handout_3语料库讲义
Handout-B3Unit7
Unit 7 Book 3Part I In-class ReadingI. Words and ExpressionsNote: Study the following words and phrases carefully and get ready for dictation.Alternativeadj. providing a choice between two or more things; other 其他可选用的，不同的Have you got an alternative suggestion?n.a choice between two or more things1. 两者（或在两者以上）间择一，取舍，抉择Her father gave her the alternative of going on to college or starting to work.她父亲让她在上大学继续求学和开始工作之间作出抉择。
2. 供替代的选择Is there an alternative to surgery?除外科手术外，还有无其他办法？3. 选择的自由，选择的余地We have no alternative in this matter.在这件事上我们没有选择的余地。
alternate v.交替，轮流adj.交替的，轮流的alter v.改变alteration n.变更，改造alternation n. 交替alternatively adv.二者择一地approvaln. favourable opinion 许可，赞同；批准，核准The father expressed approval of what the son did.父亲对儿子的所作所为表示赞许approve v. 赞同，允许commitmentn. promise to undertake 承诺Father made a commitment that he would give me a computer as a birthday present.父亲承诺说他会给我一台计算机做生日礼物。
Handout-Book3-Unit3
Guidelines for StudentsUnit 3 Book 3■Part One In-class Reading◆The words and expressions students are supposed to master before class:1. constantly (adv.) (Line 3, Para. 1)－He doesn’t like his new neighbor because the husband and the wife constantly quarrel with each other－The view across the valley presented a constantly changing panorama(全景图). Adj. constant－He is a constant friend of mine.（坚定的，忠贞的）－No one could bear your constant complaints.（不变的，时常发生的）2. guilty (adj.) (-ier, -iest) (Line 10, Para. 2)－I have a guilty conscience about forgetting to mail your letter.－He was found /declared guilty.Idiom:1) This guy was guilty of theft.2) I feel guilty about having told a lie.3. suppress (v.) (Line 11, Para. 2)1)抑制（感情、思想等）2) 压制，镇压3)隐藏，藏匿－She could hardly suppress a smile.－Opposition to the government was quickly suppressed.－His father tried to suppress the scandal.4. resentful (adj.) (Line 15, Para. 3)－He was deeply resentful at her interference.－She gave her husband a resentful look.v. resent: resent sth./ doing sth./ that…(对……表示忿恨)n. resentment 忿恨(Line 40, Para. 6)5. range (in sth.) from ... to …(Line 21, Para. 4)－The children’s ages range from 5 to 10 / between 5 and 10.－His feelings to this failure have ranged from bitterness to hope.6. foster (v.) (Line 28, Para. 5)1) 培养，促进2) 抚养，养育－I The couple wanted to adopt the black child they had been fostering.－She has since gone on to find happiness by fostering more than 100 children.－We hope these meetings will help foster friendly relations between our two countries.－These sessions are designed to foster better working relationships.7. stimulate (v.) (Line29, Para. 5)1)刺激，使兴奋2) 鼓励－Exercise stimulates the body.－The approach of the 2008 Olympic Games stimulated Chinese people’s zeal for8. compel(v/n) (Line 54, Para. 7)－They submitted because they were compelled.－His cleverness and skill compel our admiration.－Her illness compelled her to give up his studies.adj. compelling:使人非注意不可的－My second and more compelling reason for going to Dearborn was to see the Henry Ford Museum.－The court was presented with compelling evidence that she'd murdered her husband.9. optimum（Line56 Para7）10. accessibility (Line 62, Para. 8)access →accessible →accessibility－The only access to their house is along a narrow road.－Students need easy access to books.－The island is accessible only by boat.－The problem with some of these drugs is that they are so very accessible.－Two new roads are being built to increase accessibility to the town centre.－The accessibility of her plays (= the fact that they can be understood) means that she is able to reach a wide audience.11. supreme (Line62,Para8) 1) 最高位的2) 极度的；至上的－The matter will have to be decided by the Supreme Court.－Love brings him the supreme courage.－Technology is to the development of the modern society a matter of supreme importance.12. basis(Line 21，Para4) 【Pl】：bases－A steady process in economy is supposed to establish/lay a basis for the construction of a Harmonious Society.－On the basis of these facts, we can reach the following conclusion.13. concern（Line59，Para8）1) “挂念，担心”，不可数名词，后接about/for－I feel no concern about the matter.2) “关系，利害关系” concern后接with/in－I have no concern with the matter.14. arise v.（Line66，Para8）(arose, arisen)1.出现, 产生－The birds also attack crops when the opportunity arises.－Problems arose over plans to build a new supermarket here.2.由……引起, 起源于－Are there any matters arising from the last meeting?－The board acknowledges the problems which arise from the newness of the 15. expense n（Line2，Para1）.1) “花费，费用”，常为不可数－household expense 家庭支出；public expense 公费；2)具体的“花一笔钱”或“费用，津贴”多为可数16. invaluable adj （Line65，Para8）.注：invaluable不是valuable的反义词，而是priceless的同义词1) 注意区分invaluable和pricelessinvaluable意为“珍贵的”，多指质地上是非常宝贵的，也可对实际无法计价的事物进行修饰；be invaluable to…Their services were invaluable to me.priceless意为“极贵重的，无价的”，Is this dress priceless?17. necessity n（Line52，Para7）. “必要性”：为不可数名词。
Handout-Book3-Unit1
Guidelines for StudentsUnit 1 Book 3Part I In-class ReadingThe words and expressions students are supposed to master:1. acquaintanceHe has a wide circle of acquaintances.He has some acquaintance with German, but does not speak it fluently.Have a nodding acquaintance with (a subject)对（某学科）略知一二Make the acquaintance of sb: get to know sbacquaint v.Acquaint oneself with: make familiar with; reveal toBe acquainted with sbI’m not acquainted with the professor.2. adverselyin a harmful wayadverse adj:unfavorable; contrary or hostile (to):adverse weather conditionsadverse winds 逆风adversity n.TroubleA brave man smiles in the face of adversityA friend is known in adversity.Misfortune affliction(不幸, 苦难, 灾难)3. assuranceConfidence in oneselfA businessman, to be successful, should act with perfect assurance.PromiseHe gave me a definite assurance that the repairs would be finished by Friday. Give sb an assurance that = assure sb thatWith assurance = with confidence4. contrastI like the contrast of the white trousers with the black jacket.There's a marked contrast between his character and hers.Their economy has expanded enormously, while ours, by/in contrast, has declined.The amount spent on defense is in sharp contrast to that spent on housing and health.contrast verbIf you contrast some of her early writing with her later work, you can see just how much she improved.The styles of the two film makers contrast quite dramatically.contrasting adjectivecontrasting colors / flavorsthe contrasting attitudes of different age-groups5. Dwellthink or talk at length about sth, especially sth unpleasantIn his speech, he dwelt on the plight of the sick and the hungry.(liter) dwell in/at: residedwelling n: place of residencetown-dwellersCave-dwellers6. eliminateremove or get rid of something or somebody 消除，排除A move towards healthy eating could help eliminate heart disease.We eliminated the possibility that it could have been an accident.The police eliminated him from their enquiries.7. Esteemn. a feeling of respect and admirationThere has been a drop in public esteem for teachers.We all hold him in great esteem.Because of their achievements they were held in (= given) (high) esteem.v. Have a high opinion of; respect greatlyNo one can esteem your father more than I do.Her work is highly esteemed by all her colleagues.(formal) consider; regardI esteem it a privilege to address this audience.self-esteemI) Losing the job was a real blow to his self-esteem.II) The program is designed to help children from broken families build their self-esteem.8. Inadequacyinadequatenot good enough or too low in quality:This work is extremely inadequate - you'll have to do it again.Maddie's a real expert on art, so I feel completely inadequate whenever I talk to her about it.too small in amount:She rejected the $2 million offer as totally inadequate.inadequately adverbOur scientific research is inadequately funded.inadequacy noun [C or U]Economic growth is hindered by the inadequacies of the public transport system.I always suffer from feelings of inadequacy when I'm with him.9. inferior Not as good as, or worse than someone or sth elseThese products are inferior to those we bought last year.She cited cases in which women had received inferior health care.It was clear the group were regarded asintellectually/morally/socially inferior.Cf. superiorspontaneouslyspontaneous adjectivehappening or done in a natural, often sudden way, without any planning or without being forced: His jokes seemed spontaneous, but were in fact carefully prepared beforehand.spontaneously adverbThe liquid spontaneously ignited.In the past ten years skyscrapers have developed ______ in Chicago and New Y orkCity.(A)homogeneously (C)spontaneously(B)simultaneously (D)harmoniouslydwell on think or talk for too long about something, especially something unpleasant 谈或想得很多e.g.I) Let’s not dwell on your past mistakes.II) There is no need to dwell on Sarah further.live up to do as well as is expected or promised 符合，不辜负（期望）e.g. I) The concert was brilliant—it lived up to all our expectations.II) She fails to live up to the ideal standards she has set for herself.set aside keep something, especially money or time, for a special purpose and only use it for that purpose (为某目的)节省或保留(钱或时间)e.g. I) I will set a piece of cake aside for you.II) Try to set aside at least an hour each day for learning new vocabulary.Difficult sentences or useful expressions from the text:1 Shyness is the cause of much unhappiness for a great many people. All kinds of people describe themselves as shy: short, tall, dull, intelligent, young, old, slim, overweight. Shy people are anxious and self-conscious; that is, they are excessively concerned with their own appearance and actions. Worrisome thoughts are constantly swirling in their minds: What kind of impression am I making? Do they like me? Do I sound stupid? I’m ugly. I’m wearing unattractive clothes.2 It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people adversely. A person’s self-concept is reflected in the way he or she behaves, and the way a personbehaves affects other people’s reactions. In general, the way people think about themselves has a profound effect on all areas of their lives. For instance, people who have a positive sense of self-worth or high self-esteem usually act with confidence. Because they have self-assurance, they do not need constant praise and encouragement from others to feel good about themselves. Self-confident people participate in life enthusiastically and spontaneously. They are not affected by what others think they “should” do. People with high self-esteem are not hurt by criticism; they do not regard criticism as a personal attack. Instead, they view a criticism as a suggestion for improvement.3 In contrast, shy people, having low self-esteem, are likely to be passive and easily influenced by others. They need reassurance that they are doing “the right thing.” Shy people are very sensitive to criticism; they feel it confirms their inferiority. They also find it difficult to be pleased by compliments because they believe they are unworthy of praise. A shy person may respond to a compliment with a statement like this one: “You’re just saying that to make me feel good. I know it’s not true.” It is clear that, while self-awareness is a healthy quality, overdoing it is detrimental, or harmful.4 Can shyness be completely eliminated, or at least reduced? Fortunately, people can overcome shyness with determined and patient effort in building self-confidence. Since shyness goes hand in hand with lack of self-esteem, it is important for people to accept their weaknesses as well as their strengths. For example, most people would like to be “A” students in every subject. It is not fair for them to label themselves as inferior because they have difficulty in so me areas. People’s expectations of themselves must be realistic. Dwelling on the impossible leads to a sense of inadequacy, and even feelings of envy, or jealousy. We are self-destructive when we envy a student who gets better grades.5 If you are shy, here are some specific helpful steps toward building self-confidence and overcoming shyness:6 1. Recognize your personal strengths and weaknesses. Everyone has both. As self-acceptance grows, shyness naturally diminishes.7 2. Set reasonable goals. For example, you may be timid about being with a group of strangers at a party. Don’t feel that you must converse with everyone. Concentrate on talking to only one or two people. You will feel more comfortable.8 3. Guilt and shame are destructive feelings. Don’t waste time and energy on them. Suppose you have hurt someone’s feelings. Feeling ashamed accomplishes nothing. Instead, accept the fact that you have made a mistake, and make up your mind to be more sensitive in the future.9 4. There are numerous approaches to all issues. Few opinions are completely right or wrong. Don’t be afraid to speak up and give your point of view.10 5. Do not make negative comments about yourself. This is a form of self-rejection. Avoid describing yourself as stupid, ugly, a failure. Accent the positive.11 6. Accept criticism thoughtfully. Do not interpret it as a personal attack. If, for example, a friend complains about your cooking, accept it as a comment on your cooking, not yourself. Be assured that you are still good friends, but perhaps yourcooking could improve.12 7. Remember that everyone experiences some failures and disappointments. Profit from them as learning experiences. Very often a disappointment becomes a turning point for a wonderful experience to come along. For instance, you may be rejected by the college of your choice. However, at the college you actually attend, you may find a quality of education beyond what you had expected.13 8. Do not associate with people who make you feel inadequate. Try to change their attitude or yours, or remove yourself from that relationship. People who hurt you do not have your best interests at heart.14 9. Set aside time to relax, enjoy hobbies, and reevaluate your goals regularly. Time spent this way helps you learn more about yourself.15 10. Practice being in social situations. Don’t isolate yourself from people. Try making one acquaintance at a time; eventually you will circulate in large groups with skill and self-assurance.16 Each one of us is a unique, valuable individual. We are interesting in our ownpersonal ways. The better we understand ourselves, the easier it becomes to live up to our full potential. Let’s not allow shyness to block our chances for a rich and fulfilling life.Students’ Tasks:Practice as much as possible the in-class reading (including new words and phrases, text, grammar items etc.) so that you will be fully prepared to do the following in the class:1.dictation ( words , phrases or sentences from the text)2.Finish Quiz from nceonline. It is due Mar. 15.3.read aloud and learn them by heart:1 Shyness is the cause of much unhappiness for a great many people. All kinds of people describe themselves as shy: short, tall, dull, intelligent, young, old, slim, overweight. Shy people are anxious and self-conscious; that is, they are excessively concerned with their own appearance and actions. Worrisome thoughts are constantly swirling in their minds: What kind of impression am I making? Do they like me? Do I sound stupid? I’m ugly. I’m wearing unattractive clothes.2 It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people adversely. A person’s self-concept is reflected in the way he or she behaves, and the way a person behaves affects other people’s reactions. In general, the way people think about themselves has a profound effect on all areas of their lives. For instance, people who have a positive sense of self-worth or high self-esteem usually act with confidence. Because they have self-assurance, they do not need constant praise and encouragement from others to feel good about themselves. Self-confident people participate in life enthusiastically and spontaneously. They are not affected by what others think they “should” do. People with high self-esteem are not hurt by criticism; they do not regard criticism as a personal attack. Instead, they view a criticism as a suggestion for improvement.4.answer or discuss the questions concerning the topic of the text5.finish the exercises; (p.16 &17)Directions:Complete each of the following sentences by translating the Chinese in brackets intoEnglish.1) Her rough, red hands _________________ (反映了) a life of hard physical work.2) He has never been very _____________ (担心) about what other people think of him.3) His mother’s deat h when he was aged six had a ____________________ (深刻的影响) on him.4) She is _________ (看作) as a strong candidate for the job.5) Some people’s teeth are highly ______________ (敏感的) to cold.6) How did she _____________ (作出反应) to the news?7) The new process has ____________ (排除) the need for checking the products by hand.8) It’s taken me a while but at last I’ve managed to ___________ (克服我的恐惧) of publicspeaking.9) If you want to pass your exams, you’ll have to _______________ (注意力集中在) yourlistening skills.10) She was asked about a pay increase for the factory workers but ___________ (未做评论).TranslationDirections: Translate the following sentences into English, using the expressions in brackets.1. 你应该适当化一点时间休息和锻炼。
handout 3-代词和数词
Handout 3 数词和代词英语数词用法一.基数词: 表示数目的数词1.两位数: 几十和个位数之间加连词号, 如: twenty-three, forty-seven, ninety-six2.三位数的读法: 第一个数字+hundred + and +后面的一位或两位数字, 如: 101读作one hundred and one, 864读作eight hundred and sixty-four3.四位数和四位以上数字的读法: 阿拉伯数字每三位为一段, 从后往前用逗号分开, 每个逗号处所用的数词分别为: thousand, million, billion, 如: 21,634,755读作twenty-one million six hundred and thirty-four thousand seven hundred and fifty-five. 注意: 读这样的数时, 只在hundred一词后加and4.hundred, thousand, million, billion表示具体数目时都不用复数形式, 但它们的复数形式可以用于一些词组中, 如: hundreds of, thousands of, millions of, billions of.5.数词dozen, score的用法与hundred, thousand等相同二.序数词: 表示数目顺序的词1.序数词一般是由基数词加th构成, 序数词前一定要加the, 如: the seventh, the thirteenth, the one hundredth2.以y结尾的基数词构成序数词时, 先把y变为i, 再加eth, 如: the twentieth, the fortieth, the fiftieth, the eightieth3.大于二十的基数词对应的序数词, 只将末位数变为序数词, 前面的其他位数仍用基数词, 如: 第532读作five hundred and thirty-second4.不规则的序数词如下: the first, the second, the third, the fifth, the eighth, the ninth, the twelfth三.数词的用法:1.编号的事物可用序数词或基数词加名词构成, 如: the fourth lesson =lesson four, the fifteenth page =page fifteen, the ninth part =part nine2.编号的事物若数字较大, 一般用基数词放在名词后面来表示, 名词前一般不用定冠词, 如: room 302, page 215,3.在表示年月日时, 年用基数词, 日用序数词, 年的读法是, 从后往前, 将年份分成两位一段, 依次读出每一段即可, 如: April 5,1976 读作April (the) fifth, nineteen seventy-six; October 1, 1949读作October the first, nineteen forty-nine;4.表示时间时用基数词:①.表示几点整的说法: It is five (o’clock)②.表示几点过几分的说法: 若不超过30分钟, 用past表示过几分; 若超过30分钟, 用to 表示差多少分到几点, 如: 3:05 =five past three, 5:20 =twenty past five; 8:35 =twenty-five to nine; 12:50 =ten to one③.表示几刻钟的说法, 如: a quarter, three quarters④.表示上午,下午某时间, 如: 8:00 a.m., 4:15 p.m.⑤.时刻也用24小时制读法, 只须依次读出点钟数和分钟数, 整点钟时, 需在最后加读hundred ( hours), 如: 18:45读作eighteen forty-five5.表示加减乘除的说法: 数学运算的加减乘分别用plus, minus, times, divided by表示a. How much is fifteen plus two?b. How much is eight minus seven?c. How much is twelve times twelve?d. How much is eighty-one divided by nine?e. Five plus three is / equals eight.f. Five minus three equals / leaves two.g. Five times three makes / is fifteen.h. Fifteen divided by three equals five.十五除以三等于五6.分数的表示法: 分子用基数词, 分母用序数词, 若分子大于1, 则分母用序数词的复数形式, 如: one third, two tenths, two thirds. 有些分数可以用half, quarter表示, 如: three quarters7.小数: 小数点读作point, 小数点前面的数字读作一个完整的基数词, 小数点后面的每位数字依次用基数词读出, 如: 3.4读作three point four, 0.2读作zero point two, 8.97读作eight point nine seven8.某些数字的读法与写法, 如: $10.20读作ten dollars and twenty cents; 35Ｏ读作thirty-five degree; -20Ｏ读作twenty degree below zero或minus twenty degree; World War II读作World War two或the second world war.9. in the 1930s / 1930’s表示“在二十世纪三十年代”10. 序数词前一般要用the, 但表示“又一,再一”的概念时, 序数词前也可以用a / ana. They plan to buy a second house. 他们计划再买第二房子英语代词用法代词(pronoun)是代替名词的词：1)可作主语、宾语和表语,定语This is John Smith.Can I help youThat's all.All men are equal.2)格的变化 I 我(主格)，me我(宾格)，Who谁(主格)，whom谁(宾格)。
Handout-Book3-Unit8
Guidelines for StudentsUnit 8 Book 3Part I In-class ReadingThe words and expressions supposed to be mastered:heredity (n.) (Line1, Para1)1. Some diseases develop because of the conditions one lives in; others are present by heredity.2. Some children seem to be gentle by heredity.比较heritage, heredity 和inheritanceFair play is part of our heritage.（使用最广泛，不仅指一般的遗产，也指世代相传的具有特色的精神财富或物质财富。
）The estate he received by inheritance from his aunt was donated to the local orphanage. （指继承这一行为，不指继承的东西。
为抽象名词。
）The colour of our skin is due to heredity.（特指生物遗传）identical (adj.) (Line 8, Para. 2)1. No leaves are identical(相同的).2. Your voice is identical to your brothers.3. This is the identical(同一的) hotel that we stayed in last year.4. Both events happened on the identical day.resemblance (n.) (Line 16, Para. 3)1. There is a strong resemblance between the authentic work of Xu Beihong and the counterfeit. resemble(v.) look or be like.⏹The identical twins resemble each other in appearance but not in character.substantially (Line 27, Para. 4)1. Though young, he has substantially contributed to the project.substantial (adj.)⏹To study abroad indicates to make substantial changes in life.substance (n.)⏹Water is a substance vital to life.⏹The substance of their discussion is how often and how long a student can surf on line.illustrate (v.) (Line 32, Para. 4)1.He illustrated his point by relating his own experience.2.If you illustrate this children book, it will sell much better.比较:⏹Our staff members are always ready to demonstrate how this computer works. (意为“示范；说明”。
handout_2语料库讲义
2. Linguistic theory and corpus linguistics2.1 Background-- Back in the 1960s the efforts by Francis and Kučera to create a machine-readable corpus of English were not warmly accepted by many members of the linguistic community.-- The creation of the Brown Corpus was regarded as “a useless and foolhardy enterprise” because “the only legitimate source of grammatical knowledge” about a language was the intuition of the native speaker, and this intuition could not be obtained from a corpus.-- The difference that has characterized the relationship between the corpus linguist and the generative grammarian rests on a false assumption: that all corpus linguists are descriptivists, and that all generative grammarians are theoreticians unconcerned with the data on which their theories are based.The three types of adequacy that Chomsky claims linguistic descriptions can meet:observational adequacydescriptive adequacyexplanatory adequacyWhile the generative grammarian strives for explanatory adequacy (the highest level of adequacy, according to Chomsky), the corpus linguist aims for descriptive adequacy (a lower level of adequacy), and what‟s more, generative grammarians do not think that corpora can provide enough evidence to achieve explanatory adequacy of linguistic descriptions.2.2 Linguistic theory and descriptionIf a theory or description achieves observational adequacy, it is able to describe which sentences in a language are grammatically well formed.To achieve descriptive adequacy(a higher level of adequacy), the description or theory must not only describe whether individual sentences are well formed but also specify the abstract grammatical properties which make the sentences well formed.The highest level of adequacy is explanatory adequacy. This adequacy is achieved when the description or theory not only reaches descriptive adequacy but does so using abstract principles which can be applied beyond the language being considered and become a part of “Universal Grammar.” At this level o f adequacy, one would describe that English is not a language which can omit subject pronouns because, unlike Spanish, Italian or Japanese, English is not a language which permits “pro-drop”.In the Minimalist Program, a distinction is made between those elements of a language that are part of the “core” and those that are part of the “periphery.”This idealized view of language is taken because the goal of the minimalist program is “a theory of the initial state.”Unlike generative grammarians, corpus linguists see complexity and variation as inherent in language, and in their discussions of language, they place a very high priority on descriptive adequacy, not explanatory adequacy.Corpus linguists are very skeptical of the highly abstract and decontextualized discussions of language which are promoted by generative grammarians, largely because such discussions are too far removed from actual language usage.Chafe sums up the disillusionment that corpus linguists have with purely formalist approaches to language study. He noted that they “exclude observations rather than ... embrace ever more of them” and that they rely too heavily on “notational devices designed to account for only those aspects of reality that fall within their purview, ignoring the remaining richness which also cries out for understanding.” The corpus linguist embraces complexity; the generative grammarian pushes it aside, seeking an ever more restrictive view of language.2.3 Corpus linguistics: a methodology or a theory?Corpus linguistics is generally considered to be a methodology rather than an independent branch of linguistics. But this view is not shared by all scholars within the circle of corpus linguistics.Halliday points out in one of the papers he wrote in 1993 (Quantitative Studies and Probabilities in Grammar) that corpus linguistics re-unites the activities of data gathering and theorising and argues that this is leading to a qualitative change in our understanding of language.Tognini-Bonelli (the widow of John Sinclair) argues in her book Corpus Linguistics at Work (2001) that corpus linguistics “goes well beyond this purely methodological role” and “has, therefore, a theoretical status ….”One of the reasons for giving corpus linguistics a status of an independent discipline is that what it studies cannot be classified according to traditional concepts of linguistics or grammar.Michael Hoey published a book entitled Lexical Priming: A new theory of words and language in 2005. In the Introduction to the first chapter he wrote: “In this book I want to argue for a new theory of the lexicon, which amounts to a new theory of language. The theory reverses the roles of lexis and grammar, arguing that lexis is complexly and systematically structured and that grammar is an outcome of this lexical structure. It is quite clear from what he said that he is trying to justify the theoretical status of corpus linguistics.Sinclair developed the concept of extended unit of meaning. The idea of extended unit of meaning is different from the one in traditional linguistics. According to Sinclair, a unit of meaning is one that has its unique meaning which other units of meaning do not possess. For example, Sinclair (1998) uses the collocation naked eye to show his concept of extended units of meaning.-- In this course, for the convenience of description, less rigid, indeed less limiting, position is taken. Corpus linguistics is considered as a methodology with a wide range of applications across many areas and theories of linguistics.If you are interested in the argument that corpus linguistics is a theory not just a methodology, you can read the following reference books, especially the one edited by Viana et. al. (2011).Halliday, M., W. Teubert, C. Yallop and A. Cermakova. 2005. Lexicology and Corpus Linguistics. London: Continuum.Hoey, Micheal. 2005. Lexical Priming: A New Theory of Words and Language. London: Routledge.Teubert, Wolfgang. 2005. “My version of corpus linguistics”. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics. Vol. 10/1. John Benjamins Publishing Company.Tognini-Bonelli, Elena. 2001. Corpus Linguistics at Work. Amsterdam: Benjamins.Viana V., Sonia Zyngier and Geoff Barnbrook (ed.) 2011. Perspectives on Corpus Linguistics. Philadelphia: John Benjamins B.V.李文中, 2010. 语料库语言学的研究视野.《解放军外国语学院学报》第2期.濮建忠, 2010. 语料库与语言一元化研究.《解放军外国语学院学报》第2期.卫乃兴, 2009. 语料库语言学的方法论及相关理念.《外语研究》第5期.许家金, 2003. 语料库语言学的理论解析.《外语教学》第6期.张瑞华, 2009. 访英国伯明翰大学语料库语言学家WOLFGANG TEUBERT教授.《外国语》第2期.2.4 Corpus linguistics: corpus-based or corpus-driven?2.4.1 A corpus-based approachA corpus-based approach uses a corpus or corpora as a source of examples to check researcher intuition or to examine the frequency and/or plausibility of the language contained within a smaller data set. The researches adopting corpus-based approach do not question the pre-existing traditional descriptive units and categories, for example: passive voice, progressive aspect, nominalization, relative clauses, etc.One of the typical applied linguistics studies using a corpus-based approach is the study of the use of adverbial connectors in advanced Swedish learners‟ written English by Altenberg and Tapper (1998). The study takes Quirk et al.‟s (1985) description of the conjuncts (i.e. adverbial connectors) in English as the standard and compares it with the uses of these adverbial connectors by the Swedish learners of English with the data taken from both a comparable corpus composed of a native English speaker sub-corpus and a Swedish learners‟ sub-corpus.To summarize, the essential characteristics of corpus-based analyses are as follows:1. It is empirical, analyzing the actual patterns of use in natural texts; (An empirical approach is an approach to acquiring knowledge that emphasizes direct observation and experimentation as a way of answering questions.)2. It utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a …corpus,‟ as the basis for analysis;3. It makes extensive use of computers for analysis, using both automatic and interactive techniques;4. It depends on both quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques.5. It bases the analyses on the existing grammatical theories.2.4.2 A corpus-driven approachA corpus-driven approach is different from a corpus-based one in that in a corpus-driven approach, the “descriptions aim to be comprehensive with respect to corpus evidence”, so that even the …linguistic categories‟ are derived “systematically from the recurrent patterns and the frequency distributions that emerge from language in context” (Tognini-Bonelli 2001: 87).In its most basic form, corpus-driven analysis assumes only the existence of words. Co-occurrence patterns among words, discovered from the corpus analysis, are the basis for subsequent linguistic descriptions.In fact, even inflected variants of the same lemma are treated separately, e.g. the inflected variants of the same lemma TAKE take, took, taken, takes, taking. This is because corpus linguists who believe in corpus-driven approach claim that each word form has its own grammar and its own meanings.The corpus-driven research is more inductive than a corpus-based one, so that the linguistic constructs themselves emerge from analysis of a corpus.In its most basic form, corpus-driven analysis assumes only the existence of words. Co-occurrence patterns among words, which are discovered from the corpus analysis, are the basis for subsequent linguistic descriptions. Therefore, grammatical classes and syntactic structures have no a priori status in the analysis.In fact, even inflected variants of the same lemma are treated separately, e.g. the inflected variants of the same lemma TAKE take, took, taken. This is because corpus linguists who believe in corpus-driven approach claim that each word form has its own grammar and its own meanings.A very good example of a corpus-driven study is Biber‟s “A corpus-driven approach to formulaic language in English”.First, the full set of multi-word sequences that occur most frequently in the corpus is identified. In this study, only the 4-word sequences are retrieved. Then, each of those multiword sequences is investigated to describe its variable properties: the extent to which each slot in the sequence is fixed or variable.Biber finds that the multi-word patterns typical of speech are fundamentally different from those typical of academic writing: patterns in conversation tend to be fixed sequences (including both function words and contents words). For example:In contrast, most patterns in academic writing are formulaic frames consisting of invariable function words with an intervening variable slot that is filled by contents words.====================================Besides the first four characteristics of corpus-based approach mentioned above, a radical corpus-driven approach is considered to have following three general characteristics:1. It would be based on analysis of the actual word forms that occur in the corpus (not lemmas)2. It would consider only sequences of words, regardless of the pre-definedgrammatical categories3. It would use frequency information derived from the corpus as the primary evidence to be considered in the analysis.However, in actual practice, corpus-driven studies often incorporate some corpus-based methods, and thus they might be best considered as hybrids.Finally, it is worth mentioning again that both corpus-based and corpus-driven analyses must go beyond simple counts of linguistic features. It is essential to include qualitative, functional interpretations of quantitative patterns. The patterns found in quantitative analyses should be given further explanation, exemplification, and interpretation in a qualitative way.。
必修3 Unit3-reading 公开课 handout
5. looks at the _________ on the wall
Owner:
1. sees Henry’s poor _____________
2.leadsHenry to another____________ which is not reserved
Part 1 (line 1—Owner:All right, Horace.)
Part 2
Henry:
1. looks at the _____________ outside a restaurant
2.sits downat a table next to the front window
3.moves to another tableand puts the ________ on the table
6. answers in a ___________ manner
Hostess: stands next to the door
Henry:
1. __________ at the clock on the wall again
2.___________ the envelope and holds a __________ pound bank note in his hands
When it is 2 o’clock, Henry opens the_4_________and gives the owner a million pound bank note. The owner is shocked but he thinks the noteis_5_________. Then the_6_________’s attitude changes dramatically. He tells Henry to forget about the_7_________and thanks him again and again.
handout-3-casting
handouts 3
4
Casting – Some Issues (2) heat of fusion to convert
the solid to the liquid 3.1 Heating Period Thermal Analysis
H V{Cs (Tm T ) H f Cl (Tp Tm )}
handouts 3
7
Cm is a function of - mold material
- thermal properties of the cast metal
- pouring temperature relative to the melting point of the metal.
handouts 3
8
Implication of Chvorinov’s Rule:
A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio will cool and solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.
handouts 3
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Casting – Some Design Issues
Two sections intersects: two problems:
Stress concentration
shrinkage
Heat energy required for (1) heat for raising the temperature to the melting point, (2) heat of fusion to convert the solid to the liquid, and (3) heat for raising the molten metal to the metal at the desired temperature ready to pour it into a cavity.
新东方英语Handout
选择、挑选 保养、维修、服务 设立、装配、创（记录） 、提出、开业 解决、解答 分类、筛选 发动、鼓舞、使有朝气 指定、详细说明、列入清单 开始、着手、发动 刺激、激励 加强、巩固 概述、总结、摘要而言 监督、管理、指导 支撑、扶持、支持、支援、维持 系统化 测试、试验、检验 训练、培养、锻炼 办理、交易、谈判、处理 意译、改编 转换、改变、改造 增至三倍 使升级、提升、改良 使生效、确认、证实、验证 改变、办更、使多样化 检验、校验、查证、核实 04 - Career Development Lecture 1: Interview Techniques
Justified Led Localised Located Made Managed Maintained Mechanised Merged Moderated Motivated Negotiated Opened Operated Organised Originated Overcame Perceived Performed Pioneered Planned Prepared Presented Presided Processed Programmed Promoted Provided Purchased Raised Recommended Recorded Recruited Rectified Redesigned Repaired Replaced Restored Reversed Reviewed Revised Saved Screened
BE404 - Career Development Lecture 1: Interview Techniques
List of Verbs for Precise Expression
Unit Three Handout with answers____
Handout: Words Study for Unit Three1. raw adj. (无比较级、最高级)（1）(of food) uncooked （食物）生的，未经烹煮的【短语】raw eggs生蛋【例句】The Japanese often eat raw fish. 日本人常吃生鱼。
Most fruits are eaten raw. 大部分的水果是生吃的。
（2）(of a material or substance) in its natural state; not yet processed or purified （材料，物质）自然状态的，原料状态的；未加工的，未经处理的；未经净化的【短语】raw silk 生丝in the raw处于自然状态，处于蒙昧状态；原汁原味/（非正式）（人）裸体的, 裸露的【例句】All the raw materials are imported. 所有原料全部是进口的。
If you want to see life in the raw, get a job as a police officer. 如果你想看到生活的真相，就去当警察吧。
（3）(of a person) new to an activity or job and therefore lacking experience or skill （人）生疏无知的，稚嫩的，无阅历的，无经验的；未经训练的【短语】be raw to 对……不熟练/没经验【例句】They were replaced by raw recruits. 他们为新兵所取代。
He is raw to his work. 他对工作还不熟练2. temptationn. [U]（1）a desire to do something, especially something wrong or unwise 引诱，诱惑【短语】fall into [give in/ way to, yield to] temptation 经不住诱惑avoid/overcome/ resist temptation 避开诱惑；克服诱惑；抵挡诱惑lead (sb.) into temptation 使人入迷【例句】He resisted the temptation to call Celia at the office. 他抗拒住诱惑，不在办公室给西莉亚打电话。
handout_5语料库讲义
5. Basic corpus information retrieval toolsThis unit introduces the corpus retrieval and analysis tools widely used in corpus linguistics studies.Two software packages will be introduced in this section. One is AntConc, and the other is the WordSmith Tools, which is a more sophisticated and powerful corpus analysis suite than AntConc.Although WordSmith Tools have almost all the functions which AntConc has, it is behind AntConc in at least two aspects. One is that it does not support regular expression searches, and the other is that it is more complicated in producing n-grams (in WordSmith Tools terminology, clusters) since the word list has to be indexed first, which takes quite a long time if a corpus is very large. Since we are already familiar with some functions of AntConc, this unit will focus on the uses of the WordSmith Tools. However, in Section 5.2, two or three functions of AntConc will be introduced.For the convenience of description and explanation, a small corpus, named Mini Newspaper Corpus, has been compiled and it is composed of the newspaper texts taken from the British newspaper Independent. The corpus has about 221,200 words in four categories: arts, business, foreign news and home news, stored in four different files: MCA_ART.TXT, MCA_BUS.TXT, MCA_FOR.TXT and MCA_HOM.TXT.5.1 WordSmith ToolsWordSmith Tools includes three main tools:The WordList, which lets you see a list of all the words or word-clusters in a text, set out in alphabetical or frequency order;The Concord, a concordancer, which gives you a chance to see any word or phrase in context – so that you can see what sort of company it keeps.The KeyWords, which enables you to find the key words in a text.The version we use is The WordSmith Tools Version 4. The latest version is Version 5.5.1.1 WordListWordList allows you to produce a batch word list, i.e. one list of all of the words in allof the selected files, or multiple word lists, i.e. a separate word list for each of the selected files.The output comes in three different formats: a statistical analysis, a frequency-ranked word list and an alphabetically ordered word list.5.1.1.1 Statistical analysis■Tokens and typesWhat is a token and what is a type? Look at the following sentence:Most corpus analysis tools come with two main features: a feature for generating word lists and a feature for generating concordances.There are altogether 21 words, which can also be referred to as 21 tokens. Therefore, it can be said that there are 21 tokens in this sentence. But in this sentence, not all the words or tokens are different. Some words, such as, a, feature, for, generating, etc., are repeatedAll the tokens of this sentence can be classified into 17 different types of tokens: most, corpus, analysis, tools, come, with, two, main, features, a, feature, for, generating, word, lists, and, concordances. Therefore, types are unique tokens, or one type should be different from another type. If they are not different, they are of the same type.■Type/token ratio and standardized type/token ratioThe table of statistics also shows the type/token ratio and the standardized type/token ratio. Then what are these two ratios?Type/Token RatioIf a text is 1,000 words long, it is said to have 1,000 tokens. But a lot of these words in the text are repeated, and there may be only 500 different words or types in the text. It is possible to calculate the type/token ratio of this example in the following way:460 / 1000 * 100 = 46.0The ratio between types and tokens in this example is 46.But this ratio varies very widely according to the length of the text. A 1,000-word text might have a type/token ratio of 46; a shorter text (e.g. having 500 words in 278 types), might reach 55; a 1-million-word corpus will probably have a type/token ratio of about 4, and so on. Such type/token ratio information is rather meaningless in most cases, though it is supplied in a WordList statistics display.Standardized Type/Token Ratio (STTR)In order to get the useful information of type/token ratio about a long text, the standardized type/token ratio is to be calculated.For example:If a text consists of 3,137 words, the standardized type/token ratio is calculated in the following way:1. Divide the text into four parts, the first three each consisting of 1000 words (tokens) and the last consisting of 137 words (tokens). Suppose the types in each part are as follows:Because the last part consists of less than 1000 words, this part can be neglected.2. Calculate the type/token ratio of each part:Part 1: 360/1000*100 = 36.0Part 2: 415/1000*100 = 41.5Part 3: 344/1000*100 = 34.43. Calculate the standardized type/token ratio:(36.0+41.5+34.4)/3 = 37.3■Mean word length and word length standard deviationThe statistics table also shows the mean (or average) word length and the word lengthstandard deviation.Overall Art. Bus. For. Hom.mean word length (in characters) 4.94 5.00 4.85 4.98 4.93word length std. dev. 2.76 2.83 2.70 2.72 2.76The word lengths of different texts can be compared so as to find which text has more long words than others.The word length standard deviation shows to what degree the lengths of words vary in each file of this corpus.■Sentence lengths and standard deviation of sentence lengthFor statistics of the sentences in a corpus, there are three measurements, sentences, sentence length and standard deviation of sentence length.Sentences: the total number of the sentences in a corpus.A sentence is defined as the full-stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!) immediately followed by one or more word separators (space, hyphen, etc.).Mean (in words): the average number of words in a sentence.Std. dev. (Standard deviation of sentence length): the degree to which the lengths of sentences vary from the mean (i.e. the average sentence length).Look at the following example:Sample 1The family of Dashwood had long been settled in Sussex. Their estate was large. Their residence was at Norland Park, in the centre of their property. For many generations, they had lived in so respectable a manner as to engage the general good opinion of their surrounding acquaintance.Sample 2Marianne's abilities were, in many respects, quite equal to Elinor's. She was sensible and clever; but eager in everything: her sorrows, her joys, could have no moderation. She was generous, amiable, interesting: she was everything but prudent. The resemblance between her and her mother was strikingly great.Sample 1 (4 sentences) Sample 2 (4 sentences) S1 10 S1 10 S2 4 S2 17 S3 12 S3 10 S4 22 S4 10 Total48Total47According to the WordList, the statistics of these two samples are listed in the following:The std. dev. for Sample 2 is smaller than that for Sample 1, indicating that there is a smaller difference in the lengths of sentences in Sample 2 than in Sample 1.The standard deviation is calculated with the following formula:()1/22--=∑∑N Nx x sTake Sample 1 as an example:∑x 2 = 102 + 42 + 122 +222(∑x ) 2 = (10+4+12+22) 2 = 100+16+144+484 = 482 = 744= 2304144/2304744--=s = 7.48■ Paragraph lengths and standard deviation of paragraph lengthFor statistics of paragraphs in a corpus, there are three measurements: paragraphs, mean (in words), std. dev .Paragraphs : the total number of the paragraphs in a corpus. A paragraph has to be defined by the user.Mean (in words): the average number of words in a paragraph.Std. dev. (Standard deviation of paragraph length): the degree to which the lengths of paragraphs vary from the mean (i.e. the average paragraph length).In order for the WordList to recognize and count paragraphs, the settings of the WordList has to be adjusted according to how the paragraphs are defined in a text or corpus.For example, in Corpus Collections A and B, each paragraph begins with a symbol <p> and ends with two returns. Therefore, the settings about paragraphs should be adjusted accordingly.■Word lengthsThe following table shows the statistical information about the word length.It is easy to get statistical information about word lengths from this table. For example, there are 353 14-letter words in this corpus. Each of the columns to the right of column 0 contains details about individual files in the corpus. Thus, it can be seen in column 1 that a file called MCA_ART.TXT has 92 words with 14 letters, that a file called MCA_BUS.TXT has 59 words with 14 letters, etc.5.1.1.2 Frequency listsTo produce a frequency list, WordList tool processes all of the files in your corpus and produces a list of all of the different types (different word-forms) ranked according to frequency of occurrence.Mini Newspaper Corpus Brown CorpusThe above table shows the frequency-ranked count, i.e. total number of occurrences for the first twenty-five types in the Mini Newspaper Corpus and the Brown Corpus.The table shows that the rankings are identical for the first two types but start to diverge from the third type onwards. However, the same types occur in the top seven most frequently occurring types in both lists (including numerals, #). All of the types in the top twenty-five are grammatical words or function words.■ Using a stop listA stop list contains the words which are to be excluded from the word list produced. When the stop list is applied, the WordList will produce a list of all of the words in the corpus except those which have been put in the stop list.There are two word lists in the following. The one on the left is the list produced with the application of the stop list, and the one on the right is the list without applying the stop list. It can be seen that in the left word list of the same corpus, said now ranks 1, which originally ranks 27 and that Mr , which now ranks 2, previously ranks 36.5.1.1.3 Alphabetical listsIn addition to frequency lists, WordList can produce alphabetically ordered lists, i.e. lists of all of the types in your corpus arranged in alphabetical order.An alphabetically ordered list can be very useful from a number of points of view. Firstly, it also includes information about how often each word-form occurs, so that you can find the frequency information of it easily.Secondly, all types beginning with the same letters are grouped together. This gives you easy access to individual word forms that begin with similar sets of letters.Thirdly, because related word-forms will often appear in the vicinity of each other, types such as strength , strengthen , strengthened , strengthening , strengthens , strengths are listed in close proximity. Therefore, it enables us to see whether all forms of a particular lemma are actually used in a corpus.■ Reverse alphabetical orderingAlphabetical lists can also be ordered by word endings. With the reverse order facility, all words with the same suffix are ranked together. This function is particularly useful if one wishes to identify families of words (verbs, adverbs, adjectives, nouns) ending with the same letters.■Producing word clustersIn addition to producing lists of single words, WordList can produce lists of clusters, again ranked by frequency, in alphabetical order or in reverse alphabetical order.There are other different names for this unit of language, for example, collocations, idioms, fixed- and semi-fixed phrases, pre-fabricated chunks, word clusters, or multi-word formulaic sequences, etc.There are roughly two kinds of clusters:The first kind is idiom-like groups of word, such as in my opinion,to make a long story short, How are you? or Know what I mean?The second kind is different from the first one. Clusters of this kind do not form the traditional grammatical units. They are usually a group of words often used together and crossing the border of the traditional grammatical units, for example: the fact that, part of the, the end of, it is possible that, in the face of, at a time when etc.Many researchers have proved that language teaching should direct learners‟ attention to the second kind of lexical chunks because in native speakers‟ language, native speakers use a lot of such chunks or clusters. If learners of a foreign language can have a very good grasp of the uses of these chunks, their language production would be smooth and native like.Therefore, the cluster function of the WordList tool is very useful.5.1.1.4 Word lists do not tell the whole storyWe should note that word lists do not tell the whole story. They do not discriminate between words that have the same form but belong to different grammatical categories. As frequency lists show us words out of context, all of the possible interpretations of a particular word will not be immediately apparent. You should therefore avoid making claims about the frequency of any word without checking how it is actually used in context.5.1.2 ConcordThere are different types of concordancing tools, for example, monolingual concordancers and bilingual concordancers. In this section, only the monolingualconcordancer is dealt with.As has been mentioned, in WordSmith Tools suite, one of the tools is Concord, which is a monolingual concordancer. Since we have already got familiar with the MicroConcord, we will do some exercises to review what a concordancer can do and to become clear of the differences between MicroConcord and WordSmith Tools.5.1.2.1 How to produce concordances with Concorda. producing KWIC concordancesb. Re-sortingc. Using different search patternsd. Looking for words in contexte. Selecting every n lines of the concordance lines of a certain wordf. Producing clusters with the search wordg. Save the concordance linesetc.5.1.2.2 Displaying collocatesConcord offers an additional facility which computes and displays the most frequently occurring collocates. Collocates are words which typically occur in the vicinity of the search pattern. The following figure shows an extract from the collocates for the search word interested:The collocates display shows the search pattern (interested) in the middle column and then shows, for each position to the left and right of the search pattern, which word occurs most frequently. Thus, interested appears in line 1 of the figure, occurring a total of 14times and all these occurrences are in the centre. In is the next most frequently occurring collocate, the the next, and the next, and so on. If you are careful enough, you will find that in occurs 9 times and all these occurrences are in Right positions and more specifically 7 of them occur in R1 position, forming the collocation interested in.However, whether two words form a collocation or not has to be further tested by their collocability, and collocability is calculated on the basis of information provided by the collocate viewer. This is one of the advantages of this collocate viewer because the words and frequencies in the Word column and Total column of this table can be saved so as to be used to calculate z-score, t-score and MI-score. These scores can statistically prove that the two words are collocations of each other.5.1.3 KeyWordsWhile frequency lists are very useful for giving you an indication of what a text or corpus is about, WordSmith Tools also has another facility called KeyWords which will identify words which occur with an unusually high frequency in a text or corpus when that text or corpus is compared with another corpus. These are called …key types‟. The KeyWords tool will therefore give you an even better indication of what a text is about.It can be useful for the purposes of discourse analysis or stylistics studies. For example, you may be interested in comparing two versions of the same event reported in two different publications. The KeyWords tool will highlight what is unique about each of the versions.5.1.3.1 How to make a key word listTo make a key word list, two frequency lists are needed: one for the corpus from which the key words are found; and the other list for all the texts in a corpus used for comparisons.For example, if the key word list of the file business news is to be produced as compared with all the other files in the Mini Newspaper Corpus(not including business news), the first step is to make a frequency list for each of them (business news vs. all the other files in the corpus). Then use the KeyWords tool to open these two lists at the sametime. The tool will produce a key word list for the business news file. See figures below.Based on Log Likelihood test (Default setting)Based on chi-square χ2 test5.2 AntConcIn this section, only two or three aspects of this software will be introduced.5.2.1 How to search information in a Chinese corpusAntConc can process Chinese texts on the condition that the texts are segmented and saved as plain texts but not in Unicode format. Therefore, the Chinese texts have to gothrough a segmentation operation first before data can be drawn from it with corpus information retrieval tools.5.2.1.1 Adjust the settingsGlobal Settings-- language encodingEdit ♑ Chinese encodings ♑ Chinese CP936 ♑ Apply-- Token (word) definitionsTick the boxes before “number”, “punctuation”, “symbol”Then press the “Apply” button.5.2.1.2 Examples of searches in a Chinese corpus with AntConcFile: 09rep_seg.txt.Settings:Edit ♑ Chinese encodings ♑ Chinese CP936 ♑ ApplyTick the boxes before “number”, “punctuation”, “symbol”Then press the “Apply” button.Searches:-- Concordance (Search word: 推进)-- Word list-- Clusters (Search word: 推进)-- N-grams5.2.2 Searches with wildcardsTo conduct complicated searches, the wildcard search and the regular expression search should be employed.For wildcard search, symbols such as *, ?, !, etc. are used in order to find words withthe same beginning, ending, etc. but different in other parts. For example:book* returns book, books, booked, booking, bookings(book* = book/books/booked/booking/bookings)*sation returns any words with the same ending of -sation.at * * of returns any 4-word combinations beginning with at and ending with of with two other words in between.Both the WordSmith Tools and AntConc support the wildcard search. But there is another more flexible search method, i.e. the regular expression search, which the WordSmith Tools suite does not support, while Antconc does.5.2.3 Searches with regular expressionsSince we only need to know how to use regular expressions in the search task, this section only deals with the uses of regular expressions through a practical search operation, i.e. the search for passive voice predicates in an English text.But it is impossible to explain a complete set of search patterns for the passive voice predicate, therefore, only some basic patterns of the search are introduced.WordSmith Tools Version 4 does not support the regular expression search, but AntConc does. Therefore, the following searches can only be done with AntConc.5.2.4 Passive voice predicate searches with regular expressionsIf the simplest form of the passive predicate BE DONE (were/was/am/are/is done, but not including been done) is searched, the following regular expression is used: \S+_VB(DR)?(DZ)?(M)?(R)?(Z)?\s\S+_V\wNFunctions:\S+_ 匹配任意长度字符串后跟一个下划线VB(DR)?(DZ)?(M)?(R)?(Z)? 匹配下列中的任意一个: VB, VBDR, VBDZ, VBM,VBR,VBZ \s 匹配一个空格\w 匹配任意一个字母或数字字符V\wN 匹配下列中的任意一个: VBN, VVN, VDN, VHNSearch Result:The above example constitutes only a part of passive voice predicate search with regular expressions. There are still other forms of passive predicates which are not dealt with, for example:were/was/am/are/is (not/hardly/ultimately etc.) donemust/should/will/can/may (not/hardly/ultimately etc.) be donehave to/ought to/is to be donehave/has/had/ (not/hardly/ultimately etc.) been doneetc.These searches can be done with the same method of constructing the regular expressions. Note that there are some errors due to the inaccuracy of the pos tagging procedure (line 13, for example).All the regular expressions used for searching passive voice predicates should be saved in a text file so that they can be loaded into the computer memory.。
Assignment 3 Handout
A Command Parser
Page 1 of 4
negative." should be printed. The number value in the error message is the actual number. You must use the cin input operator (>>) in this assignment. Do not use getline or any function that converts strings to integers or vice versa. You can assume that the input will be provided one command per line. The operation and each argument will be separated by one or more spaces or tab characters, called “white space”. There may be zero or more space or tab characters before the operation or after the last argument of a command (before the newline character).
4.
Commands and Arguments
The commands and their arguments are shown below. All commands are in lower case. The operations are shown in bold and the arguments are shown in italics. • new emplnum. This command should print "New: emplnum". The emplnum argument is described above. locate emplnum. This command should print "Locate: emplnum". The emplnum argument is described above. updatename emplnum lastname firstname. This command should print "Updatename: empnum firstname lastname". It takes three arguments. The emplnum argument is described above. The last two arguments are strings. Note the reverse order of the last two arguments in the output. Assume that lastname and firstname are no more than 80 characters long. updatedivision emplnum division. This command should print "Updatedivision: emplnum division". This command takes two arguments all of which are numbers. The emplnum argument is described above. The division argument must be in the range 1-5 (inclusive), otherwise the error message "Error: <division> is out of the range 1-5." should be printed. The division argument should be printed as a single digit. delete emplnum. This command should print "Delete: emplnum". The emplnum argument is described above. printall. This command should simply print "Printall". deleteall. This command should simply print "Deleteall".
高二英语Unit 23 Lesson 3handout
Unit 23 Lesson 3Passage AI got a phone call from the chief nurse, saying, "You've got a patient there that is going to get an award. Make sure that the ward looks good." This really turned me off to begin with: "Let's clean up the ward because we've got VIPs coming in." Well, the VIPs happened to be a general and a group of about twelve people. This patient still had fresh scars from his first visit to us and this time he'd had both his legs blown off --he was all of about twenty years old. When he was waking up after the surgeon had finished putting bandages on what was left of his legs, he whispered: "Don't you remember me, ma'am?" I said, "Oh yeah!" But really I didn't because there were so many of them.The general was coming to give him the award because he happened to be number twenty thousand to come through this hospital. They had this little ceremony, saluted him, and then gave him a Purple Heart1 and a watch. As the general handed him the watch, "from the army, to show our appreciation," the kid more or less threw the watch back at him. He said something like, "I can't accept this, sir; it's not going to help me walk." After this little incident, I went over and took him in my arms. If I remember correctly, I started sobbing and I think he was crying too. I really admired him for that. I swear that it was the only time I let somebody see what I felt. It took a lot for him to do that, and it's sort of said what this war was all about to me.V ocabulary：Surgeon：n.外科医生ward: n. 病房salute: v. 敬礼bandage: n. 绷带Passage BDo Chuc is a forty-eight-year-old Vietnamese farmer whose two daughters and an aunt were killed by American soldiers in My Lai that day. He and his family were eating breakfast when the American soldiers entered the village and ordered them from their homes. Together with other villagers they were marched a few hundred metres into the village square where they were told to sit. "Still we had no reason to be afraid," Chuc remembers. "Everyone was calm. We'd seen it all before." Then, in surprise he watched as the soldiers set up a machine gun. The calm ended. The people began weeping and begging. One man showed his identification papers to a soldier, but the American simply said, "Sorry." Then the shooting started. Chuc was wounded in the leg and almost unconscious, but he was covered by a pile of dead bodies and thus saved. After waiting an hour, he fled the village.Passage CMe and an acquaintance were walking behind an English pub once, going back to our base, and we saw one of our planes come over heading westwards for an American base just across the valley. One of its engines was on fire and we saw it hit the ground. We didn't know if it still had its bombs aboard or if it was coming back from Germany, so we didn't dare go near it. I tried to phone the American base, but I couldn't get through. The line just didn't work. A handful of fire fighters came, but nobody dared to go near the plane because it was on fire and we couldn't find out if it still had its bombs and tanks full of petrol. We were scared the whole thing would go up like fireworks and take us with it. The crew couldn't get out and we could hear the men screaming and shouting and there was nothing we could do because of the bombs. They died, five of them. Then we found out later they had just been out for a training session. V ocabulary：acquaintance：n. 相识的人Passage DWe were on the frontier and on Christmas morning we stuck up a board with "A Merry Christmas" on 1The Purple Heart is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those wounded or killed while serving, on or after April 5, 1917, with the U.S. military.it. The enemy had stuck up a similar one. Two of our men then threw their equipment off and climbed out of the trench with their hands above their heads as our representatives. Two of the Germans did the same. They greeted each other and shook hands. Then we all got out of the trench. Bill (our officer) tried to prevent it but it was too late so he and the other officers climbed out too. We and the Germans walked through the mud and met in the middle of no-man's-land.We spent all day with one another. Some of them could speak English. By the look of them, their trenches were in as bad a state as our own. One of their men, speaking in English, remarked that he had worked in England for some years and that he was fed up to the neck with this war and would be glad when it was over. We told him he wasn't the only one who was fed up with it. The German officer asked Bill if we would like a couple of barrels of beer and they brought them over to us. Bill distributed the beer among us and we consumed the lot. The officers came to an understanding that we would celebrate Christmas in peace until midnight.Just before midnight we all decided not to start firing before they did. We'd formed a bond and during the whole of Boxing Day we never fired a shot and they the same; each side seemed to be waiting for the other to set the ball rolling. One of their men shouted across in English and asked how we had enjoyed the beer. We replied that we were very grateful and spent the whole day chatting with them. That evening we were replaced by other soldiers.V ocabulary:frontier：n. 边境trench：n. 沟representative：n. 代表distribute: v. 分发consume：v. 喝；消费bond：n. 盟约Task 1: Match the titles with the Passages and summarize the main idea.Trapped No more Fighting Death of a Village A Brave PatientPassage A: ____________(title). This story is the memory of___________(character).It mainly talks about: ___________________________________________________.Passage B: ____________(title). This story is the memory of___________(character).It mainly talks about: ___________________________________________________.Passage C: ____________(title). This story is the memory of___________(character).It mainly talks about: ___________________________________________________Passage D: ____________(title). This story is the memory of___________(character).It mainly talks about: ___________________________________________________Task 2: Character’s feelingsPassage A Character: NurseImagine you were the nurse, what did you feel? Tell your feelings.____________________________________________________________________________________ Passage _____Character:___________Imagine you were _________, what did you feel? Tell your feelings.____________________________________________________________________________________ Task 3: Your understanding of WarShare your new understanding of war in your group.。
Lesson 3 Student Handout教学内容
L e s s o n3S t u d e n tH a n d o u tLesson 3 Student HandoutLesson objectives:•Learn how to write descriptive reports of academic articles.•Learn how to write compositional reports of academic articles.•Learn how to use proper expressions in writing descriptive reports.1. Review classifying reports.1.1 Three types of reportsClassifying reportsReports Descriptive reportsCompositional reports1.2 The structure of classifying reports2. Descriptive reportsPurpose: to classify and describe a phenomenon.Stages: Classification + DescriptionSample Text 1: GoannaAustralia is home to 25 of the world’s 30 monitor lizard species. In Australia, monitor lizards are called goannas. Goannas have flattish bodies, long tails and strong jaws. They are the only lizards with for ked tongues, like a snake. Their necks are long and may have loose folds of skin beneath them. Their legs are long and strong, with sharp claws on their feet. Many goannas have stripes, spots and other markings that help to camouflage them. The largest species can grow to more than two meters in length. All goannas are daytime hunters. They run, climb and swim well. Goannas hunt small mammals, birds and other reptiles. They also eat dead animals. Smaller goannas eat insects, spiders and worms. Male goannas fight with each other in the breeding season. Females lay between two and twelve eggs.Sample Text 2: ErgonomicsErgonomics (人体工程学) can be defined as the design of work so that the best is made of human capabilities without exceeding human limitations.Standards Association of Australia, Australian Standard1837-1976: Ergonomics in Factory and Office Work,Standards Australia, North Sydney, 1976. The evolution of a product or design based on ergonomics relates the product or design to the physical needs of the user. These physical needs include not only size and position but other aspects such as floor surfaces, illumination levels, hand grips, switch standards and vision.Understanding the physical needs of the user allows the designer to cater for individual differences and to create products that cater for the needs of the majority of consumers. Ergonomics is to do with the human body as a whole but it also involves the function of parts of the body and the ease with which humans perform simple tasks.3. Expressions in descriptive reportsThe tables below show some of the most common expressions used in texts which describe position, weight, structure, color, composition, size, shape and function.StructureColorCompositionSize and weightShapeFunctionProperties4. Compositional reportsCompositional reports are concerned with parts of the whole.Pattern: Classification of entity + Components (activities/functions within the whole) + DefinitionSample Text 3Mangroves: part of a communityWhen you walk into a mangrove forest, you may at first think that grey mangroves are the only living organisms there. However, look and listen and you will find evidence of other living occupants of the forest.Many different kinds of organisms share the living space with the grey mangroves. Fish and shrimp are found in the brackish waters. At low tide, you may notice small crabs scurrying into burrows in the mud. Even if you miss the crabs you will see evidence of their presence from holes in the mud leading to their burrows.At low-tide periods, various mollusks, such as snails and whelks, graze on algae that form a green film on parts of the muddy forest floor. Spiders spin their webs between branches of the grey mangroves to catch passing insects. Lichens grow on the trunks of mature mangrove trees. Many bird species feed on the nectar and pollen of the mangrove flowers and on the insects that live in the mangrove trees. At low tide, mudflats on the deepwater side of the mangrove forests are feeding sites for other bird species, such as the striated heron, Ardeola striatus, that feeds on snails and crabs. All these different kinds of organisms are part of the living community of the mangrove forest.Sample Text 4: Transport in the bodyTransport systems are need inside the body of all living things. In humans the blood or circulatory system carries digested food and other materials around the body. The blood contains 20 billion tiny cells floating in a liquid called plasma. The cells are of two different kinds red cells which carry oxygen and white cells which attack germs. Platelets which are microscopic discs, help in blood clotting.Red blood cells are made in bone marrow. They live for about 100 days and then they are destroyed by the liver. The bone marrow makes new cells to replace the destroyed cells. White blood cells protect the body against toxins and infections.The chemicals into which food has been broken-down are carried to all the body’s cells in the blood. Blood also carries waste away from the cells.The blood moves through a series of tubes called blood vessels. The tubes could be compared with the road network of a country. However there are no head-on crashes as the tubes are strictly one-way.Blood is pumped around the body by the heart. Tubes called arteries carry blood away from the heart. Except for the artery to the lungs they carry bright red blood, rich in oxygen. Tubes called veins bring blood back to the heart. Except for the vein from the lungs they carry dark red blood short of oxygen. The smallest arteries and veins are linked by tiny tubes called capillaries. Through their fine walls, oxygen and the chemicals from food are delivered to the cells all over the body, and waste products are collected.5. In-class practiceExercise 1: Analyze the following descriptive report. You may refer to the analysis of Sample Text 1 and label the stages (classification, description) and phases (characteristics of the octopus), and underline the key elements.OctopusAn octopus is an ocean dwelling mollusk in the cephalopod(头足纲) class. As the name suggests, the primary feature of an octopus is eight highly mobile arms, attached to a central bulbous body. Its head is soft and rubberlike. Its eyes stick out on stalks so that it can see in all directions. Its mouth is on the underside of its body and has powerful jaws shaped like a beak. The long arms, or tentacles (触角), have double rows of suckers. These can fasten onto objects with such suction that they cannot be pulled off. Octopi can be found in all the oceans of the world, typically dwelling in shallow water, preferring the ocean floor as a habitat. In addition to serving as a food source, the octopus is also studied by many scientists, as it is believed to be the most intelligent of the invertebrates (无脊椎动物). The animals demonstrate an immense capacity for learning, logic, and reasoning, especially in controlled environments.Exercise 2: Examine the illustration below. What system is illustrated? What function(s) does it have? What are its components, and what functions do they have? Analyze the following compositional report. You may refer to the analysis of Sample Text 3 and classify the atom with its function(s), and give its components. Please label the stages (classification of entity, components, definition) and underline the components of the entity.[http://www.radartutorial.eu/21.semiconductors/hl04.en.html]Atomic StructureAtoms are the units for elements. The atom is basically composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The electrons, protons, and neutrons of one element are identical to those of any other element. There are different kinds of elements because the number and the arrangement of electrons and protons are different for each element. The electron carries a small negative charge of electricity. The proton carries a positive charge of electricity equal and opposite to the charge of the electron. Both the electron and proton have the same quantity of charge, although the mass of the proton is approximately 1,827 times that of the electron. In some atoms there exists a neutral particle called a neutron. The neutron has a mass approximately equal to that of a proton, but it has no electrical charge. According to theory, the electrons, protons, and neutrons of the atoms are thought to be arranged in a manner similar to a miniature solar system. Notice the helium atom in the figure. Two protons and two neutrons form the heavy nucleus with a positive charge around which two very light electrons revolve. The path each electron takes around the nucleus is called an orbit. The electrons are continuously being acted upon in their orbits by the force of attraction of the nucleus. To maintain an orbit around the nucleus, the electrons travel at a speed that produces a counterforce equal to the attraction force of the nucleus. The orbiting electrons do not follow random paths, instead they are confined to definite energy levels. Visualize these levels as shells with each successive shell being spaced a greater distance from the nucleus.Exercise 3: Write a compositional report of the following creature—an insect. Please label each stage with “Classification of entity”, “Components”, and “Definition”. Remember to give the name and location of each part alongside with its activities/function within the whole.Homework assignments:Write a descriptive report of the lynx. Refer to the Analysis of Sample Text 1 and Exercise 1. Remember to label the stages (classification, description) and phases (characteristics of the lynx), and underline the key elements. Your report should have 150-200 words. It will be due in Week 4.LynxReferences:Martin, J. R., and Rose, D. (2008). Genre Relation, Mapping Culture. Equinox Publishing Ltd.The lynx is usually solitary, although a small group of lynx may travel and hunt together occasionally. Mating takes place in the late winter and once a year the female gives birth to between one and four kittens. The gestation time of the lynx is about 70 days. The young stay with the mother for one more winter, a total of around nine months, before moving out to live on their own as young adults. The lynx creates its den in crevices or under ledges. It feeds on a wide range of animals from white-taileddeer,reindeer,roe deer, small red deer, and chamois, to smaller, more。
U4-3 Handout
Unit 10 If you to the party, you’ll have a great time!Task sheet1.1a2.1b3.Post-Listening Make a Dialogue-Give an advice to Michael.4.If you are a soccer agent what will you speak to Michael, please writethe words you are going to say.__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ If you are Michael’s parents what will you speak to Michael?____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________1.如果你加入狮子队，你将成为一名伟大的足球运动员。
If you _______ ______ ____, you’ll ________ ___ _____ _____ _________. 2.如果你成为狮子队的一员，你将环游世界。
If you ______ a Lion, you _______ ________ ________ _______ __________.3.如果你努力工作，你将出名。
NCE2 L32 handout 课件 适合自学或者教学
A.Vocabulary1.once ①曾经，以前She and her husband had ________owned a house like this. 她和她丈夫曾经也有过这样的房子。
②once 一次I’ve met her________ ________. 我只见过她一次。
once a week/ once every three months ________ 立刻；马上2.temptation n.诱惑resist the______________抵制住诱惑I finally_____ ____ _____ ______________ and hada cigarette. 我最终还是屈从诱惑，抽了一支烟。
[temptation to do sth]:There might be___________ ___________ cheat if students sit too close together. 学生如果坐的太近可能会产生作弊的念头。
be tempted to do : I am tempted to buy that dress. 我忍不住想买那条裙子。
3.article n.①报刊的文章；论文newspaper articles 报纸上的文章②物件；物品（尤指整套中的一件）[正式] household___________家居用品She only took a few articles of clothing with her. 他只随身带了几件衣服。
③冠词4.wrap v.[用纸或布]包，裹I’ve still got a few Christmas gifts to ___________ up.我还有一些圣诞礼物要包起来。
[wrap sth in sth]: The presents were ___________ ___________ _______ gold paper. 礼物用金色包装纸包着，很漂亮。
handout修辞学
Brief Introduction1. Definition of RhetoricRhetoric is regarded as a science of heightening linguistic effective expressions, and the art of effective communication.2. Contents of Rhetoric1) Rhetoric is composed of theoretical rhetoric and practical rhetoric.Theoretical rhetoric deals with theoretical problems of rhetoric.Practical rhetoric helps us improve our ability to use the English language effectively.2) Rhetoric is classified, by some linguists, as communicative rhetoric and aesthetic rhetoric. Communicative rhetoric is also called passive rhetoric in China, which deals with the choice of words, the choice of sentences and the arrangement of paragraphs.Aesthetic rhetoric is termed as active rhetoric, dealing with figures of speech.Broadly speaking, rhetoric covers all the elements of oral and written things, including structure, diction, rhythm, tone, style, and anything related to the effective use of language.3. Dimensions of Rhetoric1) To improve our ability to polish writing.2) To improve our ability of analysis and appreciation.3) To improve our ability of comprehension and translation.4. Rhetorical Research Activities1) Go on studying the traditional and modern rhetorical schools and carry forward the fine traditions while assimilating new concepts, new ideas and new methodologies so as to improve the research and teaching of English rhetoric.2) Make a comparative study of English rhetoric and Chinese rhetoric, which will not only promote international exchanges but also further our studies of English rhetoric by specific attention being paid to our mother tongue.3) Combine the study of English rhetoric with a study of other aspects of English and even other branches of learning. This is a new approach, and it often results in multidisciplinary research topics, for example, rhetoric in discourse, psycho-rhetoric, rhetorical translation, pragmatic rhetoric, rhetoric in journalism, etc.5. The Rhetorical TriangleAccording to Patrick Hartwell, the rhetorical triangle has two functions: an explanatory model for readers and a generative model for writers.The explanatory model can explain our reading. As an explanatory model, the rhetorical triangle clarifies what goes on as we communicate. We adapt our message to our readers or audience, and we present ourselves differently for different readers and listeners.The rhetorical triangle also serves as a generative model for writers and speakers. By the term "generative model", we mean that the rhetorical triangle helps writers or speakers to produce arguments, strategies, and appeals.6. Types of Errors in LanguageIn this course, we divide all the errors occurring in the English language into three types: grammatical errors, logical errors, and rhetorical errors.1) grammatical errorsAs regard to grammar, it is a branch of linguistics science, dealing with systematic rules of a language. The aim of studying grammar is to know whether an expression is correct or not according to grammatical rules and usage, not caring much about any particular situation. Therefore when an expression is not in agreement with these rules or usage, a grammatical error will occur.2) logical errorsAs for logic, it is the science of reasoning, dealing with the laws of thinking, the sequences of thought, the natural and necessary chains of cause and effect, and so on. Either a good expression in rhetoric or a correct expression in grammar is usually based on correct reasoning; otherwise there will be logical errors.3) rhetoric errorsRhetoric is the art of effectively using language in speech or writing; and the aim of studying it is to make our readers and listeners obtain a desired effect. In this sense, any statement, unclear in meaning, inappropriate in style, loose in structure, or disunities or incoherent or redundant in expression, naturally falls under rhetorical fault.Evidently, three types of errors are all associated with the relationship between grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Rhetoric is considered to consist of the combination of grammar and logic. Generally, a good expression in rhetoric is not only correct in grammar, but also consistent in logic.Rhetorical Functions of Words2.1 Words for appropriateness1. dialect：a variety of language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class (social dialect),which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.2. slang：casual, very informal speech, using expressive but informal words and expressions. Slang words are highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound offensive or funny.3. formal, common, and colloquial wordsFormal words may also be called learned words, or literary words, or "big" words. They mainly appear in formal writing, such as scholarly or theoretical works, political and legal documents, and formal lectures and addresses.Common words are those that people use every day, and appear in all kinds of writing. Colloquial words are those that people use in informal situations when the speaker is not paying particular attention to pronunciation, choice of words, or sentence structure.There are three levels of words, with the formal or learned at the top, the colloquial at the bottom, and the common in the middle. Common words are good for all kinds of writing; formal words are as a rule seldom used in informal writing, while colloquial words are seldom used in formal writing, unless for some special purpose or effect.4. Archaic words are old forms that survive in our understanding and are used generations ago, but are very seldom used today. Perhaps the best known archaic word in English is thou, the oldsingular form of you.5. A neologism is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language.6. When writing technical (scientific, medical, legal, etc.) articles, it is usually the case that a number of technical terms specific to the subject matter will be presented.7. euphemism：the use of a word which is thought to be less offensive or unpleasant than another word.8. sexist languagesexist language is considered to be any language that is supposed to include all people, but, unintentionally (or not) excludes a gender—this can be either males or females.2.2 Words for accuracy1. denotative meaning & connotative meaningThe meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative. A word's denotative is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is the feeling or idea suggested by it. Denotative words are used for clearness; connotative words can be employed to create rich connotation.2. general words & specific wordsGeneral and specific are terms which are both opposite and relative.Nouns are general when they refer to groups or classes of persons, things, events; they are specific when they refer to individual persons, things or events. For instance, professionals are more general than scientists, doctors, teacher, etc.Adjectives and adverbs are general when they describe features or qualities common to many; they are specific when these features or qualities are particularized.Verbs are general when they indicate the broad nature of an activity; they are specific when they state the actual nature of that activity.3. concrete words & abstract wordsConcrete words are really a special kind of specific diction: they describe the identifiable qualities of particular things, feelings, events, such as church, book, chair, etc. They have clear referents in the real world, and can be used for specifying something and for clearness.Abstract words refer to characteristics that many things have in common, such as beauty, power, intelligence, etc.2.3 Words for clearnessRhetoric of ParagraphsⅠ. What is a Paragraph?It is usually a group of related sentences used for developing a thought.It is a structure that has a continuous current of thought, well connected and properly adjusted.It is paragraphs that compose a text.In general, the length of a paragraph is indefinite.Ⅱ.Types of Paragraphs1. Opening paragraphsAn opening paragraph begins an essay and guides both writer and reader through the rest of the essay. In the opening paragraph the topic sentence is usually the thesis statement that controls all the remaining paragraphs of the essay. The other sentences in the opening paragraph all support the topic sentence.Very often a writer begins with a specific example or illustration, a quotation, an interesting statistic --- whatever he believes will encourage the reader to reader further.2. Concluding paragraphsA concluding paragraph, the one that ends an essay, is the writer’s final opportunity to restate the main idea of the essay. It often repeats in other words what was stated in the opening paragraph.The topic sentence of a concluding paragraph is usually a restatement of the main idea of the essay, and its supporting sentences are often reworded versions of the topic sentences of earlier paragraphs.3. Body paragraphsBody paragraphs, also termed as amplifying paragraphs, refer to the paragraphs between the opening paragraph and the concluding paragraph, making up the vast majority of a text. They aim at accomplishing the thesis statement presented in the opening paragraph.4. Transitional paragraphsA transitional paragraph serving as a bridge between two paragraphs is a transition from one side to another. Such a paragraph is usually short. It aims to sum up what went before and show where the thought will now lead.Ⅲ.Rhetorical Principles of Paragraphs1. UnityParagraph unity refers to that sentences comprising the paragraph should be intimately connected with one another in thought as well as in purpose. In other words, an effective paragraph usually shows one central idea, and every sentence in that paragraph develops or clarifies that central idea.Paragraph unity can be secured through the topic sentence which shows the central theme and summarizes the main idea in the paragraph no matter where the topic sentence appears.Topic sentences may be presented in different ways.1) Topic sentence firstThe topic sentence comes first in a paragraph, which is good for the writer and the reader to have an immediate direction.2) Topic sentence lastThe topic sentence lies at the end of a paragraph, serving as a conclusion of that paragraph and promoting suspense for the reader.3) Topic sentence interiorA topic sentence may lie in the middle of a paragraph, which usually functions as a transition of the two parts of that paragraph.4) Topic sentences first and lastIn a paragraph there may be two topic sentences. One leads the paragraph as a theme; the other is at the end of it, functioning as a conclusion.5) Topic impliedSometimes there is not any topic sentence in a paragraph, and it is unnecessary to have one, because the subject dealt with in that paragraph is clear. In this case the topic sentence is implied.2. CoherenceParagraph coherence refers to that the sentences in a paragraph should be put in the best order so as to bring out the unified thought and to show the clear relationship among the sentences in that paragraph.To secure paragraph coherence each sentence a writer uses in that paragraph should be so arranged that it follows on naturally from the previous sentence, and the sentences expressing less important ideas should be subordinated to those that contain more important ones.1) Using transitional words;2) Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;3) Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs.3. EmphasisParagraph emphasis refers that an important idea or something a writer or a speaker wants to emphasize in a paragraph, which makes the paragraph more vivid and effective.There are four principles of emphasis in a paragraph.1. Placing the most important ideas in emphatic positionAs a rule, the most emphatic position is at the beginning or at the end of the paragraph, while the middle of the paragraph is usually the least emphatic position.2. Repeating the idea a be emphasizedThe repetition of key words or ideas can serve to provide emphasis in a paragraph.3. Using parallel structure4. Ending a paragraph (esp. the last paragraph) with a short sentenceⅣ. Ways of Developing Paragraphs1. Planning a paragraphThe first thing a writer should do is to plan a paragraph.1) First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence).2) Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.2. Development by TimeIn telling a story or recounting an event, the earliest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.3. Development by ProcessWhen you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description. As the steps must occur one after another, the exact order in which they are carried out is most important.4. Development by SpaceBefore we begin to describe a place, whether it is a large country or a small room, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly.5. Development by Examples or GeneralizationSupporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. An illustration is a case, a specimen, an instance. Vivid illustrations light up abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing. Illustrations may bea single example or a series of examples.1) General-to-specific patternThis pattern begins with a topic sentence. Then details are given to back up the opening statement.2) The specific-to-general patternThis pattern usually begins with details. Then the general statement, which may be the topic sentence, comes at the end of the paragraph, summarizing the main idea of the paragraph.6. Development by Comparison and ContrastA comparison points out the similarities between two or more persons or things of the same class, while a contrast, the differences between them. In practice, comparison and contrast often appear together. By comparing and contrasting we may get a clear picture of things.1) To examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other.In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison or block contrast.2) To examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point.This method is called alternating comparison or alternating contrast.7. Development by Cause and EffectThere are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect.1) To state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes.For example, the topic sentence is:"In the past few years, higher education has become less important to young people than it was previously." This is an effect. It should be followed by a discussion of the causes of this effect, such as the pressure of fierce competition, better opportunities in the job market, much of the knowledge taught in universities and colleges being out-dated, and so forth.2) To state a cause and then mention or predict the effects.Suppose the topic sentence is:"More and more fertile land in China is taken up by new buildings". In the rest of the paragraph the effects of this development should be mentioned, such as the reduction of the grain output, increasing environmental problems, too many peasants moving into the cities, etc.8. Development by ClassificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics. We group things according to their similarities and differences.9. Development by DefinitionSometimes, to avoid confusion or misunderstanding, we have to define a word, term, or concept which is unfamiliar to most readers or open to various interpretations.There are three basic ways to define a word or term:1) to give a synonym2) to use a sentence(often with an attributive clause)3) to write a paragraph or even an essay10. Development by a Combination of MethodsWriters may find it necessary to use a combination of methods in order to present their ideas in an impressive and convincing manner.Types of WritingⅠ.DescriptionDescription is painting a picture in words of a person, place, object, or scene. A description essay is generally developed through sensory details, or the impression of one's senses --- sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.PS. Not all details are useful.The writer should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and should leave out those irrelevant ones, which, if included, would only distract the reader's attention from the main impression the writer wishes to give.1. Description of a personNot merely give details of his appearance;Reveal the person's character, thoughts, and feelings --- shown in what the person does and says, or in how he behaves to others;Grasp the characteristic features that distinguished him from all other people;Omit those features that he shares with others.2. Description of a placePlaces may be described for their own sake, as in essays on visits to famous scenic places, but also for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. In describing a place one should mainly write about the things that make it different from other places.3. Description of an objectMention the object's size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell;Tell how it is used if it is useful, and what part it plays in a person's life if it is in some way related to him;Place emphasis on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important characteristic.4. Description of a sceneA scene usually consists of three basic factors: the setting, the people, and the actions. It is also possible to describe the scene of some natural phenomenon. The writer should create a dominant impression when describing a scene.Ⅱ.NarrationNarrative writing includes stories, real or imaginary, biographies, histories, new items, and narrative poems. Narration often goes hand in hand with description. A narrative should contain five aspects: context, selection of details, organization, point of view, and purpose.Ⅲ.ExpositionAn exposition paper explains or explores something, such as the process of making a machine, the causes of a natural or social phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution of a problem.The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this, the writer should:1. Limit his subject or the scope of discussion, for it is impossible to explain many things clearly in a short essay;2. Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation; the ordinary reader often finds abstract discussions hard to follow if they are not illustrated by concrete examples;3. Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;4. Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions;5. Make his exposition, if possible, interesting or moving ---- an experienced writer can often instruct and move or entertain his reader at the same time.1. IllustrationIllustration is the use of examples to illustrate a point. A successful illustration paper depends on:1) A wise selection of sufficient examples which are specific and typical, interesting and relevant --- the examples may be either personal experiences or second-hand information from reliable sources;2) An expert arrangement of these examples ---- similar or related examples should be grouped together and arranged climactically.2. Division and ClassificationDivision and classification are two different ways of sorting things out. Division stresses the distinction between things, while classification emphasizes the similarities.Division is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. For example, a pair of glasses can be divided into the frame and the lens, and a composition, into introduction, body, and conclusion.Classification, on the other hand, is to group these things systematically. For example, courses in college can be classified into “elective” and “required/obligatory”, or into those taught in the native language and those offered in foreign languages. The same group of things may be classified according to different principles.When using division or classification in your writing, keep in mind the following guidelines: A. Choose an appropriate principle of division/classification suited to your purpose. Be sure that the principle is interesting and significant.B. Apply your principle consistently and thoroughly, and avoid overlapping.3. Comparison and ContrastA comparison explains how things are similar, and a contrast, how they are different.When you write a comparison/ contrast paper, keep in mind the following principles of selection and development:1) Only items (usually two) of the same general class can be compared/ contrasted.A good comparison/contrast essay tells the reader not the obvious but the significant similarities and differences which people may neglect or overlook.2) A comparison/contrast essay usually follows one of these two patterns: the subject-by-subject pattern or the point-by-point pattern.In the subject-by-subject pattern, the writer discusses the various aspects of one item before going on to the other. (in short essays)In the point-by-point pattern, the writer discusses both items under each of the various aspects compared/contrasted. (in long essays.)3) The comparison/contrast should be balanced; the two items being compared/ contrasted are to be given equal treatment.4) The comparison/contrast should be supported by concrete and relevant facts.5) A comparison/contrast shows similarities and differences in order to make a particular point.4. Cause and EffectA cause-effect essay is a piece of expository writing showing or explaining the cause and/or effect of something.A cause paper begins with an introduction which briefly describes the effect, and then the entire body of the paper analyses the causes.An effect paper begins with an introduction describing the cause, and the rest of the paper discusses the effects.When writing the paper, try to remember the following logical requirements:1) Do not over-simplify causes.2) Beware especially of not making a mistake in logic.3) Distinguish between direct and indirect causes and effects and between major and minor causes and effects.Your paper should not treat all causes and effects equally but give more space to major ones.4) Do not omit links in a chain of causes and effects.5) Be objective and support the analysis with solid, factual evidence.5. DefinitionThere are two main types of definitions --- logical or formal, and extended or informal.1) The logical or formal definition is the dictionary definition which is rigid in form.2) Definition papers consist mostly of extended or informal definitions. When you write a definition paper, keep in mind the following points:A. A definition paper discusses abstract such as liberty, equality, etc., the denotative and especially connotative meanings of which are often different to different people.B. A definition paper presents the essential nature and the qualities of the discussed subject and shows how it is different from others like it and often explains why we need to know about it.C. Definition papers follow no set pattern.D. A definition paper may be either deductive or inductive.The deductive essay begins with a definition which is followed by other expository patterns; the inductive essay reaches the definition after employing any of the other methods of development.Ⅳ.ArgumentationAn argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes.Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration and exposition.1. A good argumentative essay should contain following points:2. A debatable point;3. Sufficient evidence;4. Good logic;5. Clear logic;6. Good use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration, and exposition;7. An honest and friendly attitude.Figures of Speech1. SimileSimile is an explicit comparison between two different things which are similar in one respect, though quite unlike in actuality.A simile is usually made up of three parts:1) A tenor, the thing described;2) A vehicle, the thing compared to;3) A connective word, which is used to connect the tenor and the vehicle and show the relationship of comparison.Modern English uses many short comparisons in order to make expressions clear and vivid. Most of them are used with adjectives, and follow the pattern “as + adjective+as+noun”.2. MetaphorMetaphor is another figure of speech in which a word or expression normally used of one kind of object, action, etc, is extended to another. It also makes a comparison between two things that are essentially different from each other yet are similar in a certain respect. Unlike simile, this comparison is only implied rather than explicitly expressed.Rhetorical Function of Simile and MetaphorThey can draw attention to the similarity between two unlike things, so that the reader can get an immediate image of straightness, thinness, length, sharpness, etc. and give the force of concretereality to abstract things. This expression can certainly help the reader to create a vivid picture in his mind, and make the description more effective.3. PersonificationPersonification is a figure of speech that attributes human qualities to animals, or gives life or personality to inanimate objects or abstract ideas.Personification, according to its rhetorical functions, can be divided into two things:1) Inanimate objects or abstractions are described, either in verb, or a noun, or an adjective, as humans by giving them personal attributes. Its purpose is to add beauty and vividness to the description.2) Inanimate objects or abstractions are addressed directly as human beings, the purpose of which is to express one’s strong feelings and emotion s.4. AnalogyAnalogy is a special form of comparison which draws parallel similarities between two unlike things. Unlike simile or metaphor, this comparison goes beyond simile and metaphor, for it points up a large number of similarities between the two unlikes. The more points of similarities, the stronger the analogy.Analogy is usually constructed in the following patterns:1) A is to B as C is to D2) A is to B what C is to D3) (Just) as a...B, (so) C...D5. MetonymyMetonymy is a figure of speech that doesn't express a similarity of one thing to another in some respect but expresses an association between the thing spoken of and the thing meant.6. SynecdocheSynecdoche is a figure of speech in which an expression denoting a part is used to refer to a whole; also, in the traditional definition, vice versa.7. ParallelismParallelism is a structure in which ideas of equal value are parallel, or expressed in the same grammatical form, so that the reader or audience can regard two or more things as related and equal in importance.8. AntithesisAntithesis is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words, ideas, or the balancing of one thing against another opposing or contrasting thing.What are contrasted may be words, phrases, clauses, sentences--- even paragraphs or whole sections of a literary work, but antithesis most often consists in the contrast between two parts of a sentence.9. AnastropheAnastrophe is a change in the normal order of words and it is used to emphasize a particular。
SJE4 U3 handout
SJE4 U3 handoutI.Word Usage: One’s Own + N. / On One’s Own1.one’s own + n.: to indicate ownership（所有权）eg: He finished his own report.(his report, not others)2.on one’s own:to show that sb. did sth. without the help of others.（某人独立完成某事）eg: He has finished the report on his own.(He did the report by himself.)II．Focus On Grammar: Subjunctive Mood虚拟语气Sentence pattern句型:①If … Ved/were… , … would/could/should +VIf Kate had a lot of money, she would help many poor people .（表示与事实相反或不存在的情况）②If I were her, I would not go out when it’s rainy outside.（以if做为句首，表达需求或建议）… Ved / were …③… wish/eswould/ could/ should + VCindy wishes that she were a queen. （表达不可能实现的愿望）Y ou wish that you had a big house and a nice car.I wish I could fly.Practice: Fill in1.Todd is getting fat because he eats a lot of snacks and doesn’t exercise. He wants to look healthy.(a) Unreal circumstance: (非真实情况)If Todd ________, he ______ look healthy and _____ ____get fat. (b) Advice: （建议）If I ____ you, I _______exercise and stop eating snacks.(c) wish:（不能实现的愿望）Todd wishes he ____ ____fat so that he ______ look healthy.2.Joe doesn’t have a job , but he wants to buy a house for his girlfriend.(a) Unreal circumstance:_______________________________________________(b) Advice:__________________________________________________ 3. Vivian wanted to visit her parents in Sanya , but she didn’t haveenough time.(a) Unreal circumstance:___________________________________________________ (b) wish:____________________________________________________4.如果我是埃及的法老，我会盖好几个金字塔。
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3. Corpus: definitions, types and compositions3.1 Definitions of a corpus3.1.1 Sinclair’s definitionA corpus is a collection of naturally-occurring language text, chosen to characterize a state or variety of a language (Sinclair, 1991:171).Corpus vs. Text Archive or Text Database-- A corpus designed for linguistic analysis: normally a systematic, planned and well-structured compilation of text-- An archive: a text repository, often huge and opportunistically collected, and normally not structured.3.1.2 Bowker and Pearson’s definitionA corpus can be described as a large collection of authentic texts that have been gathered in electronic form according to a specific set of criteria (Bowker & Pearson, 2002).There are four important characteristics to be noted: authentic, electronic, large and specific criteria.authentic: it is an example of real …live‟ language and consists of a genuine communication between people going about their normal business. This characteristic is mentioned in Sinclai r‟s definition.in electronic form: one that can be processed by a computer. This characteristic is not mentioned in Sinclair‟s definition.size: exactly how large a corpus should be depends on the purpose of your study. There are no hard and fast rules a bout how large a corpus needs to be. In Sinclair‟s definition, the size of a corpus is not mentioned since he believes that a corpus should be very, very large.specific criteria: you cannot just start downloading texts randomly from the Web or other sources and then call your collection a …corpus‟. The texts in a corpus are selected according to explicit criteria in order to be used as a representative sample of a particular language or subset of that language.3.2 Types of corporaAt the very least, there are different corpora for different natural languages, such as English, French, Spanish, Chinese etc., but even here there are problems because the variety of English spoken in England is not the same as those spoken in America, Canada, Ireland,Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc. And even within each of these language varieties, it is invariably true that people speak to their friends differently from the way they speak to their friends‟ parents, and that people in the 1800s spoke differently from the way people do nowadays, etc.3.2.1 General reference corpus vs. special purpose corpusA General Reference Corpus: a corpus that can be taken as representative of a given language as a whole and can therefore be used to make general observations about that particular language. Examples of general reference corpora are the Brown Corpus, the LOB, the British National Corpus, Bank of English, etc.A Special Purpose Corpus: a corpus that focuses on a particular aspect of a language. It could be restricted to a particular subject field, to a specific text type, to a particular language variety or to the language used by members of a certain demographic group. Because of its specialized nature, such a corpus cannot be used to make observations and generalizations about language in general.Examples of special purpose corpora include:-- The Jiao Tong University Corpus for English in Science and Technology (JDEST): for studies of scientific English.-- The International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE): for studies of the interlanguage of learners of English.-- Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES): for studies of child language development and language acquisition.-- Time Magazine Corpus of American English: for studies of magazine articles (AmE).-- Translational English Corpus (TEC): for comparisons between translated and non-translated English texts.There are also many other special purpose corpora besides the ones mentioned above.3.2.2 Written corpus vs. spoken corpusA written corpus is a corpus that contains written texts, while a spoken corpus is one that consists of transcripts of spoken material (e.g. conversations, broadcasts, lectures, etc.).The Brown Corpus and the LOB corpus are written corpora.The LLC is a spoken corpus. Another spoken corpus is the Corpus of Spoken American English (CASE), which is designed to provide the first large computerized corpus of spoken American English as used by adults and it is one of the few large spoken corpora compiled since the LLC of British English.Corpora, such as the BNC and the BoE, usually contain a mixture of both written and spoken texts, and they are general purpose corpora, but they can be used to study spoken English if you retrieve the necessary information only from the spoken parts of them.3.2.3 Monolingual corpus vs. multilingual corpusA monolingual corpus is one that contains texts of a single language, for example, the Brown Corpus, the LOB corpus, the BNC, the BoE are monolingual corpora.A multilingual corpus contains texts of two or more languages. Multilingual corpora can be further subdivided into parallel corpora and comparable corpora.A parallel corpus contains texts in language A alongside their translations into language B, C, etc.In a bilingual parallel corpus, for example, the texts in the two languages are usually aligned at the sentence level, and with a corpus retrieval tool, you can easily find the translation of a sentence in either way.A comparable corpus consists of sets of texts in different languages that are not translations of each other.The texts in the different languages have been selected because they have some characteristics or features in common; the one and only feature that distinguishes one set of texts from another in a comparable corpus is the language in which the texts are written. The shared features will frequently include subject matter or topic and may also include features such as text type, time period in which the texts were written, degree of technicality, etc.Comparable corpora of varieties of the same language can be used to compare those varieties. Comparable corpora of different languages can be used by translators and by learners to identify differences and equivalences in each of the two languages.3.2.4 Synchronic corpus vs. diachronic corpusA synchronic corpus presents a snapshot of the language use during a limited time frame.A diachronic corpus can be used to study how a language has evolved over a long period of time.The first specialized electronic diachronic corpus of English is the Helsinki Corpus of English Texts: Diachronic Part. This corpus was compiled at the University of Helsinki between 1984 and 1991 and it consists of some 400 samples of continuous text, with a total of 1.5 million words covering the period from Old English to Early Modern English. This corpus can be used to study how English changed during the period of about 1000 years.3.2.5 Open corpus vs closed corpusAn open corpus, also known as a monitor corpus, is a corpus that is constantly beingexpanded. For example, the size of the COCA has been enlarged from 350 million words in 2008 to 450 million words in 2012.The Bank of English (BoE), COCA, etc. are examples of open corpora.Sinclair (1991) points out, “a corpus should be as large as possible.” He lists several reasons for the large size of a corpus. According to him, in order to study the behaviour of words in texts, we need to have available quite a large number of occurrences.... One of the uses of (a word) will typically be twice as common as all the others; several will occur once only, and that is not enough on which to base a descriptive statement. This is why a corpus needs to contain many millions of words.A closed or finite corpus is one that does not get augmented once it has been compiled.The British National Corpus (BNC) is a closed corpus.The advantages of a closed corpus is that once the corpus is established, many different processes can be done about it. According to Leech, one of the leading compilers of the BNC, “... the BNC has one characteristic not shared by the Bank of English (open corpus), ... : the BNC is a finite, balanced corpus.Based on BNC, a book Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English was published in 2001. This book contains many lists of word frequencies and these lists are very useful for different studies of English linguistics. It is impossible to publish such a book on an open corpus. All the different frequency lists in this book can be found on the following website: /bncfreq/3.2.6 Native speaker corpus vs. Learner corpusA native speaker corpus contains texts written or spoken by the native speakers of a language.A learner corpus contains texts written or spoken by learners of a foreign language. Such corpora can be usefully compared with corpora of texts written by native speakers.Examples:-- The International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE)-- Chinese Learner English Corpus (CLEC)-- Spoken and Written English Corpus of Chinese Learners (SWECCL2.0)-- Parallel Corpus of Chinese EFL Learners (PACCEL)3.2.7 Raw corpus vs. annotated corpusA raw corpus is the one in which all the texts keep their original form.An annotated corpus contains texts which have been enriched with interpretative or linguistic information. The first and most common is part-of-speech (POS) tagging. Each word in a corpus is assigned a grammatical tag corresponding to the word class to which it belongs. Other levels of annotation include syntactic annotation and semantic annotation.The purpose to annotate a corpus is to extract more information from it than from an unannotated raw corpus.3.3 Corpus compositionsTo compile a corpus involves different considerations, such as: what types of language texts should be included (spoken vs. written, specialized vs. general), how large should it be, and how to guarantee the representativeness, should the corpus be annotated (POS tagged, semantically tagged, syntactically parsed), if yes, to what extent should it be annotated, etc.3.3.1 The Brown CorpusThe full name of the Brown Corpus is Brown University Standard Corpus of Present-Day American English, which consists of 1,014,312 words of running text of edited English prose printed in the United States during the calendar year 1961. So far as it has been possible to determine, the writers were native speakers of American English. Although all of the material first appeared in print in the year 1961, some of it was undoubtedly written earlier. However, no material known to be a second edition or reprint of earlier text has been included.The Corpus is divided into 500 samples of about 2000 or more words each. Each sample begins at the beginning of a sentence but not necessarily of a paragraph or other larger division, and each ends at the first sentence ending after 2000 words. The samples represent a wide range of styles and varieties of prose.Verse: not included, but short verse passages quoted in prose samples are keptDrama: not includedFiction: included, but no samples consisting of more than 50% dialogue were admitted Samples were chosen for their representative quality rather than for any subjectively determined excellence.The selection procedure was in two phases: an initial subjective classification and decision as to how many samples of each category would be used, followed by a random selection of the actual samples within each category.There two main parts in the Brown Corpus, one is the part of informative prose and the other is the part of imaginative prose. The list of main categories with their principal subdivisions and the number of samples in each can be found in the following website: http://khnt.hit.uib.no/icame/manuals/brown/INDEX.HTM3.3.2 The LOB CorpusThe full name of this corpus is Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen Corpus. Like its American counterpart, the LOB Corpus contains 500 printed texts of about 2,000 words each, or about a million running words in all. The year of publication (1961) and the sampling principles are identical to those of the Brown Corpus, though there were necessarily some differences in text selection.The coding system differs, however, in many respects in the two corpora and the LOB corpus has got a more detailed coding system.For more information about the LOB, visit the following website:http://khnt.hit.uib.no/icame/manuals/lob/INDEX.HTM3.3.3 The LLCThe full name of this corpus is the London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English. It was the biggest and most widely used electronic corpus of spoken English until the mid-1990s. The complete LLC contains 100 texts, totaling 500,000 words. The texts comprise both dialogue and monologue. The range of varieties assembled in the LLC is displayed in the following website: http://khnt.hit.uib.no/icame/manuals/LONDLUND/INDEX.HTM3.3.4 The British National Corpus (BNC)The British National Corpus is one of the largest corpora in the world, which has approximately 100 million words. Most of the corpus (about 90 percent) consists of various types of written British English with the remainder (about 10 percent, or 10 million words) comprised of different types of spoken British English. Even though writing dominates in the BNC, the amount of speech in the corpus is the most ever made available in a corpus (compare the LLC: 500,000 words).For detailed information about the structure and composition of the BNC, visit the following website:/You can use the free online version of the BNC on the following website:/bnc/3.3.5 The International Corpus of English (The ICE)The International Corpus of English (ICE) is a large corpus for the comparative study of both spoken and written forms of regional varieties of English throughout the world. As a whole, ICE will be a mega-corpus, but its component parts are more modest in size.The ICE includes up to 20 parallel subcorpora, (the number is constantly growing) each consisting of one million words of the English used by adults over the age of 18 who have received formal education through the medium of English to at least the completion of secondary school, in countries such as the UK, USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand where English is the dominant or major first language, as well as in countries such as India, Nigeria, Singapore or regions such as the Caribbean where English may be an additional official language or a second language of a significant part of the population.The website for the more detailed structure of the ICE:/english-usage/ice/design.htm#For further information of English corpora, visit the following website:/resources/corpora.html#BE3.3.6 The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)The Corpus of Contemporary American English is the largest freely-available corpus of English, and the only large and balanced corpus of American English. COCA is a relatively new corpus which was released in 2008.This corpus contains more than 400 million words. The corpus is equally divided among spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic texts. It includes 20 million words each year from 1990-2009 and the corpus is also updated once or twice a year (the most recent texts are from the summer of 2009). Because of the design of this corpus, it is perhaps the only corpus of English which is suitable for looking at current, ongoing changes in the language.The corpus allows the users to easily limit searches by frequency and compare the frequency of words, phrases, and grammatical constructions, in at least two main ways: by genre and over time.3.3.7 Some Learner Corpora Compiled by Chinese Researchers-- Chinese Learner English Corpus.Compilers: Gui Shichun, Yang Huizhong et al.Size: 1,000,000 wordsTexts: compositions from CET 4 or CET 6 by Chinese learners of English -- Spoken and Written English of Chinese LearnersCompilers: Wen Qiufang et. al.Spoken subcorpusSize: about 1 million wordsTexts: the transcription of the spoken tests of TEM Level 4 and Level 8 (2003-2007), divided among different types of tasks; the recorded sound also provided in themp3 form.Written subcorpusSize: 1.2 million wordsTexts: English compositions of the Chinese College EFL learners, including 27 different topics of argumentative essays and expositions.-- Parallel Corpus of Chinese EFL Learners (PACCEL)Compilers: Wen Qiufang et. al.Size: 2.1 million wordsTexts: The transcriptions of the oral interpretation tests and the texts of translation tests from the third and fourth year English majors in China. Both the interpretationsubcorpus (500,000 words) and the translation subcorpus (1.6 million words)have been aligned at the sentence level.ReferencesBowker, L. and J. Pearson. 2002. Working with Specialized Language: A practical guide to using corpora, London and New York: Routledge.Leech, G., P. Rayson and A. Wilson. 2001. Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English: Based on the British National Corpus. London: Longman.Sinclair, John. 1991. Corpus Concordance Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.。