management has been an active area of research in the database field for two decades ,with much of the research being focused on developing data structures for storing and indexing spatial data .however, no commercial database system provides facilities for directly de fining and storing spatial data ,and formulating queries based on research conditions on spatial data.There are two components to data management: history data management and version management .Both have been the subjects of research for over a decade. The troublesome aspect of temporal data management is that the boundary between applications and database systems has not been clearly drawn. Specifically, it is not clear how much of the typical semantics and facilities of temporal data management can and should be directly incorporated in a database system, and how much should be left to applications and users. In this section, we will provide a list of short-term research issues that should be examined to shed light on this fundamental question.The focus of research into history data management has been on defining the semantics of time and time interval, and issues related to understanding the semantics of queries and updates against history data stored in an attribute of a record. Typically, in the context of relational databases ,a temporal attribute is defined to hold a sequence of history data for the attribute. A history data consists of a data item and a time interval for which the data item is valid. A query may then be issued to retrieve history data for a specified time interval for the temporal attribute. The mechanism for supporting temporal attributes is to that for supporting set-valued attributes in a database system, such as UniSQL.In the absence of a support for temporal attributes, application developers who need to model and history data have simply simulated temporal attributes by creating attribute for the time interval ,along with the “temporal” attribute. This of course may result in duplication of records in a table, and more complicated search predicates in queries. The one necessary topic of research in history data management is to quantitatively establish the performance (and even productivity) differences betweenusing a database system that directly supports attributes and using a conventional database system that does not support either the set-valued attributes or temporal attributes.Data security, integrity, and independenceData security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database of the database, called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.Data integrity refers to the accuracy, correctness, or validity of the data in the database. In a database system, data integrity means safeguarding the data against invalid alteration or destruction. In large on-line database system, data integrity becomes a more severe problem and two additional complications arise. The first has to do with many users accessing the database concurrently. For example, if thousands of travel agents book the same seat on the same flight, the first agent’s booking will be lost. In such cases the technique of locking the record or field provides the means for preventing one user from accessing a record while another user is updating the same record.The second complication relates to hardware, software or human error during the course of processing and involves database transaction which is a group of database modifications treated as a single unit. For example, an agent booking an airline reservation involves several database updates (i.e., adding the passenger’s name and address and updating the seats-available field), which comprise a single transaction. The database transaction is not considered to be completed until all updates have been completed; otherwise, none of the updates will be allowed to take place.An important point about database systems is that the database should exist independently of any of the specific applications. Traditional data processing applications are data dependent.When a DMBS is used, the detailed knowledge of the physical organization of the data does not have to be built into every application program. The application program asks the DBMS for data by field name, for example, a coded representationof “give me customer name and balance due” would be sent to the DBMS. Without a DBMS the programmer must reserve space for the full structure of the record in the program. Any change in data structure requires changes in all the applications programs.Data Base Management System (DBMS)The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with creating ,accessing and maintaining data base records is called a data base management system (DBMS). A DBMS will usually be handing multiple data calls concurrently.It must organize its system buffers so that different data operations can be in process together .It provides a data definition language to specify the conceptual schema and most likely ,some of the details regarding the implementation of the conceptual schema by the physical schema.The data definition language is a high-level language, enabling one to describe the conceptual schema in terms of a “data model “.At the present time ,there are four underling structures for database management systems. They are :List structures.Relational structures.Hierarchical (tree) structures.Network structures.Management Information System(MIS)An MIS can be defined as a network of computer-based data processing procedures developed in an organization and integrated as necessary with manual and other procedures for the purpose of providing timely and effective information to support decision making and other necessary management functions.One of the most difficult tasks of the MIS designer is to develop the information flow needed to support decision making .Generally speaking ,much of the information needed by managers who occupy different levels and who have different levels and have different responsibilities is obtained from a collection of exiting information system (or subsystems)Structure Query Language (SQL)SQL is a data base processing language endorsed by the American NationalStandards Institute. It is rapidly becoming the standard query language for accessing data on relational databases .With its simple ,powerful syntax ,SQL represents a great progress in database access for all levels of management and computing professionals.SQL falls into two forms : interactive SQL and embedded SQL. Embedded SQL usage is near to traditional programming in third generation languages .It is the interactive use of SQL that makes it most applicable for the rapid answering of ad hoc queries .With an interactive SQL query you just type in a few lines of SQL and you get the database response immediately on the screen.译文数据库数据库可以被定义为一个相互联系的数据库存储的集合。
外文文献及翻译
To connect SQL Server databaseFirst we introduce the basic knowledge of the database,be regarded as thewarm-up exercise that study database weave distance front!1.warm-up exerciseNeeding first avowal is relation database that database knowledge that we here introduce all point. The so-called relation database is to mean data as that the form gather, passing to establish simple form an a kind of database for of relation to defining construction.I ignore the watch at how saving way in physics in the document in database is,it can see to make an a line for with row, with electronics form is similar with the row.In relation database, the line were called the record, but the row then is called word segment.This form inside each an all in formations for is a record, it including particular customer, but each record then included the same type with the word segment of the quantity:Customer's number, name etc.Form is logic set that a kind of related information that press a line of arrangingwith row, similar in single form in work.Each row of the word a database form inside calls a word segment. Watch isfrom every kind of word a definition of its containment of, each word a data for describing its implying. While creating to set up a database, the beard assign for each word segment a the piece belongs to the sex with the other according to thetype,biggest length.The word segment can include every kind of word sign,arithmetic figure even sketch.An information of relevant customer deposits in the line of the form, is called record.By any large, arbitrarily two records for database form to create set up can't be same.Key be a certain word segment( or several words segment) of the form inside, it()for fast inspect but drive index. The key can be unique, and also can then the right and wrong is unique, being decided by it() whether admission repetition. Unique key can specify for main key, using each one that come to unique marking form.The norm turns the database design of mission be method that the data of buildup,but the data of buildup, should can dissolve otiose repetition, and for have the necessary information offering to check to seek the path quickly. For attaining this kind of target but separate information to the process gone to in every kind of independent form, be called the norm turn.It is complicated process to use many appointed rules to proceed the norm withthe type of the different Class that norm turn. That process studies and discuss already beyond the reach of textual scope.But,the norm of the simple database in majority turn and can use the simple experience in underneath rule completes: include the form of the information of repetition must be divided into independent a few forms dissolve repetition.If we have chosen to learn 12 curricular 1000 students, the each curricularandcurricular that choose to -many100 teacher the with show will elucidation eachstudent repeat once.To avoid this kind of low efficiency, should to turn the dichotomous and independent form in form to the norm,an is used to mean the student,the another uses mean the course.Now the form was turned by the norm, so, to changes the particular andcurricular course describe or data,as long as change a record all right.Is a basic knowledge concerning database above,this is what study database plait distance must.Although the database technique is used as a course,its depth is not this space and can describe with the wide degree of,be used as the primer with simple database plait the distance should be all right already.Like,underneath we can start practicing.We usually meet the database system is to registers the system,ignoring you are in the unit,or attend what buildup,the register is to cans not help of,and it of the construction is more simple,we take a register system as an example.The analysis is once a data for involving.2. understanding the elementsFor the register, want the on the trail of information include:name、sex、native place、age、date of birth、unit、address、postal service codes、telephone、FAX. Certainly,can create to set up a form in brief,make above each piece according to item to should a word segment.Need to point the form the main key in parties now, in order to unique marking each a record,increase register number conduct and actions unique key respectively in register form,guarantee a two records like this all different.To the database after making an above analysis,we can start establishing the database.3.set up the firm in campHere we study to establish the database how,needing to make sure the typethat to establish the database first.Pass in Visual Basic the data interview control piece or data interview object ( DAO) can visit the following database:1)The database of JET, namely Microsoft Access2)The database of ISAM, such as: DBase, etc. of FoxPro3)The database of ODBC,every follow the standard of ODBC customer/ server database. Such as: Microsoft SQL Server, OracleBy any large, if develop the personal small scaled database system, use Access database comparison accommodation, to develop the big and medium-sized database system uses the database of ODBC fester. But dBase with the database of FoxPro because of already dated,unless special circumstance,do not use otherwise.In our example, chose to use the database of Access certainly. Establish the database of Access contain two kinds of methods: While establishing the database in Microsoft Access. Click new set up button can establish the new form. Here we main introduction the second method: The usage can see to turn the data management machine, do not need to weave the distance and then can create to set up the database.Can see to turn the data management machine is the applied procedure of a great use,it is a VB business enterprise version is supplementary with theprofession version, in the catalogue\..\ Devastation\ vb\ samples\ the Visdata is next, its interface is as follows the diagram.Click the menu document item is next newset up son item Microsoft ACCESS son item of edition 7.0 MDB item. Input thenew setting upthe name of the database in flick window way open register, appear the underneath show the window way:Want the born and new form, the single shot in right key database window way flicks the menu open, then the choice new form ordinaries,establishing in watch construction dialog box appeared later on a word for wanting segment. The every time faces to join in the form new word segment, single shot increment word segment button, will appear of increment word segment dialog box.Increment word a type for options in the dialog box, according to word segment.In our the register database that establish, the type of the each word segment.Want to notice of is, because the word segment registers the number be used unique marking record of, therefore, it can't be inputted by customer. So while defining the word's segment need to be defined for Long data type, the automatic born word segment item is valid, and picks out this item. Be the customer like this to input to record with other the different value every input a new record, system would on the word's segment automatically.In ACCESS database, the key word realizes with the index of, conduct andactions plait distance personnel at gather to weave the distance to the record of the form type,needs to adjust to use index.While searching,the technique of Rushmore uses the index information the excellent turning the search automatically. Aftercompleting the form definition, click increment index button, flick such aspen figure 5 show the window way.In window way the right side contain three optioned, its meaning, such as table,12.Increase the index dialog box options.After completing such as figure 6.Certainly, the academic association database establishes too not a dynasty the business of the one night, the reader no harm much practices once. Visit databases design and the development of the application procedures ofMS Visual Basics of the databases of the SQL Server. When design a system, the customer still needs to comprehend to use to come to visit the plait distance of ask the data of SQL Server to connect. The origin was detailed to elaborate that the usage open type database conjunction (the Open Database Connectivity, ODBC) adjusts to connect the objects to connect with the class, still having the data interviews object (the Data Access Objects, the DAO) and the long-range data objects.Design and weave to write large and complicated and applied procedure's database design for the software developer is a challenge, need to choose to weave the distance language and tools, do an accommodation for the SQL Server, choose the calculate way and the data structures, still need to design the sketch customer interface and the application procedures to connect. The decision within the most important software design is applied fixed position of the procedure. In other words, design must specify the system of which parts are data, business rule, and the data entrance procedure and used for circulating the code of other part. The MS Visual Basic supports the plait distance that some databases manage the systems connect, especially SQL Server. Adjust to connect to include the ODBC and DB-Libraries toconnect the, object to connect to include the data interview object (DAO), long range data object (the RDO), the OLE DB and the ActiveX Data Objects (ADO) with the class, todistributes mission the manage to Server SQL capable the returns that SQL the manage the object (the SQL Distributed management Objects, SQL-DMO) to connect. Connect the oculars right choice can improve the whole function of system and the development speed biggest. Design the large data warehouse system needs to choose the applied model properly. Traditional customer/ service's model depends on to join in the center layer but get the improvement to become three layer models. These three layers divide the line system as three parts: each layer is responsible for providing the service:(1) Data service( the Data Service) contain the maintenance data and the operation date such as the increment, modification, deletion and backups.These services maintenance data relation and contact,support backup and ually the data service is managed the system usage by the database.(2) business service( the Business Service) is handled the logic by the businessrule and data to constitute, such as the data legitimacy rule, the business processing support and the record backup logics. The main purpose of these services provides the data maintenance toward the application procedure Logic.(3) expression service( the Presentation Service)( or the customer service) support customer interface, control the customer data to input to express with data.(Output) Notice in customer/ service's technical term, sometimes express the service definition as customer's machine (or head), the data service definition for server (or after carry), but the business service is in the center the layer (the middle layer). But important comprehend any two layers .The data service business service expresses the logic support GUI that the service maintenance database business rule and the processing data need, data importation and manifestation the correspondences can think to carry on between customer's machine and servers. For example, in the center the layer can think is a head.Server The physics realization of the system can carry on through many different paths.The underneath wills discuss three layer logic models three kinds of to carry out the method:1.Fat customer machine realizationMany layer (the multi tier) realizations of fat customer the machine realization three layer models of a kind of carry out the options is in the customer's on board movement business and expression services. This probably writes the most common path in the Visual Basic application procedure for the SQL Server. This kind of carries out the physics up only two layers:The server provides the data service only, this kind of method contain 2:00 shortage. First, was the applied procedure to compute the on board increment at the customer, customer's calculators need to be stronger, this will increase the system expense, because the system usually takes several customer's machines. When the system takes to have the number with thousand million of customer's machine, thiskind of method will become too expensive. Another 1:00 shortage is a possible increment maintenance expenses. Move to the change of legitimacy logic and the business rule of the system and will cause upgrade customer's machine procedure each time. If the system contain customer's machine of the equal quantity, this is a problem. The biggest advantage of the machine realization in fat customer is to reduce the network discharge, if the legitimacy and the business rules need not be decide by the database. Under this kind of circumstance, only pass the data of the legitimacy logic and can spread toward server. Be the example of the importation data legitimacy,suppose the reader to have a small form (for example national form of name) to put in customer's machine. If the data entrance mold piece checks the native watch but is not a more national name in main database, then will reduce the network discharge obviously. Another an important use is in the development process of the system.If the head developer was limited to the interview carry behind, for example, can't pass the data in the database to verify to input the legitimacy, so, this kind of method can make it right processing data.2. Thin customer machine realizationIn thin customer the machine realization, business the service locates the server,the business logic usually expresses for saving process.The Server, the saving process usages T-The SQL plait write. This kind of realization is like fat customer's machine to carry out the similar physics up only two layers.The advantage of this kind of method is to reduce the system expense, because thin customer's machine needs the less system resources, this have very important many systems of customer's machines to take. And, support the expenses to also compare the fat customer the machine system is a little less, because the code carries the concentrated control in the server. If the business rule is depend on in the data of the database, thin customer the machine realization reduces the network discharge. The main shortage of this kind of method is a saving process to lack the vivid. The Visual Basic provide stronger than the T-SQL the plait distance ability that have to have another. Notice three the thin customer of the layer model the machine physics realization sometimes is called the fat server (the fat Server) model to confuse with thin customer's machine/ server calculation model by avoid, the latter points a kind of thin customer the machine hardware equipments and techniques are for example the Citric.3. Many layer realizationMost in brief many layer realizations are three layer realizations, many possible three a kinds of the layer model physics realizations. In this kind of realization, Link the SQL Server usage data service business to serve the thin customer of the machine expression service data service business service of fat customer from the Visual Basic the machine expression service data business the service be an alone the progress circulate. That progress can install for serve in the data same set server of the place or at another one server of the dissimilarity. The key characteristics of this kind of realization is the data service, business to serve the different from expression serve to can do for separation of progress movement in calculator. Three layer realizations.连接SQL Server数据库我们先介绍一下数据库的基本知识，算是学习数据库编程前的热身运动吧!1. 热身运动首先需要声明是，我们这里介绍的数据库知识都是指的关系数据库。
浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译
核准通过，归档资料。
未经允许，请勿外传!浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译The influence of political connections on the firm value of small and medium-sized enterprises in China政治关联在中国对中小型企业价值的影响1摘要中小型企业的价值受很多因素的影响,比如股东、现金流以及政治关联等.这篇文章调查的正是在中国政治关联对中小型企业价值的影响。
通过实验数据来分析政治关联对企业价值效益的影响.结果表明政府关联是关键的因素并且在中国对中小型企业的价值具有负面影响。
2重要内容翻译2。
1引言在商业界,有越来越多关于政治关联的影响的经济研究。
它们发现政治关联能够帮助企业确保有利的规章条件以及成功获得资源，比如能够最终提高企业价值或是提升绩效的银行贷款，这种政治关联的影响在不同的经济条件下呈现不同的效果。
在高腐败和法律制度薄弱的国家，政治关联对企业价值具有决定性因素1的作用.中国由高度集权的计划经济向市场经济转变，政府对市场具有较强的控制作用，而且有大量的上市企业具有政治关联。
中小型企业发展的很迅速，他们已经在全球经济环境中变得越来越重要。
从90年代起, 政治因素对中国的任何规模的企业来说都变得越来越重要,尤其是中小型企业的价值。
和其他的部门相比较，中小型企业只有较小的现金流，不稳定的现金流且高负债率.一方面，中小型企业改变更加灵活；另一方面,中小型企业在由于企业规模以及对银行来说没有可以抵押的资产，在筹资方面较为困难。
企业如何应对微观经济环境和政策去保证正常的企业活动，并且政治关联如何影响企业价值？这篇论文调查政治关联和企业价值之间的联系,并且试图去研究企业是否可以从政治关联中获利提升企业价值。
2.2定义这些中小型企业之所以叫中小型企业，是和管理规模有关。
对这些小企业来说，雇员很少，营业额较低,资金一般由较少的人提供,因此，通常由这些业主直接管理企业。
外文文献翻译(图片版)
本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。
当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。
事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。
但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。
但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。
此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。
随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。
本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。
相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。
本文有三个部分。
在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。
第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。
引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。
第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。
外文文献及翻译
外文文献及翻译1. 文献："The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health"翻译：运动对心理健康的影响Abstract: This article explores the effects of exercise on mental health. The author discusses various studies that have been conducted on this topic, and presents evidence to support the claim that exercise can have positive impacts on mental well-being. The article also examines the mechanisms through which exercise affects mental health, such as the release of endorphins and the reduction of stress hormones. Overall, the author concludes that exercise is an effective strategy for improving mental health and recommends incorporating physical activity into daily routines.摘要：本文探讨了运动对心理健康的影响。
作者讨论了在这个主题上进行的各种研究，并提出证据支持运动对心理健康有积极影响的观点。
该文章还探讨了运动如何影响心理健康的机制，如内啡肽的释放和压力激素的减少。
总的来说，作者得出结论，运动是改善心理健康的有效策略，并建议将体育活动纳入日常生活。
2. 文献： "The Benefits of Bilingualism"翻译：双语能力的好处Abstract: This paper examines the benefits of bilingualism. The author presents research findings that demonstrate the cognitiveadvantages of being bilingual, such as enhanced problem-solving skills and improved attention control. The article also explores the social and cultural benefits of bilingualism, such as increased cultural awareness and the ability to communicate with people from different backgrounds. Additionally, the author discusses the positive effects of bilingualism on mental health, highlighting its role in delaying the onset of cognitive decline and in providing a buffer against age-related memory loss. Overall, the author concludes that bilingualism offers a range of advantages and recommends promoting bilingual education and language learning. 摘要：本文研究了双语能力的好处。
市场调研方法外文文献及翻译
市场调研方法外文文献及翻译1. Market Research Methods: Incorporating Social Media into Traditional Approaches文章介绍了如何在市场调研中运用社交媒体，以帮助企业更好地了解消费者。
研究人员将社交媒体与传统的定量调研和定性调研相结合，以获得更全面的信息。
通过采集社交媒体的数据分析消费者的行为和偏好，以及对产品或服务的反馈意见。
2. Using Eye Tracking in Market Research: A Guide to Best Practices该文献介绍了视觉追踪技术在市场调研中的应用。
作者指出，视觉追踪技术可以帮助研究人员理解消费者在浏览产品或服务时的注意力分配和行为模式。
文章介绍了适用于市场调研的视觉追踪应用程序的最佳实践和测试方法。
3. Conjoint Analysis in Marketing: New Developments with Implications for Research and Practice这篇文章介绍了一种被称为 "共轭分析" 的调研方法，该方法可以帮助研究人员了解消费者在购买某种产品或服务时的偏好和决策过程。
文献称，共轭分析已经成为市场营销领域最为普遍的工具之一。
文章还介绍了最新的研究和在实践中的应用，并探讨了一些特定情况下共轭分析的限制。
4. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal这个杂志专注于定性市场调研方法。
它包括与确定消费者需求、分析竞争对手、建立品牌等相关的研究。
文章强调定性市场调研可以提供深入的见解和对产品或服务的更清晰的理解，帮助企业做出更明智的营销和业务决策。
每一期都包括来自该领域的专家的文章，并提供案例研究和最佳实践。
5. Use of Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Market Research: A Review该文献介绍了如何使用人工智能技术进行市场调研。
外文文献及翻译
Yunnan Ethnic pattern in Packaging DesignAbstract: Art is a folk Mother of the arts，is the source of the new art, From which to draw a strong tradition of high—grade Nutrition。
The persons belonging to national folk arts Ethnic patterns，are folk arts Intraoperative a gem, its development Research，and with the means of modern art，art wind Grid，professional skills combine to form a unique Style and features a modern design There are important applications，this paper focuses on Minority Folk pattern in modern packaging design Meter applications are discussed.Keywords: Yunnan Ethnic. Pattern。
Packaging Design.IntroductionYunnan is a multi-ethnic province, Here multiply survive the Han, Yi, Bai More than twenty families， Zhuang, Miao， Dai, etc。
Nation. Long history of various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province， the source is far Long, creating a rich and colorful Folk art。
电气工程的外文文献(及翻译)
电气工程的外文文献(及翻译)文献一：Electric power consumption prediction model based on grey theory optimized by genetic algorithms本文介绍了一种基于混合灰色理论与遗传算法优化的电力消耗预测模型。
该模型使用时间序列数据来建立模型，并使用灰色理论来解决数据的不确定性问题。
通过遗传算法的优化，模型能够更好地预测电力消耗，并取得了优异的预测结果。
此模型可以在大规模电力网络中使用，并具有较高的可行性和可靠性。
文献二：Intelligent control for energy-efficient operation of electric motors本文研究了一种智能控制方法，用于电动机的节能运行。
该方法提供了一种更高效的控制策略，使电动机能够在不同负载条件下以较低的功率运行。
该智能控制使用模糊逻辑方法来确定最佳的控制参数，并使用遗传算法来优化参数。
实验结果表明，该智能控制方法可以显著降低电动机的能耗，节省电能。
文献三：Fault diagnosis system for power transformers based on dissolved gas analysis本文介绍了一种基于溶解气体分析的电力变压器故障诊断系统。
通过对变压器油中的气体样品进行分析，可以检测和诊断变压器内部存在的故障类型。
该系统使用人工神经网络模型来对气体分析数据进行处理和分类。
实验结果表明，该系统可以准确地检测和诊断变压器的故障，并有助于实现有效的维护和管理。
文献四：Power quality improvement using series active filter based on iterative learning control technique本文研究了一种基于迭代研究控制技术的串联有源滤波器用于电能质量改善的方法。
论文外文文献翻译
论文外文文献翻译以下是一篇700字左右的论文外文文献翻译：原文题目：The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Medical Diagnostics: A Review原文摘要：In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of medical diagnostics. AI has the potential to improve the accuracy and efficiency of medical diagnoses, and can assist clinicians in making treatment decisions. This review aims to examine the current state of AI in medical diagnostics, and discuss its advantages and limitations. Several AI techniques, including machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing, are discussed. The review also examines the ethical and legal considerations associated with the use of AI in medical diagnostics. Overall, AI has shown great promise in improving medical diagnostics, but further research is needed to fully understand its potential benefits and limitations.AI在医学诊断中发挥的作用：一项综述近年来，人工智能（AI）在医学诊断领域的应用引起了越来越多的关注。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
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英文原文1：《Professional C# Third Edition》Simon Robinson，Christian Nagel, Jay Glynn, Morgan Skinner, Karli Watson, Bill Evjen. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2006 Where C# Fits InIn one sense, C# can be seen as being the same thing to programming languages is to the Windows environment. Just as Microsoft has been adding more and more features to Windows and the Windows API over the past decade. Visual Basic andC++ have undergone expansion. Although Visual Basic and C++ have ended up as hugely powerful languages as a result of this, both languages also suffer from problems due to the legacies of how they have evolved.In the case of Visual Basic 6 and earlier, the main strength of the language was the fact that it was simple to understand and didn't make many programming tasks easy, largely hiding the details of the Windows APT and the COM component infrastructure from the developer. The downside to this was that Visual Basic was never truly object-oriented, so that large applications quickly become disorganized and hard to maintain. As well as this, because Visual Basic's syntax was inherited from early versions of BASIC (which, in turn, was designed to be intuitively simple for beginning programmers to understand, rather than lo write large commercial applications), it didn't really lend itself to well-structured or object-oriented programs.C++, on the other hand, has its roots in the ANSI C++ language definition. It isn’t completely ANSI compliant for the simple reason that Microso ft first wrote itsC++ compiler before the ANSI definition had become official, but it conics close. Unfortunately, this has led to two problems. First, ANSI C++ has its roots in a decade-old state of technology, and this shows up in a lack of support for modern 1 外文文献-中文翻译-c#concepts (such as Unicode strings and generating XML documentation), and in some archaic syntax structures designed for the compilers of yesteryear (such as the separation of declaration from definition of member functions). Second, Microsoft has been simultaneously trying to evolve C++ into a language that is designed for high-performance (asks on Windows, and in order to achieve that they've been forced to add a huge number of Microsoft-specific keywords as well as various libraries to the language.The result is that on Windows, the language has become a complete mess. Just ask C++ developers how many definitions for a string they can think of: char*, LPTSTR, string, CString (MFC version), CString (WTL version), wchar_l*, OLECHAR*, and so on.Now completely new environment that is going to involve new extensions to both languages. Microsoft has gotten around this by adding yet more Microsoft-specific keywords to C++, and by completely revamping Visual Basic into Visual a language that retains some of the basic VB syntax but that is so different in design that we can consider it to be, for all practical purposes, a new language. It?s in this context that Microsoft has decided to give developers an alternative—a language designed specifically and designed with a clean slate. Visual C# .NET is the result. Officially, Microsoft describes C# as a ''simple, modern, object-oriented, and type-safe programming language derived from C and C++.” Most independent observers would probably change Chat to '"derived from C, C++, and Java.^ Such descriptions are technically accurate but do little to convey the beauty or elegance of the language. Syntactically, C# is very similar to both C++ and Java, to such 2an extent that many keywords are (he same, and C# also shares the same block structure with braces ({}) to mark blocks of code, and semicolons to separate statements. The first impression of a piece of C# code is that it looks quite like C++ or Java code. Behind that initial similarity, however, C# is a lot easier to learn than C++, and of comparable difficulty to Java. Its design is more in tune with modern developer tools than both of those other languages, and it has been designed to give us, simultaneously, the ease of use of Visual Basic, and the high performance, low-level memory access of C++ if required. Some of the features of C# arc:LI Full support for classes and object-oriented programming, including both interface and implementation inheritance, virtual functions, and operator overloading.□ A consistent and well-defined set of basic types.□ Built-in support for automatic generation of XML documentation.□ Automatic cleanup of dynamically allocated memory.□ The facility to mark classes or methods with user-defined attributes. This can be useful for documentation and can have some effects on compilation (for example, marking methods to be compiled only in debug builds).□ Full access to base class library, as well as easy access to the Windows AP I (if you really need it, which won’t be all that often).□ Pointers and direct memory access are available if required, but the language has been designed in such a way that you can work without them in almost all cases. □ Support for properties and eve nts in the style of Visual Basic.LJ Just by changing the compiler options, you can compile either to an executable or to a library components that can be called up by other code in the same way as 3外文文献-中文翻译-c#ActiveX controls (COM components).LI C# can be used to write dynamic Web pages and XMLWeb services.Most of the above statements, it should be pointed out. do also apply to Visual and Managed C++. The fact that C# is designed from the start to work however, means that its support for the features is both more complete, and offered within the context of a more suitable syntax than for those other languages. While the C# language itself is very similar to Java, there are some improvements: in particular. Java is not designed to work with environment.Before we leave the subject, we should point out a couple of limitations of C#. The one area the language is not designed for is time-critical or extremely high performance code—the kind where you really are worried about whether a loop takes 1.000 or 1,050 machine cycles to run through, and you need to clean up your resources the millisecond they arc no longer needed. C++ is likely to continue to reign supreme among low-level languages in this area. C# lacks certain key facilities needed for extremely high performance apps, including the ability to specify inline functions and destructors that are guaranteed to run at particular points in the code. However, the proportions of applications that fall into this category are very low.4外文文献-中文翻译-c#中文译文1:《C#的优点》C#在某种程度上k可以打作足.NET面向Windows环境的种编程语言。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（/docs/pos_papers/2004/041027_SME-finance_final.do c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs,but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to lending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPM E’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing it into EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating will also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
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外文翻译文献The Impact of Social Media on Mental HealthIntroductionIn recent years, with the rapid development of technology, social media has become an integral part of people's lives. It allows users to connect with others, share information, and express their opinions. While social media has many benefits, such as enhancing communication and facilitating information dissemination, it also has several negative effects on mental health. This paper will explore the impact of social media on mental health, including the increase in anxiety and depression, the pressure to maintain a perfect online image, and the addictive nature of social media.Increase in Anxiety and DepressionStudies have shown that the use of social media is associated with an increased risk of anxiety and depression. Constant exposure to the carefully curated lives of others on social media platforms can lead to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem. Users often compare themselves to others and may experience envy or jealousy, which can contribute to anxiety and depressive symptoms. Moreover, the fear of missing out (FOMO) is prevalent among social media users. Seeing others engaging in enjoyable activities or having a large number of friends can cause feelings of loneliness and isolation in individuals who are not experiencing the same level of social engagement. These feelings can contribute to the development or worsening of anxiety and depression.Pressure to Maintain a Perfect Online ImageSocial media platforms often promote an idealized version of reality, where individuals present only the highlights of their lives. These posts are carefully crafted, showing only the positive aspects of one's life and ignoring the negatives. This constant pressure to maintain a perfect online image can lead to feelings of inadequacy and low self-worth.Additionally, the need for validation and approval from others is heightened on social media. Users often measure their self-worth based on the number of likes, comments, or followers they have. The constant pursuit of validation can be mentally exhausting and can contribute to a negative self-image if one's posts do not receive the desired attention.Addictive Nature of Social MediaAnother significant impact of social media on mental health is its addictive nature. The constant availability of social media platforms on smartphones and other devices promotes excessive use and can lead to an addiction-like behavior. Individuals may find themselves spending hours scrolling through their feeds, neglecting their responsibilities, and isolating themselves fromreal-life interactions.The addictive nature of social media can also disrupt sleep patterns. The blue light emitted from screens can interfere with the production of melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep. Studieshave shown that excessive social media use before bedtime can lead to poor sleep quality, which can have detrimental effects on mental health.ConclusionIn conclusion, while social media has its merits, it also has several negative effects on mental health. It can contribute to an increase in anxiety and depression, as well as a pressure to maintain a perfect online image. Additionally, the addictive nature of social media can lead to excessive use and disrupt sleep patterns. It is important for individuals to be mindful of their social media usage and take steps to prioritize their mental well-being.。
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forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳgrade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinfor cing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ, Ⅲgrade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil buil ding and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ, Ⅲgrade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土构造中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，伴随国民经济旳迅速、持久发展，多种钢筋混凝土建筑构造大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大旳发展。
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外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。
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Criminal Law1.General IntroductionCriminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penaltieswas reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change.2.Elements of a CrimeObviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.(1) actus reusThe first element of crime is the actus reus.Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”---that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not on e’s behavior is illegal.Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action,or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent’s failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one’s official position. Duty also can arise from one’s own creation of a dangerous situation.(2)mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual’s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor’s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea hasbeen reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3)CausationThe next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abel’s death. ”In other words, ‘but for Cain’s act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to thesatisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state’s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪，有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判，及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。
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The Stereo Garage1.1 An overview of the stereo garageVehicles parked nowhere is the problem of the urban social, economic and transport development to a certain extent the result, Garage Equipment development in foreign countries, especially in Japan nearly 30-40 years. Whether technically or in terms of experience had been a success. China is also in the beginning of the 1990s developed mechanical parking equipment, which was 10 years in the past. Because a lot of new residents in the district with the ratio of 1:1. To address the size of parking spaces for tenants and business areas contradictions 3D mechanical parking equipment with an average size of a small motorcycle's unique characteristics, the majority of users have been accepted.Compared with the traditional natural underground garage, Machinery garage demonstrates its superiority in many respects. First, the mechanical garage has a prominent section of superiority. Past due to the underground garage must elapse enough lanes, the average car will occupy an area of 40 square meters, If the use of double-mechanical garage, which would enable ground to improve the utilization rate of around 80% to 90%, If using ground multi-storey (21 storey), three-dimensional garage, 50 square meters of land area will be placed on the 40 cars, which can greatly save the limited land resources, Civil and save development costs.To underground garage, Mechanical garage can be more effective to ensure personal and vehicle safety in the garage or car kept prospective location, the entire electronic control equipment would not operate. It should be said that the mechanical garage from the management can do a thorough separation of people and vehicles.In the underground garage using mechanical parking, it also can remove the heating ventilation; therefore, Operation of the power consumption than workers in the management of underground garage is much lower. Mechanical garage don't usually do complete system, but as a single machine containers. This will give full play to its small space, the advantages of decentralized, Each of the residential areas or groups downstairs to make a complete circuit can be set up random mechanicalparking building. This garage of the district can solve the shortage of parking difficulty in providing convenient conditions right now.Currently, three-dimensional garage mainly in the following forms: lifting and transferring,aisle stacking garage, vertical garage, vertical cycle, box-level cycle, the level of circulating round.1.1.1 Lifting and transferringLifting and transferring Garage modular design, each module can be designed into two, three, four levels, the five-story, semi-submerged in various forms, such as the number of parking spaces from a few to hundreds. Three-dimensional garage applies to the ground and underground car parks, configuration flexibility and cost is low.1. Product features:1) Save land, the configuration flexibility, and shorter construction period.2) Low prices, firefighting and exterior decoration, with a total investment on small foundations.3) Use automatic control, simple structure, safe and reliable.4) Access to a quick, short waiting time.5) Run a smooth, low noise.6) Applies to commercial, offices, and residential quarters supporting the use of car parks.2. Safety devices: anti-dropping device, a photoelectric sensor, spacing protectors, emergency stop switch.1.1.2 Aisle stacking garageAisle stacking garage used as a stacking machine tool access vehicles. All vehicles are stacking machine access, so the technical requirements for stacker higher, a single stacker cost is higher. So aisle stacking apply to the parking garage needs a few more customers.1.1.3 Vertical GarageVertical Garage Elevator similar to the principle that both sides of the hoist layout spaces. Generally need a ground vehicle rotary tables can be saved by the driver away. Vertical Garage generally higher high (tens of meters), safety equipment, Installation precision machining requirements are very high, high cost, but has the smallest area.1.1.4 Vertical cycleProduct features:1) covers an area of small; two berths area can stop 6-10 vehicles.2) The decoration can be added only roof, fire hydrants available.3) Low prices, foundation, external decoration, fire and other small investment, short construction periods.4) Use automatic control, safe and reliable operation.2.2.1 The stereo garage automatic control systemThe modern large-scale building mainstream is intelligent mansion and community. So, automated parking equipment or garage automatic control system will become intelligent mansion and an important part of community. Simple, fast, easy to use, safe, reliable, and less maintenance, to provide users with a safe, easy to use environment, This is auto-parking feature of the basic equipment. All parking equipment operating conditions, vehicles parked in time, vehicle storage Malaysia, garage storage capacity. Vehicles kept high and low peaks, and other information can be transmitted through the network of intelligent control center through intelligent control center operator, and the broadcasting system and the management office of the Division linked related to early release control, management information, thus achieving all the intelligent management. Building and the Community through the intelligent control of the center could also associate with social networking functions. Information released to the collection coming out or expands utilization of the garage social and economic benefits. This will be the automation of the development direction of the garage. Solid Garage automation control system include the following five major subsystems: automatic toll collection management system automatic access systems for remote diagnosis system, automatic Gate, control security system.Subsystems are more unified control of the central control room, for customers planning Garage form of management, Published garage inventory capacity, traffic control program.2.1.1 Automatic Toll Management SystemAutomatic charge adopts contactless IC card. IC card points long-term card and the stored-card. For fixed users, the issue of long-term cards, the cost of fixed users pays management fees paid together; on the temporary users, issue stored-value cards, namely: the user feespaid cards exist within each parking card reader automatically deducted from the cost.2.1.2 Automatic vehicle access systemAutomatic vehicle access system is generally controlled by small PLC. Including the identification card number and mobile disc contains two cars process. Users enter the garage at the entrance to Swiping cards, reader data automatically transmitted to the PLC control system, PLC system through the judgment card number and automatically set the corresponding site mobile trucks and vehicles to the handover location, the garage door opened, shorten the time access to cars. Truck drivers light signals in accordance with the guidelines created only when vehicles parked in a safe location, Parking will be normal light-Kai. Access car after the completion of the garage doors shut down automatically. Mobile site contains car, the system in strict accordance with the various signal detection mobile state, including long signal detection, Detection in place, the position detection limit, officers hit detection, emergency stop signal detection. If cars are running plate is not in place or vehicle length in excess of the permitted length of the garage, all vehicles disc will contain no action, If detected emergency stop signal to stop all action until the emergency stop signal disappeared. Above signals are hardware signals, in addition, the software can also be installed to control signal protection, such as the protection of the time, to ensure that the damage due to hardware failure to signal equipment and the main guarantee for the safety of vehicles.2.1.3 Remote diagnosis systemControllers can spot card, hubs and other network equipment and control center connected to the LAN, MODEN through remote management, monitoring the operation of the scene, when the scene failure, in the control center can be addressed to facilitate the management, e-office security personnel.2.1.4 Automatic GateIn the garage entrance of the no-contact reader, and the Gate of coil users in the garage entrances Swiping cards, the system automatically discriminates validity of the card, if valid, the Gateopen automatically, through induction coils, Automatic self-closing fence; If invalid, the Gate is not open, and sound and light alarm.2.1.5 Monitoring security systemMonitoring security system is in the central control room for monitoring and controlling the operation of the garage scene conditions. It has motion detection, license plate recognition, network connections, different types of alarm systems linkage, and other functions, can be achieved unguarded.System catalog:Video monitoring function : the garage entrances, and the duty, the main segments within the garage installation focusing cameras, On the larger spaces installation spherical platforms, in order to achieve all-round garage on real-time monitoring. If the garage light conditions of the poor would use black-and-white cameras.Motion Detection functions: setting up the night in the garage of motion detection region, detecting when there are a moving target, Motion Detection and Alarm function remind staffs.LPR functions: it can set up the garage light vehicle license plates, vehicle. When the light vehicles entering the garage regional surveillance, the system automatically cross-referenced with images of a very odd situation, issued a warning signal and automatic switching and record their images.Alarm linkage functions: all can move even the police mainframe, if activated Relay acousto-optic warning issued notice of security personnel to voluntarily disarm Gate interception of vehicular access.Digital video functions : it with a continuous record of what happened in the garage, can be synchronized intervals over images arbitrary choice of the overall image to enlarge and local amplification, recording, playback, backup can be conducted all kinds of information.Reportedly, has begun an increasing number of residential quarters began to use a mechanical garage. Taking into account the cost and maintenance, the majority of the district is a multi-storey lifting and transferring parking equipment, mass storage mechanical garage also rarely. Lifting and transferring Garage Equipment parking flow indicate the following:1、The sense of light yellow instructions garage operationRed lamp was ongoing operating instructions, please wait; Green light is currently no operating instructions, can operate; yellow light instructions were to fail, the garage can not work.2、The operationDrivers of vehicles enter from the garage entrance. At the entrance of non-contact sensors Reader former regional shaken following their IC cards, induction process completed, the fence automatically rises driver drove into the garage. The fence shut down automatically after vehicles entering. Card is the controller to read spaces, corresponding to the parking garage containing cars moved to the site automatically transfer vehicle location, Automatic garage door open units. Car drivers entering and parking in place, Latin hand brake, alighted out of the garage, using IC cards in the garage exit Huang about IC cards Garage door modules to shut down automatically. Completed deposit truck operators.3、Collect the car operationDrivers entering the garage at the entrance to the non-contact sensors Reader former regional shaken following their IC cards Controller automatically read spaces, corresponding to the parking garage containing cars moved to the site automatically transfer vehicle location, Automatic garage door open modules, drivers entering the garage and drive out, in the garage exit of the automatic reader before induction regional dazzle your own IC cards, sensors finished, the reader receive information, Host controller automatically recorded, prepaid, automatically raising the fence, the driver drove the playing field, appeared after fencing to shut down automatically. Meanwhile, Controller automatically read spaces, corresponding to the garage door unit shut down automatically. Vehicle operation finished.The garage has a complete self-protection device in the course of operation. A series of photoelectric switches, proximity switches, trip switches and other vehicles on site contains accurate operation in place to play a decisive role; falling unique defense installations, broken rope warning device, speeding vehicle protection device to protect the security role played. Detection of long vehicles, vehicle parking is not in place detection, and personnel into a detection signal of vehicles and the safety play a decisive role.翻译立体车库1.1 立体车库概述车辆无处停放的问题是城市的社会、经济、交通发展到一定程度产生的结果，立体停车设备的发展在国外，尤其在日本已有近3040年的历史，无论在技术上还是在经验上均已获得了成功。
外文文献及翻译
（（英文参考文献及译文）二〇一六年六月本科毕业论文 题 目：STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED INTHE AUDIT学生姓名：王雪琴学 院：管理学院系 别：会计系专 业：财务管理班 级：财管12-2班 学校代码： 10128 学 号： 201210707016Statistics and AuditRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED IN THE AUDIT - views, recommendations, fi ndingsPhD Candidate Gabriela-Felicia UNGUREANUAbstractThe rapid increase in the size of U.S. companies from the earlytwentieth century created the need for audit procedures based on the selectionof a part of the total population audited to obtain reliable audit evidence, tocharacterize the entire population consists of account balances or classes oftransactions. Sampling is not used only in audit – is used in sampling surveys,market analysis and medical research in which someone wants to reach aconclusion about a large number of data by examining only a part of thesedata. The difference is the “population” from which the sample is selected, iethat set of data which is intended to draw a conclusion. Audit sampling appliesonly to certain types of audit procedures.Key words: sampling, sample risk, population, sampling unit, tests ofcontrols, substantive procedures.Statistical samplingCommittee statistical sampling of American Institute of CertifiedPublic Accountants of (AICPA) issued in 1962 a special report, titled“Statistical sampling and independent auditors’ which allowed the use ofstatistical sampling method, in accordance with Generally Accepted AuditingStandards (GAAS). During 1962-1974, the AICPA published a series of paperson statistical sampling, “Auditor’s Approach to Statistical Sampling”, foruse in continuing professional education of accountants. During 1962-1974,the AICPA published a series of papers on statistical sampling, “Auditor’sApproach to Statistical Sampling”, for use in continuing professional educationof accountants. In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, “AuditSampling”, which provides general guidelines for both sampling methods,statistical and non-statistical.Earlier audits included checks of all transactions in the period coveredby the audited financial statements. At that time, the literature has not givenparticular attention to this subject. Only in 1971, an audit procedures programprinted in the “Federal Reserve Bulletin (Federal Bulletin Stocks)” includedseveral references to sampling such as selecting the “few items” of inventory.Statistics and Audit The program was developed by a special committee, which later became the AICPA, that of Certified Public Accountants American Institute.In the first decades of last century, the auditors often applied sampling, but sample size was not in related to the efficiency of internal control of the entity. In 1955, American Institute of Accountants has published a study case of extending the audit sampling, summarizing audit program developed by certified public accountants, to show why sampling is necessary to extend the audit. The study was important because is one of the leading journal on sampling which recognize a relationship of dependency between detail and reliability testing of internal control.In 1964, the AICPA’s Auditing Standards Board has issued a report entitled “The relationship between statistical sampling and Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)” which illustrated the relationship between the accuracy and reliability in sampling and provisions of GAAS.In 1978, the AICPA published the work of Donald M. Roberts,“Statistical Auditing”which explains the underlying theory of statistical sampling in auditing.In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, named “Audit Sampling”, which provides guidelines for both sampling methods, statistical and non-statistical.An auditor does not rely solely on the results of a single procedure to reach a conclusion on an account balance, class of transactions or operational effectiveness of the controls. Rather, the audit findings are based on combined evidence from several sources, as a consequence of a number of different audit procedures. When an auditor selects a sample of a population, his objective is to obtain a representative sample, ie sample whose characteristics are identical with the population’s characteristics. This means that selected items are identical with those remaining outside the sample.In practice, auditors do not know for sure if a sample is representative, even after completion the test, but they “may increase the probability that a sample is representative by accuracy of activities made related to design, sample selection and evaluation” [1]. Lack of specificity of the sample results may be given by observation errors and sampling errors. Risks to produce these errors can be controlled.Observation error (risk of observation) appears when the audit test did not identify existing deviations in the sample or using an inadequate audit technique or by negligence of the auditor.Sampling error (sampling risk) is an inherent characteristic of the survey, which results from the fact that they tested only a fraction of the total population. Sampling error occurs due to the fact that it is possible for Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthe auditor to reach a conclusion, based on a sample that is different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would have been subject to audit procedures identical. Sampling risk can be reduced by adjusting the sample size, depending on the size and population characteristics and using an appropriate method of selection. Increasing sample size will reduce the risk of sampling; a sample of the all population will present a null risk of sampling.Audit Sampling is a method of testing for gather sufficient and appropriate audit evidence, for the purposes of audit. The auditor may decide to apply audit sampling on an account balance or class of transactions. Sampling audit includes audit procedures to less than 100% of the items within an account balance or class of transactions, so all the sample able to be selected. Auditor is required to determine appropriate ways of selecting items for testing. Audit sampling can be used as a statistical approach and a non- statistical.Statistical sampling is a method by which the sample is made so that each unit consists of the total population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, method of sample selection is random, allowed to assess the results based on probability theory and risk quantification of sampling. Choosing the appropriate population make that auditor’ findings can be extended to the entire population.Non-statistical sampling is a method of sampling, when the auditor uses professional judgment to select elements of a sample. Since the purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions about the entire population, the auditor should select a representative sample by choosing sample units which have characteristics typical of that population. Results will not extrapolate the entire population as the sample selected is representative.Audit tests can be applied on the all elements of the population, where is a small population or on an unrepresentative sample, where the auditor knows the particularities of the population to be tested and is able to identify a small number of items of interest to audit. If the sample has not similar characteristics for the elements of the entire population, the errors found in the tested sample can not extrapolate.Decision of statistical or non-statistical approach depends on the auditor’s professional judgment which seeking sufficient appropriate audits evidence on which to completion its findings about the audit opinion.As a statistical sampling method refer to the random selection that any possible combination of elements of the community is equally likely to enter the sample. Simple random sampling is used when stratification was not to audit. Using random selection involves using random numbers generated byRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit a computer. After selecting a random starting point, the auditor found the first random number that falls within the test document numbers. Only when the approach has the characteristics of statistical sampling, statistical assessments of risk are valid sampling.In another variant of the sampling probability, namely the systematic selection (also called random mechanical) elements naturally succeed in office space or time; the auditor has a preliminary listing of the population and made the decision on sample size. “The auditor calculated a counting step, and selects the sample element method based on step size. Step counting is determined by dividing the volume of the community to sample the number of units desired. Advantages of systematic screening are its usability. In most cases, a systematic sample can be extracted quickly and method automatically arranges numbers in successive series.”[2].Selection by probability proportional to size - is a method which emphasizes those population units’recorded higher values. The sample is constituted so that the probability of selecting any given element of the population is equal to the recorded value of the item;Stratifi ed selection - is a method of emphasis of units with higher values and is registered in the stratification of the population in subpopulations. Stratification provides a complete picture of the auditor, when population (data table to be analyzed) is not homogeneous. In this case, the auditor stratifies a population by dividing them into distinct subpopulations, which have common characteristics, pre-defined. “The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of elements in each layer and therefore allow a reduction in sample size without a proportionate increase in the risk of sampling.” [3] If population stratification is done properly, the amount of sample size to come layers will be less than the sample size that would be obtained at the same level of risk given sample with a sample extracted from the entire population. Audit results applied to a layer can be designed only on items that are part of that layer.I appreciated as useful some views on non-statistical sampling methods, which implies that guided the selection of the sample selecting each element according to certain criteria determined by the auditor. The method is subjective; because the auditor selects intentionally items containing set features him.The selection of the series is done by selecting multiple elements series (successive). Using sampling the series is recommended only if a reasonable number of sets used. Using just a few series there is a risk that the sample is not representative. This type of sampling can be used in addition to other samples, where there is a high probability of occurrence of errors. At the arbitrary selection, no items are selected preferably from the auditor, Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthat regardless of size or source or characteristics. Is not the recommended method, because is not objective.That sampling is based on the auditor’s professional judgment, which may decide which items can be part or not sampled. Because is not a statistical method, it can not calculate the standard error. Although the sample structure can be constructed to reproduce the population, there is no guarantee that the sample is representative. If omitted a feature that would be relevant in a particular situation, the sample is not representative.Sampling applies when the auditor plans to make conclusions about population, based on a selection. The auditor considers the audit program and determines audit procedures which may apply random research. Sampling is used by auditors an internal control systems testing, and substantive testing of operations. The general objectives of tests of control system and operations substantive tests are to verify the application of pre-defined control procedures, and to determine whether operations contain material errors.Control tests are intended to provide evidence of operational efficiency and controls design or operation of a control system to prevent or detect material misstatements in financial statements. Control tests are necessary if the auditor plans to assess control risk for assertions of management.Controls are generally expected to be similarly applied to all transactions covered by the records, regardless of transaction value. Therefore, if the auditor uses sampling, it is not advisable to select only high value transactions. Samples must be chosen so as to be representative population sample.An auditor must be aware that an entity may change a special control during the course of the audit. If the control is replaced by another, which is designed to achieve the same specific objective, the auditor must decide whether to design a sample of all transactions made during or just a sample of transactions controlled again. Appropriate decision depends on the overall objective of the audit test.Verification of internal control system of an entity is intended to provide guidance on the identification of relevant controls and design evaluation tests of controls.Other tests:In testing internal control system and testing operations, audit sample is used to estimate the proportion of elements of a population containing a characteristic or attribute analysis. This proportion is called the frequency of occurrence or percentage of deviation and is equal to the ratio of elements containing attribute specific and total number of population elements. WeightRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit deviations in a sample are determined to calculate an estimate of the proportion of the total population deviations.Risk associated with sampling - refers to a sample selection which can not be representative of the population tested. In other words, the sample itself may contain material errors or deviations from the line. However, issuing a conclusion based on a sample may be different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would be subject to audit.Types of risk associated with sampling:Controls are more effective than they actually are or that there are not significant errors when they exist - which means an inappropriate audit opinion. Controls are less effective than they actually are that there are significant errors when in fact they are not - this calls for additional activities to establish that initial conclusions were incorrect.Attributes testing - the auditor should be defining the characteristics to test and conditions for misconduct. Attributes testing will make when required objective statistical projections on various characteristics of the population. The auditor may decide to select items from a population based on its knowledge about the entity and its environment control based on risk analysis and the specific characteristics of the population to be tested.Population is the mass of data on which the auditor wishes to generalize the findings obtained on a sample. Population will be defined compliance audit objectives and will be complete and consistent, because results of the sample can be designed only for the population from which the sample was selected.Sampling unit - a unit of sampling may be, for example, an invoice, an entry or a line item. Each sample unit is an element of the population. The auditor will define the sampling unit based on its compliance with the objectives of audit tests.Sample size - to determine the sample size should be considered whether sampling risk is reduced to an acceptable minimum level. Sample size is affected by the risk associated with sampling that the auditor is willing to accept it. The risk that the auditor is willing to accept lower, the sample will be higher.Error - for detailed testing, the auditor should project monetary errors found in the sample population and should take into account the projected error on the specific objective of the audit and other audit areas. The auditor projects the total error on the population to get a broad perspective on the size of the error and comparing it with tolerable error.For detailed testing, tolerable error is tolerable and misrepresentations Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditwill be a value less than or equal to materiality used by the auditor for the individual classes of transactions or balances audited. If a class of transactions or account balances has been divided into layers error is designed separately for each layer. Design errors and inconsistent errors for each stratum are then combined when considering the possible effect on the total classes of transactions and account balances.Evaluation of sample results - the auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether assessing relevant characteristics of the population is confirmed or needs to be revised.When testing controls, an unexpectedly high rate of sample error may lead to an increase in the risk assessment of significant misrepresentation unless it obtained additional audit evidence to support the initial assessment. For control tests, an error is a deviation from the performance of control procedures prescribed. The auditor should obtain evidence about the nature and extent of any significant changes in internal control system, including the staff establishment.If significant changes occur, the auditor should review the understanding of internal control environment and consider testing the controls changed. Alternatively, the auditor may consider performing substantive analytical procedures or tests of details covering the audit period.In some cases, the auditor might not need to wait until the end audit to form a conclusion about the effectiveness of operational control, to support the control risk assessment. In this case, the auditor might decide to modify the planned substantive tests accordingly.If testing details, an unexpectedly large amount of error in a sample may cause the auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balances is given significantly wrong in the absence of additional audit evidence to show that there are not material misrepresentations.When the best estimate of error is very close to the tolerable error, the auditor recognizes the risk that another sample have different best estimate that could exceed the tolerable error.ConclusionsFollowing analysis of sampling methods conclude that all methods have advantages and disadvantages. But the auditor is important in choosing the sampling method is based on professional judgment and take into account the cost / benefit ratio. Thus, if a sampling method proves to be costly auditor should seek the most efficient method in view of the main and specific objectives of the audit.Romanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit The auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether the preliminary assessment of relevant characteristics of the population must be confirmed or revised. If the evaluation sample results indicate that the relevant characteristics of the population needs assessment review, the auditor may: require management to investigate identified errors and likelihood of future errors and make necessary adjustments to change the nature, timing and extent of further procedures to take into account the effect on the audit report.Selective bibliography:[1] Law no. 672/2002 updated, on public internal audit[2] Arens, A şi Loebbecke J - Controve …Audit– An integrate approach”, 8th edition, Arc Publishing House[3] ISA 530 - Financial Audit 2008 - International Standards on Auditing, IRECSON Publishing House, 2009- Dictionary of macroeconomics, Ed C.H. Beck, Bucharest, 2008Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit摘要美国公司的规模迅速增加，从第二十世纪初创造了必要的审计程序，根据选定的部分总人口的审计，以获得可靠的审计证据，以描述整个人口组成的帐户余额或类别的交易。
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第一部分：译文媒介政策的范式转变：一种新的传播政策范式传播和媒介政策的出现传播政策的出现始于追求国家利益与工商业企业利益之间的互动。
政府和产业界通过特权、法规和一些限制来追求共同利益。
一般而言，政策指的是为实现某些目标而有意识制定的（公共）方案，以及实现方案的方法和时间进度表。
政府政策的特定内容反映了特定时期和地点政府与产业界的交易以及权力与利益之间的平衡。
从这个层面上说，虽然在20世纪，政府在形式上变得更加民主，全球化的浪潮也愈演愈烈，政府和产业界的权力和利益之间的交易并没有多大改变。
然而即使是这样，媒介政策领域也发生了巨大的变化，这尤其反应在传播技术的演变以及在“后工业”社会（或是更多地被称为“信息社会”）中传播重要性的提高。
虽然在几百年之前，国家就出于控制、财政和战略的目的，对交通和旅游进行干预和管制，但如果说传播政策在自19世纪中期电话发明以来的一系列电子媒介出现以前就有了，那就错了。
在本文中，我们将传播政策阶段分为三个连续的阶段：（1)新兴传播业政策阶段，（2)公共服务媒介政策阶段，和（3)新传播政策范式阶段。
传播政策的一般形态媒介政策的主要元素撇开时间的变化与环境的差异不说，媒介政策和电信政策的主要元素包括：所追求的目标或目的、界定目标的价值观念和标准、被政策规范的各种内容和传播服务；不同的传播渠道（主要有印刷出版、有线电视、卫星电视、广播和电信）以及相应的政策措施和实施方法（主要包含于法律、法规、自律和市场惯例）。
这个社会传播系统的普遍模型是从政策制定者的角度来描绘的，这些元素也是人为组合到一起的，它并不能被普遍性地运用到所有的国家。
另外这个模型也显得有点过时，因为各个国家的社会体制和传播技术在一段时间内会发生重大的改变。
为了阐明这个模型所表达的信息和解释的方便，我们首先需要回顾一下政策制定的几个连续阶段，因为这些政策不仅在传播系统上留下了历史痕迹，也影响着当今媒介政策所遇到的挑战。
我们将首先讨论早期新兴的媒介和传播政策阶段，这个阶段大约持续到二战。
它不仅打开了改变世界的大门，而且与电视这个大众媒介交相辉映地发展着。
新型传播政策：政策制定者仍然面临许多困境和未解决的问题。
对于一个国家来说，这些主要的问题有: 定义公共领域媒介的范围和目标；经济手段、法规和自律等政策方式的选择；为所有媒介领域寻找一致的原则和管制框架；如何定义和制定国家文化媒介政策；如何平衡传播自由以及社会需求。
政策融合？在科技的影响下，通过选择相同的目标、原则和方式应用于统一的管制法规，媒介政策是否回趋于融合？这样的观点已经获得了广泛的支持25并得以施行（如2002年英国传播法案），但是这个问题并不能以简单地以‘‘是”或‘‘不是”来回答。
虽然有理由淡化各种媒介之间的界限，但对所有不同的媒介服务都使用同一种法规是没有必要的。
欧洲现在的趋势是：尽管鼓励整体性的政策思考，但也鼓励发展各国独立的国家法规权利机构来控制公共领域的媒介运作。
当前有足够的理由要求拥有一个连贯一致的政策体系(特别对待自由和多样性），但这并不意味着整齐划一地处理所有媒介内容（广告、艺术、新闻、色情等等）。
因为媒介内容与受众都存在着明显的不同。
所以，针对不同的用途使用不同的法规是可能的、甚至是必须的。
公众的传播自由还是非常重要的，也不应该让任何一个单一的机构对某种传播方式施加过多的压力，而且对待不同的媒介也应该有特例和特殊的措施。
另外，同样重要的一个方面是：为了保障传播所影响的受众/公民的利益，我们也应该保留一块政治和社会文化价值观的领域。
新传播政策范式的核心原则尽管还存在许多未知情况，我们仍有余地为兴起的新政策范式的核心原则提一些暂时的看法。
这些看法基于科技、政策和经济变化的趋势，以及现存公认的社会和政治限制。
虽然公共服务广播和普遍电信服务还不太可能从政治议事日程上消失，技术融合、传播市场自由化以及信息和传播的迅速扩张要求我们对传播政策进行一次不同的概念化思考。
如果对未来的估计是正确的，以下三个概念将对新传播政策模型起核心作用：传播自由、使用权、和控制传播自由应该是未来所有传播政策的主要目标。
传播自由可以被表述为负面和正面两个方面。
对前者来说，它指信息传播者独立于政府（没有审查），独立于经济或阻碍讯息自由交流的其它力量（如，经济垄断和其他主导市场的力量），也包括社会和政治压力。
从正面来说，自由指人在社会中所能进行的自由活动，如参加政治议题的市民辩论，或表达艺术创意。
这两方面的规定都是政策目标所需要的。
传播法规与传播系统在许多不同的方面相关，即，传播业的市场结构，传播参与者的市场行为或传播的内容。
传播自由的负面主要与市场结构和市场行为相关，而正面自由主要与内容和使用权相关，而后者也是我们关注的第二个核心原则。
对于互联网来说，三个核心原则中的两个对其政策制定有一定启发，即，自由和使用权。
互联网从一开始起就带有自由的属性，虽然如果没有政府最初的赞助，它也许不会发展至今。
由于多种原因，互联网的使用权已经被广泛的接纳为政策目标。
尽管互联网政策的发展与前文所提到的传播政策历史有些许相似，但未来的互联网政策依旧不可预测。
互联网第一阶段的发展以经济和商业利益为目标，而我们现在进入的是以控制公众利益为目标的第二阶段。
目前还有很多问题等待解决：对传播行为和内容（公众利益）采取什么样的控制手段？什么样的负责限度是适合的？任何新出现的传播政策范式都必须对上述问题做出回应。
文献来源：本文原载于《欧洲传播杂志》（European Journal of Communication，2003，18-2:181 - 207)。
本文的早期版本曾在1998年作为会议论文发表，并被编入R. Picard的《演变中的媒介市场》第二部分：外文文献原文Media Policy Paradigm ShiftsTowards a New Communications Policy ParadigmThe emergence of communications and media policyThe origins of communications policies lie in the interaction between the pursuit of national interests by states and the operations of commercial/ industrial enterprises. Both government and industry have sought mutual advantage by way of privileges, regulations and restrictions. Policies in general refer to conscious (public) projects for achieving some goal, together with the proposed means and time schedule for achieving them. The specific content of government policies reflects the deal made in the particular time and place and the balance of power and advantage between government and industry. At this level of generality, not a great deal has changed, despite the general transition during the 20th century to more democratic forms of government and increasing trends towards globalization. Even so, in the field of media policy there have been significant developments, especially reflecting the changing technologies of communication and the increased importance of communication in ‘postindustrial’societies, which are more often known as ‘information societies’.Although for centuries there have been state interventions and regulations relating to transport and travel, for purposes of control, finance or for strategic reasons, it would be anachronistic to speak of communications policies before the series of electronic inventions beginning with the electric telegraph in the mid-19th century. In this article, we identify three main phases of communications policy-making. We may label these consecutive phases as (I) the phase of emerging communications industry policy, (II) the phase of public service media policy, and (III) the phase of a new communications policy paradigm.The general shape of communications policyThe main elements or factors of policy for media and telecommunications policy, leaving aside the question of changes over time and differences between contexts, consist of: the goals or objectives to be pursued; the values and criteria by which goals are defined or recognized; the variouscontent and communication services to which policy applies; the different distribution services (mainly print publishing, cable, satellite and broadcast dissemination andtelecommunications); and finally the appro-priate policy measures and means of implementation (mainly embodied in law, regulation, self-regulation or market practices).The goal of economic welfare has been subject to changing definitions as far as communication is concerned. Minimum requirements are for infrastructure provisions that allow a national economy to function efficiently in production and market terms. Increasingly, under conditions of an information society, the communication system is an integral part of the economy and forms an important and elaborate market in its own right. Relevant values aside from general ones of efficiency, employment and profitability include those of innovation and interconnection.This general model of the social communications system viewed according to the perspective of policy-makers is an artificial composite of elements that will not apply to all national cases very well. It is also anachronistic, combining national experiences over a long period during which society and communication technology have been changing considerably. In order to make more sense of the information and interpretations it summarizes, we need to sketch the successive phases of policy-making which have each left their mark on communication systems and still exert an influence on the way the challenges of today are handled. In the description that follows we make an initial distinction between an early stage of emerging policy for media and communications that lasted approximately until the watershed of the Second World War, which opened the way for change in much of the world and also coincided with the rise of television as a major mass medium.New communication policy:Policy makers still face many difficulties and unsolved problems. For a country, these main problems: the scope and objectives of the definition of public domain media; economic means, regulation and self-discipline, policy choice; for all areas of the media for consistent principle and regulation framework, how to define and develop the national culture media policy; how to balance the communication freedom and social demand. Policy convergence? Under the influence of science and technology, through the choice of the same objectives, principles and methods applied to a unified regulatory laws and regulations, whether the media policy tends to convergence? This view has been widely supported and can beimplemented (for example, the British Communications Act of 2002), but the problem can not be answered with a simple "yes" or "no" to answer the 25 question. While there are reasons to dilute the boundaries between different media, it is not necessary to use the same regulations for all different media services. Europe is now the trend is: Despite the encouragement of the overall policy thinking, but also to encourage the development of independent state laws and regulations of the country to control the media operations of the public sphere. Currently there are enough reason to ask to have a coherent policy system (especially towards freedom and diversity), but this does not mean that the whole uniform handling of all media content (advertising, art, news, sex, etc.). Because the media content and the audience are obviously different. So it is possible and necessary to use different regulations for different purposes. Public freedom of communication is still very important, and should not allow any single institution to put too much pressure on a certain mode of transmission, but also the treatment of different media should have a special case and special measures. In addition, one important aspect is that, in order to protect the interests of the audience / citizens, we should also keep a political and social cultural values.Looking for the new policy paradigmAlthough much remains uncertain, there is scope for making a provisional judgement concerning the core principles of the emerging paradigm. This can be based on certain clear trends in technology, policy and economics, plus a recognition of social and political inputs and constraints. Although public service broadcasting and universal tele-communications service are unlikely to disappear from the political agenda, convergence in technology, liberalization of communication markets and information and communication abundance demand a different conceptualization of communications policy.Freedom of communication should remain the main objective of any communications policy to be designed. Freedom can be expressed negatively as well as positively (Lichtenberg, 1990). In the former respect it refers to the independence of communication participants from government (no censorship), from economic and other forces hindering exchange of messages (e.g. economic monopolies and other dominant market positions) as well as from social and political pressure groups. In its positive aspect, freedom refers to all those activities people in society can be enabled to do with their freedom, e.g. to contribute to the civic debate onpolitics or to express artistic creativity. There should be provision for both aspects as policy goals.Communication regulation relates to different dimensions of the communications system, that is the structure of the communication market, the market conduct of communication participants or the content of communication (see McQuail, 1992: 87—96). Negative freedom of communication relates mainly to market structure and market conduct, whereas positive freedom primarily relates to content and also requires attention to our second principle, that of access.As far as the Internet is concerned, the implications for policy are clear enough in respect of two of the three basic principles advocated, namely freedom and access. The Internet began in freedom, although it might not have done so without government sponsorship originally. Access to the Internet has been widely adopted as a suitable goal of policy, for various reasons. The story of emerging policy for the Internet cannot yet be told, although there are some parallels with the history of communications policy as told in this article. The first stage was one of encouragement to develop for economic and industrial reasons and we are entering a second stage where reasons for control on public interest grounds are beginning to assert themselves. However, large questions remain to be answered about what form of control can or should be applied to conduct or content (in the ‘public interest’）and about what kind and degree of accountability, if any, is appropriate. Any new paradigm for communications policy will have to indicate some answers.Source:This article appeared in the "European Communication magazine" (European 2003, Journal of Communication, 18-2:181 - 207). An earlier version of this article was published in 1998 as a conference paper, and was incorporated into the R. Picard "in the evolution of the media market"。