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《翻译的语言学派》

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总论
西方翻译的两大翻译学派——语言学派和文艺学派贯穿了整个西方翻译史。翻译的语言学派又被称作“翻译科学派”。1959年雅可布逊发表他的著名论文《翻译的语言观》开始到1972年结束。西方译论的一大特点即与语言学同步发展。
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一、布拉格学派与雅可布逊
成立：1926年10月6日，布拉格语方学会（The Linguistic Circle of Prague）召开第一次会议，布拉格卡罗林大学的英语语言和文学教授维伦·马泰休斯宣布了该学会的成立，也标志着布拉格语言学派的诞生。布拉格语言学派是继索绪尔之后最有影响的学派，其突出的贡献是创建了音位学．由于强调语言的交际功能和语言成分的区分功能，所以又常被称作功能主义者或功能语法学派。
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(4)语意走失的四个方面： a.原文内容涉及到本国特有的自然环境、社会制度、文化习俗，译文意思就必然走失； b.每一种语言都有自己的证明音、语法、词汇体系和运用方式，各种语言对世界上各种事物和概念的分类方法也不同。各种语言的词句很难在文体、感情色彩、抽象程度、评价尺度等四个方面完全对应；
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卡的“等值”翻译理论的意义
（一）从某一侧面反映翻译的本质在于确立“等值”关系；（二）等值关系确立并非静态地而是动态地把握；（三）对于从翻译学角度探讨双语转换机制的建立具有借鉴作用；（四）区别了翻译和转换两个概念。
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纽马克简介
彼得·纽马克（Peter Newmark ,1916-）是英国著名的翻译理论家和翻译教育家。他后来提出了著名的“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”法，20世纪90年代又提出“关联翻译法”，标志着他的翻译理论渐趋系统和完善。纽马克的作品：论文《翻译问题探讨》《交际性和语义性翻译》《翻译理论和翻译技巧》《翻译理念经与方法的某些问题》《专业翻译教学》《著作：翻译问题探索》《翻译教程》《论翻译》《翻译短译》

OxfordTextbookof...

Matthew Smallman-Raynor and Andrew Cliff,Atlas of Epidemic Britain:A Twentieth-Century Picture.Oxford,Oxford University Press,2012,xþ207pages,£125hardcover.This book,as its title implies,maps infectious disease data in the twentieth century,largely within England,Scotland,and Wales,but occasionally straying into a wider geographical area and into the twenty-ﬁrst century.The focus is largely on infectious epidemics in humans.The authors make the slightly ambitious claim that this might be considered a continuation of Charles Creighton’s classic History of Epidemics in Britain(2vols.,Cambridge,1891e4).In the present work,after a slightly congested opening chapter(contain-ing a lot of the basic ideas and terminology),chapter2surveys epidemic mortality in the British Isles and Europe over the twen-tieth century,highlighting a threefold division into emerging diseases(e.g.,inﬂuenza,pneumonia,respiratory infections,polio-myelitis),retreating diseases(e.g.,anthrax,diphtheria,typhoid), and secularly varying emerging/retreating diseases(e.g.,malaria, brucellosis).Chapter3concentrates on the extinction of the‘old plagues’,speciﬁcally bubonic and pneumonic plague,malaria, smallpox,cholera and typhus fever in the period up to1945.The focus of the two chapters that follow is on common infections up to1945,speciﬁcally the four major epidemic in-fections of childhood(diphtheria,scarlet fever,measles,whooping cough)(chapter4),and inﬂuenza,typhoid,parathyroid,dysentery, and poliomyelitis(chapter5),emphasizing the importance of im-munization and public health measures such as closure of schools, and improvement in sewage treatment,in control of these in-fections.Chapter6deals with infections during the two world wars, in particular tuberculosis,meningococcal meningitis,sexually transmitted infections(syphilis,gonorrhoea),and viral hepatitis; curiously,despite large-scale rural e urban migration,there was no marked change in infectious disease rates anywhere.After1945Britain saw dramatic reductions in prevalence of many bacterial(chapter7)and viral(chapter8)infectious diseases as a result of mass immunization campaigns and wide availability of antibiotics and antiviral agents,both of which depended in turn very largely on the establishment of the UK National Health Service.Chapter9deals with the‘new plagues’of HIV/AIDS,Legionnaires’disease,new-variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease,methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus(MRSA),and a few others,including some old friends(e.g.,falciparum malaria).Chapter10is an oddity,detailing the work of research in general practice,through detailed examination of the work of four such general practitioners working in isolation,Drs Will Pickles,Edgar Hope-Simpson,Peter Higgins,and James Mackenzie,and the work of the Royal College of General Practitioners in organizing multi-practice studies,as exempliﬁed in the Epidemic Observation Unit established by Dr G.I.Watson.This chapter discusses the valuable work of these individuals and groups in furthering understanding of the epidemiology,speciﬁcally the spatio e temporal dynamics,of inﬂuenza and other common infections.Aﬁnal chapter(11)brieﬂy brings us up to date,examining epidemics in the twenty-ﬁrst century.Among the most signiﬁcant of these was inspired by the measles e mumps e rubella vaccine scare that was generated by an article(subsequently withdrawn) supposedly demonstrating a link with autism[A.J.Wakeﬁeld et al., Lancet351(1998),637e641].There followed a predictable increase in cases of mumps and measles,only very recently brought under control.Arguably of more public health concern is the re-emergence of tuberculosis,rates of which in the UK are among the highest in western Europe,and particularly of the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains.This chapter also deals with certain animal epidemics,in particular the2001foot-and-mouth and bluetongue disease outbreaks,and related animal e human epi-demics,in particular the avian inﬂuenza(H5N1)epidemic of 2005e2007[M.D.de Jong et al.NEJM352(2005):686e691;G.J.Smith et al.,PNAS103(2006)16936e16941],although in a volume focused on Britain the authors cannot discuss this last epidemic with the necessary focus on the parallel spread in infected fowl in the Middle East and Asia.Would I recommend you to buy it?In chapter8and a few other places results of statistical analysis are presented and it is not clear whether these represent analysis of the authors,or some other publication.Unfortunately details of the particular modelsﬁtted are lacking.The predominant focus on epidemic events in Britain handicaps the treatment of certain topics,in particular those of chapter11.Despite these shortcomings,and the quite high price there is much that is commendable in the book.The book is handsomely illustrated,and clearly much care has gone into preparation of the graphs andﬁgures.I suspect many readers will ﬁnd chapters7e9,11dealing with the post-1945period particu-larly interesting,but there is much of interest in other chapters, particularly chapter10.Each chapter comes with a conclusion highlighting links with succeeding chapters.This book would be very helpful for historians,geographers,epidemiologists,and physicians and others working in public health who want an overview of this important area.Mark P.Little Radiation Epidemiology Branch,National Cancer Institute,USA /10.1016/j.jhg.2014.05.004Andrew Cliff and Matthew Smallman-Raynor,Oxford Textbook of Infectious Disease Control:A Geographical Analysis from Medieval Quarantine to Global Eradication.Oxford,Oxford University Press, 2013,ixþ193pages,£85hardcover.This book,as its title implies,is concerned with measures for controlling spread of infectious disease epidemics,and its geographical focus and historical breadth make its content relevant to historical geographers.Chapter1deals with various historical examples,in particular the moderately sophisticated control mea-sures used in various city-states in Italy(also in Ragusa e modern day Dubrovnik)between the fourteenth and eighteenth centuries. These were largely based on quarantine and isolation,which for the unfortunate traveller to one of these places could mean conﬁne-ment in one of the lazzaretti,an appalling and frequently lethal experience.A slight oddity is the introduction of the susceptible-infectious-recovered(SIR)model(R.M.Anderson and R.May,In-fectious Diseases of Humans:Dynamics and Control,Oxford:OUP (1991)),in a very non-technical way;the authors claim this pro-vides insights into the spread and control of epidemics:however why this should be the case is not made really clear here,although it is treated at somewhat greater length much later in the book,in chapter6.Chapter2deals with the issues of disease classiﬁcation and surveillance.Modern disease classiﬁcation starts with the work of William Farr and Marc d’Espine,following the International Sta-tistical Congress in Brussels in1853.Disease surveillance goes back to Roman times at least,but in its modern form began with the Bills of Mortality for London which appeared from1532and were annually published from1606.Mortality and morbidity counts became steadily more sophisticated,national and international in scope,culminating in the establishment of the World Health Or-ganization(WHO)in1948.The chapter documents the remarkableReviews/Journal of Historical Geography45(2014)120e141 130achievements of the disease monitoring and parallel immunization programs of the WHO,notably the eradication of smallpox and the near eradication of poliomyelitis.The critical need here is for rapidly updated morbidity registers,something easily achieved with the internet.Chapter3continues the theme of chapter1(which it should really have immediately followed,if not been amalgamated with), considering quarantine and isolation measures,predominantly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in the USA and UK.The effectiveness of these inherently geographical control measures has sadly been reduced by technological progress in transport and the consequently dramatically reduced journey times(which are now frequently shorter than the incubation times of most infections). The good news of technological progress,in the form of in-terruptions in transmission provided by vaccination,is the theme of chapter4.Both human data(smallpox,poliomyelitis,measles)and animal data(equine inﬂuenza)are covered in some detail;there is brief coverage of vaccination strategies,in particular the apparently successful trial of ring vaccination to eliminate equine inﬂuenza in Australia.Chapter5,entitled‘Eradication’,rather confusingly deals with a lot of the same material again,with speciﬁc focus on WHO global eradication campaigns.In particular,the largely successful WHO smallpox and poliomyelitis eradication campaigns are dealt with at some length,again.Failures in WHO eradication programmes with respect to malaria,yellow fever and yaws,are also discussed;the failures of the malarial eradication programme are treated at some length.Such failures may be a result of(i)a lack of biological or technical feasibility(yellow fever,yaws,malaria),(ii)lack of detailed economic analyses to justify or support the eradication effort(yellow fever,yaws)and(iii)lack of broad-based societal and political support(yellow fever,yaws,malaria)(B.Aylward et al.Am J Publ Health90(2000)1515e1520).The possibility of such a global eradication programme is discussed for measles.Theﬁnal chapter6is in some ways the most substantial chapter, and for me the most interesting one as it attempts a novel spatial approach to various modeling and public health issues.Starting out with the standard deﬁnition and implications of the basic repro-duction number R0,a fundamentally aspatial variable,the authors go on to consider a spatial analogue of this,in fulﬁlment of their aim in their subtitle of providing a geographical analysis.The authors apply both concepts to a variety of human datasets.They alsoﬁt an SIR model(as loosely deﬁned in chapter1,and unfortunately no more technical details are given here)and their Swash-Backwash model to a number of human datasets.Just how they do this is not explained here,although at least for the SIR model such details are given elsewhere(A.D.Cliff et al,Measles:An Historical Geography of a Major Human Viral Disease from Global Expansion to Local Retreat,1840e1990,Oxford,Blackwell(1993)).Would I recommend you to buy it?As noted above,there is considerable redundancy between chapters4and5,and arguably chapters1and3should have been combined also.Much of the material in this book(particularly chapters5and6)overlaps with a previous book by these and other authors(A.D.Cliff et al,Emergence and Re-Emergence:Infectious Diseases:A Geographical Analysis.New York,OUP(2009)).The lack of technical details in chapter6is also a major shortcoming.On the other hand the book itself is very handsome,with beautifully clear and well-chosen pictures and graphs that generally reinforce the points being made in the text. On the whole,however,rather than recommending this book, I would direct interested historical geographers to the authors’2009book.Mark P.Little Radiation Epidemiology Branch,National Cancer Institute,USA /10.1016/j.jhg.2014.05.003Nick Megoran and Sevara Sharapova(Eds),Central Asia in Interna-tional Relations:The Legacies of Halford Mackinder,London,Hurst, 2013,xviþ331pages,£45hardcover.Since their appearance in1904,the geopolitical ideas of Halford Mackinder in relation to Central Asia have attracted both admiring praise and dismissive criticism,inﬂuencing the larger academic and political debate over the future of that region.Mackinder’s vision of the Central Asian steppes as the‘pivot’or‘heartland’of the Eurasian landmass,destined to determine the world’s balance of power,has showed an impressive resilience andﬂexibility in international strategic discourses,inspiring the foreign policy of great powers like Germany and the United States throughout the twentieth century.The end of the Cold War in1991d and the sudden disin-tegration of the Communist bloc and emergence of new,fragile independent states in the former Soviet Union d again put Mack-inder’s vision at the centre of debates in international relations.In an attempt to understand the often confusing foreign policies of these emergent states,many geopolitical analysts and strategic experts have looked again at Mackinder’s original view of the Eurasian heartland,using this concept as a viable guideline for understanding the diplomatic or military actions of these Central Asian countries.The recent war in Afghanistan against Al-Qaida and the Taliban has reinforced such a tendency,providing further stimuli for the theoretical and practical adoption of Mackinder’s ideas in international politics.Mackinder’s ideas are,however,far more complex and problematic than is generally acknowledged, and their direct impact in Central Asia is also somewhat confused and contradictory,as is clearly shown by this excellent collection of interdisciplinary essays edited by Nick Megoran and Sevara Sharapova.Inspired by an international symposium held in Tashkent in 2004,the collection in fact encapsulates all the most recent scholarship on Mackinder’s geopolitical theories produced both in the West and in the former Soviet Union,providing a fresh and comprehensive overview of their persistent relevance to interna-tional affairs.The main intent of the editors,as is noted in the lengthy introduction to the volume,is to consider‘how useful the pivot/heartland thesis is in understanding contemporary Central Asia’and to discuss‘a number of other intellectual puzzles’about Mackinder’s geopolitical thought that have generally been over-looked by previous academic studies on the subject(p.4e5).Such questions include:How did Mackinder’s ideas travel to Central Asia in the post-Cold War era,inﬂuencing the foreign policy debates of local states like Uzbekistan and Tajikistan?What level of popularity do they enjoy in post-Soviet Russia,and to what extent are they revised or manipulated by nationalist intellectuals in support of a more aggressive defence of Russian strategic interests?Have Anglo-American strategists really learned the right lessons from Mack-inder,or have they instead downplayed some key aspects of his thought,committing their countries to aﬂawed political course in Central Asia?These are only some of the interesting questions addressed by the various contributors to the volume,and,although their individual responses are not always entirely convincing or satisfactory,their common critical approach to Mackinder’sReviews/Journal of Historical Geography45(2014)120e141131。

Colloids and Surfaces B Biointerfaces

Colloids and Surfaces B:Biointerfaces 65(2008)239–246Contents lists available at ScienceDirectColloids and Surfaces B:Biointerfacesj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /c o l s u r fbPhysico-chemical properties and cytotoxicity assessment of PEG-modiﬁed liposomes containing human hemoglobinVal ´erie Centis a ,Patrick Vermette a ,b ,∗aLaboratoire de Bioing´e nierie et de Biophysique de l’Universit´e de Sherbrooke,Department of Chemical Engineering,Universit´e de Sherbrooke,2500,boul.de l’Universit´e ,Sherbrooke (QC),Canada J1K 2R1bResearch Centre on Aging,Institut universitaire de g´e riatrie de Sherbrooke,1036,rue Belv´e d`e re Sud,Sherbrooke (QC),Canada J1H 4C4a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 5December 2007Received in revised form 14April 2008Accepted 15April 2008Available online 24April 2008Keywords:PEGylated liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin Oxygen carriers Cytotoxicity HUVECCharacterizationTransmission electron microscopy Zeta potentialParticle size distributiona b s t r a c tPEGylated liposomes encapsulating human hemoglobin as oxygen carriers were prepared frompuriﬁed carbonylhemoglobin (HbCO)solution and a lipid mixture composed of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn -glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine (DPPC),cholesterol,1,2-dimyristoyl-sn -glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N -[poly(ethylene glycol)2000](DMPE-PEG 2000)and palmitic acid.Hemoglobin was extracted and puriﬁed from human blood samples.SDS-PAGE was used to assess its purity.Diameter of liposomes containing hemoglobin was controlled to approximately 200nm using extrusion as measured by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy.Liposome size distributions were shown to remain unimodal over 14days,even at different storage temperatures.Zeta potential measurements revealed that liposome containing hemoglobin have a net surface charge of −7.16±0.33mV.Also,hemoglobin encapsulated in liposomes was able to perform several cycles of oxygen loading and unloading using oxygen (O 2)and carbon monoxide (CO).The hemoglobin vesicle dispersion showed some toxicity as revealed by three in vitro assays in which endothelial cell (HUVECs)monolayers were exposed to these dispersions.Cytotoxicity was function of the liposome concentration in the culture medium.©2008Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionSince Rabiner et al.in 1967and Savitsky et al.in 1978[1,2]stud-ied stroma-free hemoglobin solution as a possible substitute for human blood,research on the development of universal,safe and effective oxygen carriers has been an ongoing subject.Such a solu-tion,despite its purpose to be used in blood replacement therapy,could also be used to supply oxygen in high-density cell culture sys-tems,where oxygen is often the limiting factor.This is particularly ﬂagrant in tissue engineering applications [3–7].Many perﬂuorocarbon emulsions and hemoglobin-based prepa-rations have been considered as oxygen carriers,with their loads of advantages and disadvantages.For a complete review on the dif-ferent types of oxygen carriers,their design and characterization,the reader is referred to Riess [8].Liposomes and biodegradable polymer capsules have been examined as conﬁnement vehicles for tetrameric hemoglobin [9–12].Liposomes are double-layered phospholipid vesicles able∗Corresponding author.Tel.:+18198218000x62826;fax:+18198217955.E-mail address:Patrick.Vermette@USherbrooke.ca (P.Vermette).to encapsulate different drugs or molecules [13].They have been thoroughly studied for the past 40years and the reader is directed to the work of Lasic and colleagues for more information [13–15].Surface modiﬁcation with PEG was reported to improve the cir-culation of liposomes in circulation [8,16].PEG is a biologically inert polymer extensively used in drug delivery to create,once conjugated,a steric barrier and/or a water structure around lipo-somes,with the aim to protect liposomes from plasma proteins in the body [17,18].The steric barrier created by PEG conjugation also prevents liposome fusion and aggregation and thus,stabilizes the dispersions during storage [17,18].It was shown by Sakai et al.[17]that PEGylated liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin stored in a deoxygenated state at 4◦C and 23◦C were stable for 1year,while dispersions stored at 40◦C were stable for 6months before liposome aggregation and hemoglobin leakage were observed [17].To be used in cell cultures,liposome dispersions should have limited cell toxicity and their formulations should be stable throughout the duration of the culture.Also,the liposome prepa-ration should be able to increase the oxygen concentration in the cultures and therefore,have a positive impact on the cell growth.Cytotoxicity of PEGylated liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin was assayed in different studies.For example,hemoglobin vesicles0927-7765/$–see front matter ©2008Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.colsurfb.2008.04.009240V.Centis,P.Vermette/Colloids and Surfaces B:Biointerfaces65(2008)239–246were tested on human cord blood hematopoietic progenitor cells [19].Mild toxicity was observed on short-term exposures,while inhibition of proliferation was monitored at longer times[19].Also, the effect of liposome encapsulating hemoglobin(LEH)on human platelet function in plasma was studied.Wakamoto et al.observed neither aggregation,activation,nor adverse effects when human platelets were exposed to liposome dispersions[20].Similarly,the exposure of rat erythrocytes to PEG-LEH did not affect the struc-tural integrity of the blood structures[21].No signs of aggregation and deformation of the erythrocytes were observed,suggesting that liposomes exhibited low,if any toxicity[21].Another study examined the cytokine-induced adhesiveness of monocytic cells to HUVECs[22].The data suggested that,in this speciﬁc model,LEH did not induce leukocyte adhesion and could have a beneﬁcial effect in preventing leukocyte adhesion to vascular endothelium caused by inﬂammatory cytokines[22].To our knowledge,in vitro long-term cytotoxicity of LEH formulations towards human cells have not been fully addressed and such testing is aﬁrst and manda-tory step to investigate the applicability of these LEH in tissue engineering.Therefore,this work examines the preparation and characteri-zation of liposomes encapsulating human hemoglobin as potential oxygen carriers for tissue engineering purposes and presents a char-acterization of the LEH dispersions.To assess the feasibility of using LEH as oxygen transporters,size distribution,zeta potential,mor-phology and shape,and cytotoxicity of these LEH dispersions were examined.To our knowledge,no similar study has been reported.2.Materials and methods2.1.Materials1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine(DPPC,cat. #PCS-020)and1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanol-amine-N-[poly(ethylene glycol)2000](DMPE-PEG2000,cat.#PPE-010)were purchased from Northern Lipids(Vancouver,BC, Canada).Cholesterol(Chol,cat.#110525)was obtained from Avanti Polar Lipids(Alabaster,AL,USA).Palmitic acid(PA,cat.#P-0500),Medium199(M-199,cat.M-5017),Heparin(cat.#H-1027), Hank’s balances salt solution(HBSS,cat.#H-6648),fetal bovine serum(FBS,cat.#F-1051),endothelial cell growth supplement (ECGS,cat.#E-2759),pyridoxal5 -phosphate(PLP,cat.#P-3657) and dl-homocysteine(Hcy,cat.#H-4628)were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich(Oakville,ON,Canada).Chloroform,sodium dithionite,and dichloromethane used for hemoglobin puriﬁcation and liposome preparation were of analyt-ical grade and were obtained from Fisher Chemicals.All the water used in these experiments was taken from a Milli-Q Gradient(Milli-pore,Billerca,MA,USA)ultra-pure deionization water system with a resistivity of18.2M cm.CellTiter96®AQueous One Solution Cell Proliferation Assay Kit(cat.#G3580)and CytoTox96®Non-Radioactive Cytotoxicity Assay(Lactate deshydrogenase,cat.#G1780)were obtained from Promega(Madison,WI,USA).CyQuant®NF Cell Proliferation Assay Kit(cat.#C35006)was purchased from Invitrogen(Burlington,ON, Canada).2.2.Hemoglobin puriﬁcationHemoglobin was obtained from human whole blood of healthy volunteers.All procedures were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Research Centre on Aging(Sherbrooke,Qc).After the subjects were thoroughly informed about the nature and goal of the study, they provided written consent.The protein was puriﬁed accord-ing to an adapted method previously published[23].In summary: (1)hemoglobin was stabilized by CO complexion(HbCO)(60min at room temperature);(2)the removal of membranes and stroma was done by solvent treatment(20%(v/v)CH2Cl2,shaken for3min with subsequent centrifugation at1900×g for15min);(3)traces of dichloromethane were removed by slowly heating the sample with aﬂow of inert gas(Ar)(heating from40◦C to60◦C,120min);(4)virus inactivation was done by heating the hemoglobin solu-tion(60◦C,overnight,with magnetic stirring agitation);(5)dialysis (MW cutoff of25kDa,against ultra-pure water,for24h,with mag-netic stirring agitation)was used to remove small molecules;(6) ultra-ﬁltration(MW cutoff of30kDa,Millipore,USA)was used to ﬁlter out molecules with MW<30kDa.Solutions containing puri-ﬁed HbCO were aliquoted and preserved in liquid nitrogen with PLP(18mM)and Hcy(15mM).SDS-PAGE was used to assess the presence of hemoglobin.2.2.1.SDS-PAGEThe puriﬁcation of Hb was determined via SDS-PAGE using a FisherBiotech system(Fisher Scientiﬁc,cat.#FB200).All the sam-ples were prepared in a Laemmli buffer(Bio-rad,cat.#161–0158) with a4%acrylamide stacking gel and a15%acrylamide resolving gel(Bio-rad,cat.#161–0158).Human hemoglobin is known to have a MW of approximately 64kDa[8,24].The hemoglobin samples were run along with a pre-stained broad-range molecular weight marker(Bio-rad,cat. #161–0318),which consisted of proteins having molecular weights ranging between6.9and210kDa.10␮L of hemoglobin samples (2␮g/mL)and7␮L of the molecular weight marker(dilution ratio of1:75(v/v)i.e.,1part of the marker in75parts of a buffer)were deposited in each well.A puriﬁed commercial hemoglobin sam-ple(Sigma,cat.#H7379)was used as a control and was run at a concentration of0.1␮g/mL.All samples were run at115V until the migration front reached the bottom of the gel(±120min).The gels were then stained using Silver SNAP Stain kit II(Fisher Scientiﬁc, cat.#24612)to determine band intensities.2.3.Liposome preparationLiposomes were prepared in a slightly different way than the method previously reported[23].Brieﬂy,the mixture of phos-pholipids DPPC,Chol,PA and DMPE-PEG2000in a molar ratio of 5/5/1/(0.3%[mole/total moles of lipids])was dissolved in chloro-form.The organic solvent was then evaporated using a rotary evaporator(B¨uchi,Switzerland)under reduced pressure to remove all traces of solvent.The resulting thinﬁlm was then hydrated with a NaOH solution(0.9mM)overnight to allow theﬁlm to dissolve to yield a lipid concentration of50mg/mL.The solution was then diluted with pure water to obtain a concentration of25mg/mL of lipids.Then,ten cycles of freeze-thawing(−196◦C and40◦C)were performed.The solution was then frozen for10min in liquid nitro-gen and lyophilized for48h.After dispersing the lipid mixture into a hemoglobin solution(4g/mL)for2h,the resulting multilamel-lar vesicles were extruded with the LiposoFast-Basic(Avestin Inc, Ottawa,ON,Canada)using11passes at54◦C through polycarbon-ate membranes with pore sizes of200nm.The resulting solution was then ultra-centrifuged at50,000×g for30min(Optima TLX, Beckman Coulter,Mississauga,On)to recover and eliminate the top layer containing non-encapsulated Hb.2.4.Liposome characterization2.4.1.Particle size distributionThe intensity mean diameter of the liposomes and the polydis-persity index(PI)of the distribution were determined by dynamicV.Centis,P.Vermette/Colloids and Surfaces B:Biointerfaces65(2008)239–246241light scattering(DLS)using a Zetasizer Nanoseries(Malvern Instru-ments,UK).Samples of liposomes stored at4◦C,22◦C and37◦C were analyzed.The refractive index and viscosity of pure water were used as calculation parameters and each sample was mea-sured3times for25runs using the unimodal model for size distribution.All samples were diluted to an appropriate counting rate prior to analysis.2.4.2.Zeta potentialThe zeta potential was measured by electrophoresis at25◦C (Zetasizer Nanoseries,Malvern Instruments,UK).The surface charge of the particles was obtained by measuring the velocity of the dispersion in an electricalﬁeld.Samples were diluted and placed in an electrophoretic cell where a potential of±60mV was established.Actual values were calculated from the mean elec-trophoretic mobility using Smoluchowski’s equation.The viscosity and dielectric constant of pure water were used as calculation parameters and each sample was measured in quadruplicate.All samples were diluted to an appropriate counting rate prior to anal-ysis.2.4.3.Inﬂuence of pH and osmolaritySlight changes in pH and osmolarity can have deleterious effects on cells in culture.To ensure that seeded cells would not respond to a change in pH and osmolarity due to the addition of liposomes in culture media,these parameters were moni-tored over24h(6,12,and24h).HUVECs were seeded onto 24-well plates(6000cells/well)(Corning,cat.#3527)and let to adhere in normal incubator conditions.The next day,HUVECs were either exposed to:(1)LEH(2mg/mL),(2)“Empty”lipo-somes i.e.,liposomes with no hemoglobin(2mg/mL),or(3)M-199 media.After6,12and24h,250␮L were pipetted and used for osmolarity analyses using a pre-calibrated osmometer(Advanced Instruments,model3250,Norwood,MS,USA).The rest of the solution was used for pH monitoring(Orion Research,model 710A,Lausanne,Switzerland).Measurements were done in triplicate.2.5.Functionality of the LEH as oxygen carriersHemoglobin possesses characteristic bands throughout the vis-ible spectra.Q-band(around500–600nm)and Soret band(in the blue region,around400nm)are typical regions that provide infor-mation about the hemoglobin state.Therefore,functionality of hemoglobin entrapped in liposomes and its ability to shift from its oxygen-loaded position to unloaded position was assayed by spectrometry.LEH dispersions(2mg/mL,using HBSS buffer)were exposed to pure oxygen and halogen light(90min,400W)[25]and sub-sequently compared to carbon monoxide(CO)exposure(15min, in the dark).To obtain deoxygenated spectra of hemoglobin,solu-tions were equilibrated with inert gas(Ar)to remove most of the oxygen before treatment with dithionite[26].Wavelengths shifts of the Q-band and Soret band under these conditions were mea-sured using a micro-plate reader(Bio-Tek Instruments,Winooski, VT,USA).2.6.Transmission electron microscopy(TEM)analysesThe samples were diluted appropriately and were negatively stained with uranyl acetate and allowed to air-dry directly on TEM grids.Observations were made using an H-7500transmission elec-tron microscope(HITASHI,Pleasanton,CA,USA)at a voltage of 60kV.2.7.HUVEC cultureHuman Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells(HUVEC,PromoCell, Heidelberg,Germany)were cultured in M-199supplemented with10%(v/v)de-complemented FBS.ECGS(20␮g/mL),heparin (90mg/L),and antibiotics(100U/mL penicillin G and100␮g/mL streptomycin)were also added.Culture media was replenished three times a week.All cells were maintained at37◦C in an incu-bator with a humidiﬁed atmosphere containing5%CO2.Cells of passages4and5were used throughout this study.2.8.Cytotoxicity of LEHFollowing cell exposure to LEH,cell proliferation assays were performed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of the LEH formulations.For this purpose,HUVECs were incubated with three concentrations of LEH dispersions(5,2and1mg/mL)for6,12,and24h.The M-199culture medium concentration was adjusted to compensate for the dilution caused by the addition of liposomes.Empty liposomes (5mg/mL)were used as controls.Three assays were performed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of the LEH dispersions.Different assays were used since it was reported that cellular metabolic processes vary greatly over time and that methodologies that rely only on measurements of ATP content can cause some problems in further cytotoxicity interpretation[27].LEH cytotoxicity wasﬁrst examined using the MTS assay,a colorimetric method optimized for adherent cells.Viable cells enzymatically reduce the colorless tetrazolium salt MTS to inten-sively colored MTS-formazan.Brieﬂy,4000cells/well were seeded inﬂat bottom96-well plates(Corning Incorporated,Corning,NY, USA)and incubated for24h.After removing the culture medium, 100␮L of LEH dispersions were applied,and the plates were incu-bated at37◦C for a period of4h.The absorbance was read at490nm on a micro-plate reader(Bio-Tek Instruments,Winooski,VT,USA). Values were corrected for background absorbance.Secondly,cell number was assessed using the CyQuant®Cell Proliferation Assay Kit,a highly sensitive,ﬂuorescence-based micro-plate assay[27].The CyQuant®assay measures the ability of CyQuant®dye to bind to the cellular nucleic acids of viable cells. Measurements of cellular proliferation provide a general measure of toxicity.Cell cultures were seeded at103cells/well in duplicate inﬂat bottom96-well plates.After exposure of the liposomes to adherent cells,cells were rinsed with HBSS buffer to remove dead cells no longer adhering to the plate,lysed,and the DNA was stained using the CyQuant®ﬂuorescent dye solution as recommended by the manufacturer.Plates were incubated at37◦C for60min.Flu-orescence was measured using aﬂuorescence micro-plate reader (Bio-Tek Instruments,Winooski,VT,USA).The excitation maximum was480nm and the emission maximum was530nm.Values were corrected for background absorbance.Finally,quantiﬁcation of the release of the cytoplasmic enzyme, lactate deshydrogenase(LDH)in culture media was evaluated.LDH liberation is correlated with the number of lysed cells.Brieﬂy,4000 cells/well were seeded inﬂat bottom96-well plates(Corning Incor-porated,Corning,NY,USA)and incubated for24h.After HUVEC exposure to the different concentrations of LEH,cells were lysed using a lysis buffer,as described by the manufacturer.LDH activ-ities in the culture media and in the corresponding cell lysates were measured at490nm on a micro-plate reader(Bio-Tek Instru-ments,Winooski,VT,USA).Values were corrected for background absorbance.2.8.1.Assessment of potential residual CH2Cl2cytotoxicityTo ensure that the dichloromethane used in the hemoglobin puriﬁcation process was not responsible for any cell death,a sample242V.Centis,P.Vermette/Colloids and Surfaces B:Biointerfaces65(2008)239–246 of M-199culture media was treated in the same way.In a con-trol experiment,M-199was exposed to CH2Cl2with subsequentcentrifugation and evaporation procedures(steps2–3,Section2.2).Then,10%(v/v)of de-complemented FBS was added to the media.This“CH2Cl2treated”M-199sample was then added inﬂat bot-tom96-well plates seeded with4000cells/well.Cells were thenincubated for24h with this M-199and a standard MTS assay wasperformed after the exposure.Normal M-199media was used ascomparison.The absorbance was read at490nm on a micro-platereader(Bio-Tek Instruments,Winooski,VT,USA).Values were onceagain corrected for background absorbance.Results were done intriplicate.2.9.Statistical analysisAll the data collected throughout the study were expressed asmeans±standard deviations(S.D.s).Analysis of variance(ANOVA)was used to determine if data were signiﬁcantly different usingp≤0.05.3.Results and discussion3.1.Hemoglobin puriﬁcation3.1.1.SDS-PAGEFig.1shows SDS-PAGE results for the Hb puriﬁcation proceduredescribed above.In this study,the SDS-PAGE technique was usedas a qualitative method to show the presence of hemoglobin in thesample.Proteins of interest were well deﬁned on the ne Bshows the molecular weight marker containing proteins rangingfrom6.9to210kDa while lanes A and C show puriﬁed samples ofhuman Hb and a commercial hemoglobin standard,respectively.It is possible to observe the tetramer,dimer and monomer com-posing hemoglobin at values of,respectively,64,32and16kDa(black arrows on left side,respectively noted1,2and3).The sub-units are visible since the sample was heated prior to its run,thusdenaturing the protein.When puriﬁed Hb was compared with thecommercial sample,it was possible to observe the same bandsexcept for one(under the last arrow),which was present only ontheFig.1.SDS-PAGE nes A and C show a puriﬁed human hemoglobin sample and a commercial hemoglobin ne B presents broad-range molecular weight markers.Black arrows on left side(1,2,and3)show,respectively,the64,32 and16kDa subunits of the protein.puriﬁed sample.It was published by Pearson et al.that this band is not apparent on freshly prepared specimens[28],as opposed to outdated blood,as in our case.Also,the observed streaking in the obtained SDS-PAGE analyses can be caused by the presence of other proteins.Therefore,the effect of the presence of these other proteins on the functionality of Hb has been tested(see below).3.2.Hemoglobin functionalitySpectra of hemoglobin encapsulated in liposomes are presented in Fig.2.Fig.2A clearly shows the difference between oxygen-loaded and unloaded states of the hemoglobin.This difference is even more evident in Fig.2B,showing the characteristic Q-bands and the shift from538and569nm to540and577nm.Panel C of Fig.2summarizes the shifts of hemoglobin from oxygen-loaded states to unloaded ones.Also,Fig.2C shows that hemoglobin can be oxygen-loaded and unloaded several times.The ability of the pro-tein to shift back and forth from one position to another(in thiscase,Fig.2.(A)Complete visible spectra of oxygen-loaded and unloaded puriﬁed human hemoglobin,(B)zoom on Q-bands showing the shift between oxygen-loaded and unloaded positions of puriﬁed human hemoglobin,and(C)variation of Q-band wavelengths after exposure to carbon monoxide and oxygen.V.Centis,P.Vermette /Colloids and Surfaces B:Biointerfaces 65(2008)239–246243Table 1Mean particle diameter of empty liposomes and liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin stored at 4◦C,22◦C and 37◦C over 2weeks4◦C22◦C37◦CEmpty liposomesLiposomes encapsulating hemoglobin Empty liposomes Liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin Empty liposomes Liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin Day 1220(39.6)226(48.5)240(45.6)269(47.2)229(48.1)239(53.3)Day 7229(41.8)237(47.7)245(46.2)252(45.1)249(44.2)255(42.7)Day 14240(40.7)239(57.6)249(45.9)247(47.8)248(45.6)254(50.1)Data in parentheses indicate the %Polydispersity (%Pd).from oxygen to carbon monoxide)demonstrates the functionality of hemoglobin even after its encapsulation into liposomes.3.3.Liposome characterization3.3.1.Particle size distributionResults of size distribution of liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin are presented in Table 1.It is evident from the data that the size distributions were unimodal and relatively narrow for all samples.%Polydispersity (%Pd)values of all LEH disper-sions were higher than 40%(Table 1).Therefore,LEH dispersions can be considered to as polydispersed.The term polydispersity is derived from the polydispersity index (PdI).PdI is a number cal-culated from a simple two-parameter ﬁt to the correlation data called a cumulants analysis.PdI is known as the relative variance,while %Pd is the coefﬁcient of variation or relative polydisper-sity and can be expressed as (PdI)1/2×100(Malvern Instruments,UK).As a rule of thumb,samples with %Pd ≤20%are considered monodisperse.The size of a particle is an important factor in determining its use as an oxygen carrier.Size is of great importance when one wishes to use these particle-systems in a body to supply increased (or opti-mized)oxygen concentration.Rapid extravasion from the body by the reticulo-endothelial system (RES)and immunogenic effects are only a few of the problems foreign particles encounter in the body [8,19,20,29–34].For tissue engineering purposes,particle size is also an important issue to consider.Liposomes added to a culture medium should be able,for example,to circulate through porous scaffolds often used in tissue engineering.Also,as for LEH,their small size (±200nm)should enable to increase the surface area between the liposomes and the dispersing medium phase allowing a better oxygen transfer.The results in Table 1show that LEH sizes are within the expected range of the 200-nm pores of the extrusion membrane used.These results are comparable and consistent with the ﬁndings of Ariﬁn and Palmer [35,36].Using asymmetric ﬁeld ﬂow fraction-ation coupled to a multi-angle static light scattering photometer,they found that liposomes extruded through membranes having 200-nm pore diameter exhibited a mean diameter that was close to that of the membrane.The dispersion observed was unimodal with distribution widths of 10–20nm.Mean LEH diameter does not vary signiﬁcantly with storage tem-perature (p ≤0.01).Still,LEH samples should be kept at 4◦C prior to their use in order to limit possible particle size enlargement.Stor-age time of 14days affected to some extent particle size growth in the samples (p ≥0.05).On the other hand,all the preparations exhibited a unimodal distribution,allowing to conclude,that over a short period of time (≤7days),the particles should not aggregate or fuse (p ≤0.05).PEG grafted onto the surface of the vesicles cer-tainly help to stabilize LEH by creating a steric hindrance around liposomes [18].The molar ratio of PEG used in our study is fairly small compared to those of other studies in which PEG was used.But this PEG concentration was sufﬁcient to stabilize the liposomes over 14days,a time corresponding to a culture period required to grow a network of vascular micro-vessels,for instance.The data presented in Table 1reveal that the encapsulation of hemoglobin molecules does not seem to affect the size distribution of the liposomes.Liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin exhibit the same size distribution behaviour as “empty”ones [37].3.3.2.Zeta potentialMeasurements of zeta potential can yield information about the colloidal stability of particle dispersions [36–39].On one hand,in a solution containing no proteins,no amino acids,and little to no multi-valent electrolytes,the larger the magnitude of the zeta potential the more stable the dispersion should be.Limited ﬂoccu-lation occurs between |5|and |15|mV [37].For “naked”liposomes (prepared in the same manner as LEH,but hydrated with M-199culture media instead of hemoglobin),it was shown that the zeta potential at the surface of liposomes was approximately −45mV [12,40].When PEG 2000was added to the liposome preparation,the zeta potential increased to reach a plateau around −5mV [12].ThisFig.3.TEM images revealing shape,structure,and sizes of liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin molecules.244V.Centis,P.Vermette/Colloids and Surfaces B:Biointerfaces65(2008)239–246increase of the surface charge was thought in part to be because of the drag caused by the presence of PEG chains on the liposome sur-face,decreasing the mobility of the liposomes,hence affecting the zeta potential[12,41].On the other hand,the presence of surface charge should be counter-balanced with a good steric hindrance in solutions containing proteins and amino acids(e.g.,culture media), as these often charged molecules can adsorb on the surface of the particles and enhance particle aggregation.For the PEGylated liposomes encapsulating Hb studied here,the mean zeta potential on the particle surface was−7.16±0.33mV. This indicates that limited aggregation of the particles should be observed and that stability over time can be,to some extent,con-trolled,as observed in Table1.In fact,over14days,the particle size did not vary for a given temperature and conﬁrmed the stability of the distribution.The values obtained can also be compared with results obtained by Sakai et al.[37].They reported LEH,without PEG and PA,with a surface charge of−21mV.PA was reported to decrease surface charge proportionally to its increase in concentra-tion in the lipid bilayer[37,42].3.3.3.pH and osmolarity of culture media with LEHpH and osmolarity of culture media containing either“empty”liposomes or LEH were monitored over24h.All the solutions had a constant pH of7.4.As for osmolarity measurements,for both“empty”liposomes and M-199controls,the values remained constant at approximately330±3mOsm.The osmolarity of LEH dispersions was319±2mOsm.From these data,it can be concluded that the addition of dispersions of“empty”liposomes and LEH does not affect the osmolarity of the culture medium used in this study.3.4.Transmission electron microscopy(TEM)analysesTEM images of LEH are presented in Fig.3.In the TEM images, the characteristic aspects of large unilamellar vesicles(LUV)can be observed[14].Large unilamellar vesicles are liposomal structures exhibiting a rather empty core that can be used to encapsulate different molecules,such as drugs or proteins[15].LUV’s can be prepared from large“onion-like”structures of multilamellar vesi-cles(MLV)by different methods such as extrusion.The TEM images clearly show that the extrusion method was convenient to produce LEHs.The distinctively recognizable double-layered membrane and the empty core are good indications of a LUV structure[13,14].TEM images revealed that LEH(over62individual liposomes)have a mean diameter of170±50nm.These results are in good agreement with the ones obtained from dynamic light scattering analyses. 3.5.Cytotoxicity of liposomes encapsulating hemoglobin(LEH)Fig.4shows the behaviour of HUVECs in contact with disper-sions made of different concentrations of LEH.Similar cytotoxicity trends were observed when the same experiments were conducted using humanﬁbroblasts from foreskin(data not shown).Fig.4A and B illustrate the percentage of live cells when HUVECs were exposed to LEH dispersions,while Fig.4C shows the percent-age of cell death after similar exposure.Statistical analyses of the results of these three cytotoxicity assays reveal that exposure time had a signiﬁcant effect on cell viability(p=0.05).The analyses also show that LEH concentration had an effect on the cell death rate.For example,a signiﬁcant difference(p≤0.05)was observed between 5and1mg/mL for all tested exposure times.From Fig.4,it can be seen that approximately50%cell loss occurred following24-h cell exposure to the LEH dispersions.The results obtained from the three assays are consistent with one another(p≤0.05).Unfor-tunately,these results cannot be directly correlated with thoseof Fig.4.Cytotoxicity assays of HUVECs exposed to PEGylated liposomes containing hemoglobin for different exposure times.(A)AQueous One assay,(B)CyQuant®assay,and(C)lactate deshydrogenase assay.All data are signiﬁcantly different with p≤0.05.other studies since very few long-term in vitro tests have been car-ried out.A recent study by Yamaguchi et al.[19]investigated the short and long-term effects of hemoglobin vesicles(HbVs)on the clono-genic and proliferative activity of human hematopoietic progenitor cells derived from umbilical cord blood.They found that,at a concentration of3%(v/v),continuous exposure of HbV signif-icantly decreased the number and size of mature-committed colonies[19].Moreover,HbVs also notably reduced the number of high-proliferative potential colony-forming cells and lead to the suppression of cellular proliferation and differentiation in liquid culture[19].On the other hand,the same study presents the effect of HbV exposure to cord blood for20h or3days.Yamaguchi et。

大学体验英语试题及答案

大学体验英语试题及答案一、词汇与语法（共20分，每题1分）1. The new policy will come into _______ next month.A) effectB) affectC) efficientD) effort2. Despite the heavy rain, the construction work has been _______ on schedule.A) keptB) heldC) carriedD) maintained3. The company is _______ the possibility of expanding into new markets.A) looking intoB) looking forC) looking afterD) looking forward to4. She _______ the opportunity to study abroad.A) turned downB) turned inC) turned overD) turned up5. The teacher asked the students to _______ the essay in their own words.A) rewriteB) rewritesC) rewrittingD) rewritted二、阅读理解（共30分，每篇5分）Passage 1In recent years, the use of mobile phones has become widespread among teenagers. Some argue that it is beneficial for their communication and learning, while others believe it can be a distraction. What is your opinion on this issue?1. What is the main topic of the passage?A) The benefits of mobile phones for teenagersB) The drawbacks of mobile phones for teenagersC) The widespread use of mobile phones among teenagersD) The debate over mobile phone use among teenagersPassage 2The article discusses the importance of a balanced diet for maintaining good health. It emphasizes the role of various food groups and the need for regular exercise.1. What does the article suggest is crucial for good health?A) A balanced dietB) Regular exerciseC) A strict dietD) No exercisePassage 3The text explores the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships. It highlights both the positive aspects, such as staying connected, and the negative aspects, such as the potential for isolation.1. What is the focus of the text?A) The positive effects of social mediaB) The negative effects of social mediaC) The impact of social media on relationshipsD) The role of social media in communication三、完形填空（共20分，每题2分）In today's fast-paced world, it is more important than ever to manage our time effectively. Here are some tips to help you _______ your schedule.1. A) organizeB) disorganizeC) reorganizeD) misorganize2. A) prioritizeB) deprioritizeC) reprioritizeD) misprioritize3. A) delegateB) deallocateC) redelegateD) misdelegate4. A) procrastinateB) decrastinateC) reprocrastinateD) miscrastinate5. A) evaluateB) devaluateC) reevaluateD) misevaluate四、翻译（共15分，每题5分）1. 随着科技的发展，我们的生活变得越来越便利。

A History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association

Aanstoos, C. Serlin, I., & Greening, T. (2000). History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association. InD. Dewsbury (Ed.), Unification through Division: Histories of thedivisions of the American Psychological Association, Vol. V. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.A History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the AmericanPsychological AssociationChristopher M. Aanstoos, Ilene Serlin, Thomas Greening*Authors' note: The authors thank Carmi Harari, Myron Arons, Gloria Gottsegen, Mark Stern, Amedeo Giorgi, Stanley Krippner and Alvin Mahrer, all early leaders in Division 32s history. Their generous willingness to give their time to be interviewed greatly assisted in the research that led to the chapter. Harari's own written correspondence and other archival materials, which he kindly shared, were also indispensable. Further thanks are owed to Eleanor Criswell, David Elkins, Kirk Schneider, and Myron Arons, without whose supportive efforts the chapter could not have been completed. We also thank Donald Dewsbury, without whose patience and perseverance this chapter would not have reached a final publishable form.A History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the AmericanPsychological AssociationChristopher M. Aanstoos, Ilene Serlin, Tom GreeningAs with most complex human endeavors, the history of APA Division 32, Humanistic Psychology, has many facets and lends itself to many narratives and interpretations. Presented here is one version, resulting from the input of three authors and many other people. Readers may wish to read between the lines or project onto the text their own versions. In humanistic psychology, in writing the Division's history, and indeed in psychology itself, there are always texts and subtexts, and multiple "stories" and interpretations. Right and left brains play their parts in the making of history, and in the recording and interpretation of it. This chapter is one history of the Division. Other fascinating chapters could be written about the people involved, the intellectual and interpersonal currents, and the creative, socially responsible, and sometimes spontaneous and chaotic events that underlay this history.Prior History: An Emergent Cultural ZeitgeistHumanistic psychology is sometimes known as the Third Force in contrast to two major orientations in American psychology, behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which, along with the biomedical model, are considered by humanistic psychologists to be reductionistic, mechanistic, and dehumanizing in regard to human beings as whole persons. As one critic of behaviorism put it, "American psychology first lost its soul, then its mind, and finally its consciousness, but it still behaved" (Waters, 1958, p. 278). Inregard to psychoanalysis, Freud's own words present the challenge to which humanistic psychology responded:The moment a man questions the meaning and value oflife he is sick, since objectively neither has any existence;by asking this question one is merely admitting to a storeof unsatisfied libido to which something else must havehappened, a kind of fermentation leading to sadness anddepression. (Freud, 1960, p. 436)Many psychologists were crucial in preparing the ground for what emerged as humanistic psychology's alternative, but three stand out: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. Maslow founded the psychology department at Brandeis University in 1951 with a strong humanistic orientation even before the movement was thus named. Originally working within experimental psychology, Maslow (1954), developed a research program and subsequent humanistic theory of motivation. He argued that people are motivated not only reactively by the "deficiency needs" with which psychology had hitherto been concerned, but also proactively by "being needs," ultimately including such motives as self-actualization.Rogers (1951) sought ways to facilitate clients' yearning for self-actualization and fully-functioning living, especially via person-centered therapy and group work. He was one of the first researchers to study psychotherapy process using tape-recordings and transcripts, and he and his students also made extensive use of Q-sorts to study self-concept and change. He explored the necessary conditions for therapeutic progress and emphasized congruence, presence, and acceptance on the part of the therapist.May, Angel, and Ellenberger (1958) built a bridge from interpersonal psychoanalysis and European existentialism and phenomenology, having been influenced by Harry Stack Sullivan, Ludwig Binswanger, and Medard Boss. May's books integrated creativity, the arts, mythology and the humanities with psychology, and encompassed the tragic view of life and the daimonic forces. Charlotte Bühler, Erich Fromm, and Viktor Frankl also contributed European perspectives to this stream, including a concern for values in psychotherapy, human development over the whole course of human life, humanistic psychoanalysis, social issues, love, transcendence of evil, and the search for meaning.In the 1960s many isolated voices began to gather momentum and form a critique of American culture and consciousness, and to form the basis of a new approach to psychology. Massive cultural changes were sweeping through America. That larger movement was an expression of a society eager to move beyond the alienating, bland conformity, embedded presuppositions, and prejudices that had characterized the 1950s return to "normalcy" after World War II. In psychology, adjustment models were challenged by visions of growth, and the human potential movement emerged. T-groups, sensitivity training, human relations training, and encounter groups became popular. The goal was greater awareness of one's own actual experience in the moment and authentic engagement with others, goals not well-served by academic psychology, clinical psychology, or the culture in general. Growth centers sprang up across the country, offering a profusion of workshops and techniques, such as transactional analysis, sensory awareness, Gestalt encounter, body work, meditation, yoga, massage therapy, and psychosynthesis. The best known of these was Esalen Institute, founded in Big Sur, California in 1964, which continues tothis day. Begun as a site for seminars, it featured not only psychologists such as Rollo May, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers, but also scholars from other disciplines such as Arnold Toynbee, Paul Tillich, Gregory Bateson and Alan Watts.These developments in the culture and in "pop psychology" paralleled changes in clinical and academic domains. Existential and phenomenological trends in continental psychiatry affected the Anglo-American sphere through the work of R. D. Laing and his British colleagues. His trenchant critique of the prevailing medical model's reductionistic and pathological view of schizophrenic patients began a revisioning of even psychotic processes as meaningful growth-seeking experiencing. Various American psychiatrists also contributed to the elaboration of this alternative, most notably John Perry and Thomas Szasz. At the same time, Gestalt therapy was developed and popularized especially by Fritz Perls.Meanwhile, from the academic side a rising tide of theory and research focused attention on this nonreductive, holistic view of the person. As the 1960s unfolded, new books by Rogers (1961, 1969), Maslow (1962, 1964, 1965, 1966), and May (1967, 1969) were enormously influential in this more receptive era. May pointed out that if we are to study and understand human beings, we need a human model. He advocated a science of persons, by which he meant a theory which would enable us to understand and clarify the specific, distinguishing characteristics of human beings. Many new voices also now began to be raised. Amedeo Giorgi (later Division 32 president in 1987-1988) criticized experimental psychology's reductionism, and argued for a phenomenologically based methodology that could support a more authentically human science of psychology (Giorgi, 1965, 1966, 1970). Giorgi argued that psychology has the responsibility to investigatethe full range of behavior and experience of people in such a way that the aims of rigorous science are fulfilled, but that these aims should not be implemented primarily in terms of the criteria of the natural sciences.As an organized movement, humanistic psychology grew out of a series of meetings in the late 1950s initiated by Abraham Maslow and Clark Moustakas and including Carl Rogers, all APA members. They explored themes such as the nature of the self, self-actualization, health, creativity, being, becoming, individuation, and meaning. Building on these meetings, in 1961 an organizing committee including Anthony Sutich launched the Journal of Humanistic Psychology (JHP). Its early editorial board included many well-known scholars such as Andras Angyal, Erich Fromm, Kurt Goldstein, Rollo May, Clark Moustakas, and Lewis Mumford. Maslow had compiled a mailing list of colleagues to whom he sent his papers which conventional journals would not publish, and this was used to begin the promotion of JHP (deCarvalho, 1990).The new journal's success in coalescing a responsive subscriber base quickly convinced its founders that a professional association could also meet a need. With the assistance of James Bugental, who served as its first president pro tem, and a grant arranged by Gordon Allport, the inaugural meeting of the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP) was held in Philadelphia in 1963. Among the 75 attendees were many who would later play prominent leadership roles in this movement. (For a summary of this meeting see deCarvahlo, 1991, pp. 10-11.)In 1963 James Bugental published a foundational article, "Humanistic Psychology: A New Breakthrough," in the American Psychologist which was adopted by AHP as a basic statement of its own orientation. This statement was amplified in Bugental's 1964 article, "The Third Force in Psychology" inthe Journal of Humanistic Psychology and appears, in the following slightly amplified version, in each issue of JHP.Five Basic Postulates of Humanistic Psychology1. Human beings, as human, are more than merely the sum of theirparts. They cannot be reduced to component parts or functions.2. Human beings exist in a uniquely human context, as well as in acosmic ecology.3. Human beings are aware and aware of being aware—i.e., they areconscious. Human consciousness potentially includes anawareness of oneself in the context of other people and thecosmos.4. Human beings have some choice, and with that, responsibility.5. Human beings are intentional, aim at goals, are aware that theycause future events, and seek meaning, value and creativity.(Bugental, 1964, pp. 19-25)The second AHP meeting took place in Los Angeles in September 1964, with about 200 attendees. As Bugental observed, this group already included the four major subgroups that have characterized and sometimes strained the association ever since: therapists, social/political activists, academic theorists and researchers, and "touchy feely" personal growth seekers (deCarvalho, 1991, 1992).To develop the philosophy, themes and direction of the Association for Humanistic Psychology and humanistic psychology theory, The Old Saybrook Conference was convened in 1964 at a Connecticut country inn. It was an invitational conference sponsored by AHP, financed by the Hazen Foundation, and hosted by Wesleyan University under the chairmanship of Robert Knapp. Leading figures in the psychology of personality and in the humanisticdisciplines participated: Gordon Allport, George Kelly, Clark Moustakas, Gardner Murphy, Henry Murray, and Robert White of the founding generation; Charlotte Bühler, representing a European tradition of research labeled "life-span development," Jacques Barzun and Rene Dubos as humanists from literature and biological science, and James Bugental, Abraham Maslow, Rollo May, and Carl Rogers, who became the intellectual leaders of the movement. These founders did not intend to neglect scientific aspirations; rather, they sought to influence and correct the positivistic bias of psychological science as it then stood. The titles of some of the papers indicate the focus of the conference: "Some Thoughts Regarding the Current Philosophy of the Behavioral Sciences" by Carl Rogers, "Intentionality, the Heart of Human Will" by Rollo May, "Psychology: Natural Science or Humanistic Discipline?" by Edward Joseph Shoben, and "Humanistic Science and Transcendent Experiences" by Abraham Maslow.In addition to the Journal of Humanistic Psychology, the Association for Humanistic Psychology, and the Old Saybrook Conference, the subsequent years also saw the founding of graduate programs in humanistic psychology. Masters' programs in humanistic psychology were begun in 1966 at Sonoma State University (then Sonoma State College), and in 1969 at the State University of West Georgia (then West Georgia College). An M.A. program in existential-phenomenological psychology was created at Duquesne University in 1959, and a Ph.D. program was added in 1962. Several free-standing institutes also initiated humanistic graduate programs. John F. Kennedy University and the Union Institute, both begun in 1964, and the California Institute of Integral Studies in 1968 were among the first. In 1971 the Association for Humanistic Psychology created the Humanistic Psychology Institute (now known as Saybrook Graduate School, named afterthe famous conference). These early programs, still continuing, have since been joined by many others. Thirty-seven are listed in the current Directory of Graduate Programs in Humanistic-Transpersonal Psychology in North America (Arons, 1996). Some of these have focused on synthesizing humanistic scholarship with eastern philosophies such as Hinduism and Buddhism (the best known of these are the California Institute for Integral Studies, John F. Kennedy University, the Institute for Transpersonal Psychology, and Naropa Institute). Faculty members from these graduate programs have been active in Division 32 and many, especially from State University of West Georgia and Saybrook Graduate School, have served as its president.The Founding of Division 32: Ambivalence and Collaboration During the 1960s the primary organizational forum for the burgeoning humanistic movement was the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP), which had become an organization of 6,600 thousand members. As a protest movement against the mainstream approaches in psychology, this alternative venue outside of APA seemed most appropriate. However, as the momentum of change during the 1960s continued, the mainstream also began to open up to much of this new thinking. Abraham Maslow was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1968. (Rogers had been president in 1947, and later Stanley Graham and Brewster Smith, two Division 32 presidents, also served as APA presidents.) Eventually, a group of psychologists within APA decided to pursue the organization of an APA division devoted to humanistic psychology.This effort was spearheaded by Don Gibbons, then a faculty member at West Georgia College. In order to propose a new division, the signatureson a petition to APA of 1% of APA's existing membership were required (approximately 275 at that time). In January 1971, Gibbons wrote to John Levy, the executive director of AHP, seeking his support in soliciting these signatories from APA members who belonged to AHP. Many members of AHP were also members of APA, so it was evident that the two groups would have a significant overlapping membership. As Gibbons wrote in that January 12, 1971 letter: "We would like to see it set up in such a way as to facilitate communication between the A.P.A. and all areas of the humanistic movement. In particular, we would like to see the new division maintain the closest possible degree of collaboration with A.H.P." In the end, 374 members of APA petitioned for the proposed division. As a result, the APA Council of Representatives, after hearing receiving affirmation from the existing divisions of APA, confirmed and made official the new Division of Humanistic Psychology.This prospect of another humanistic organization raised concern on the part of some that it would dilute the movement (Arons, personal communication, June 6, 1998). The proponents of the proposed division, however, were in any case determined to proceed, and viewed the eventual formation of a Division of Humanistic Psychology within the APA as inevitable, given the continuing rapid growth of humanistic psychology at that time. Though still wary, previously opposed members of AHP who also belonged to APA chose to help make the proposed division the best it could be, and gathered at the official organizational meeting scheduled by Gibbons during the 1971 APA convention (Harari, personal communication, June 26, 1998). For unknown reasons, Gibbons himself did not attend the meeting. Spontaneously, a group of individuals occupied the dais and took charge of the meeting.Several people presented the case for a new division. Albert Ellis spoke eloquently for its value in giving a voice within APA to humanistic psychology. Fred Massarik indicated that he had been originally opposed to the proposed division, but now supported it. It was proposed that a steering committee of 11 be elected who would constitute an acting executive board during the coming year, to establish by-laws and a statement of purpose.As Harari described this first meeting in his letter to the new division's members:On Saturday, September 4, 1971 an organizing meeting washeld for the Division of Humanistic Psychology of APA during therecent APA meetings held in Washington, D.C. Fifty-sevenpersons attended the organizing meeting and together withoriginal petitioners for the formation of the new Division, as wellas other interested members and fellows, became the chartermembers of the new Division. In the absence of the originallyscheduled chairperson, Don Gibbons of West Georgia College,Albert Ellis was appointed Chairman of the meeting and CarmiHarari was appointed Recording Secretary....Several signers ofthe original petition were present in the room and assisted in theconduct of the meeting, together with the expert consultingassistance of Jane Hildreth, representing APA CentralOffice....Serving as Presiding Officers for the organizing meetingwere Albert Ellis, Stanley Graham, Carmi Harari, Fred Massarik,Denis O'Donovan and Everett Shostrom. (Harari, 1971)The first meeting of the acting executive board took place immediately following the organizational meeting of the new division. Officers were elected, with Harari chosen as acting president, Graham as acting treasurer,Ellis as acting council representative, and Shostrom and Massarik as co-chairs of the next convention's program. Three other decisions, all of which would be subsequently challenged and changed, were made: the first program would be on an invitational basis; dues were set at $3.00; and Fellows, Members, and Associates of APA would be eligible for division membership on an equal basis with no classes of membership in the division.The Early Years: Growth and InnovationThe following year, 1972, saw the usual development and application of those processes by which a new organization becomes normalized including membership, governance, programs, and publications.. What was reflective of the spirit of Division 32, however, was the open, explorative approach to these features, which were handled in innovative ways. MembershipA highly successful recruitment of new members, by Barton Knapp as acting membership chair, brought in about 300 new applications during the Division's first year, almost doubling the membership total. By January 1, 1973, the total was 647; in 1974 it was 784. By 1975, it topped 900, and by 1976 it was more than a thousand. In 1977 it reached 1150, the highest level where it then stabilized for the next few years.During the 1973-74 year, the membership chair, Nora Weckler, conducted a survey of members, and itemized their major fields of involvement. Most heavily represented was counseling psychology. Clinical and educational psychologists were also strongly represented, followed by psychotherapy, experimental, social, industrial, and developmental psychologists. Smaller numbers included: engineering, environmental,perception, rehabilitation, and philosophical psychologists. Weckler also noted that the Division's first international members came from Venezuela, Japan, and India. She also itemized reasons given for joining the Division. These included:to have closer contact with others of similar interests; to learnmore about the humanistic approach....a desire for personal andprofessional growth and training....to learn how psychology canhelp people lead a more fulfilling life....to support the philosophyof Division 32....because of dissatisfaction with AHP's anti-intellectual and anti-scientific attitude....an appreciation of theblending of both art and science....a desire to learn more of whatthe Division was doing....an interest in the unresolved theoreticaland philosophical problems of humanistic psychology....with thehope that the Division will further develop theory and researchfollowing an existential-phenomenological approach. (NoraWeckler, Membership Chair Report, 1971)In the following year's membership survey (1974-75), Weckler turned up mostly continuations of these trends. Members now also came from Great Britain, Canada, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Interest areas covered almost every subfield of psychology, with clinical psychology being the most heavily represented, counseling a close second, and educational psychology third. Social psychology, developmental psychology, rehabilitation psychology, speech and communication psychology, and pastoral psychology were also prominently mentioned.At that point in its history, Division 32 defined its mission as follows in an undated statement:Humanistic psychology aims to be faithful to the full range of humanexperience. Its foundations include philosophical humanism,existentialism, and phenomenology. In the science and profession ofpsychology, humanistic psychology seeks to develop systematic andrigorous methods of studying human beings, and to heal thefragmentary character of contemporary psychology through an evermore comprehensive and integrative approach. Humanisticpsychologists are particularly sensitive to uniquely human dimensions, such as experiences of creativity and transcendence, and to the quality of human welfare. Accordingly, humanistic psychology aims especially at contributing to psychotherapy, education, theory, philosophy ofpsychology, research methodology, organization and management and social responsibility and change.GovernanceIn early 1972 drafts of the new Division's by-laws were circulated to John Levy, the executive director at AHP, to Jane Hildreth at APA Central Office, and to the Division 32 members for their comments. The purpose of the Division, as stated in these first by-laws, was to apply the concepts, theories, and philosophy of humanistic psychology to research, education, and professional applications of scientific psychology.Only two aspects of the draft by-laws were seen as problematic. Levy pointed out that requiring decisions to be approved at the annual business meeting might result in a small turnout producing unrepresentative results. Mail-in balloting was then also included as a decision-making tool. Levy also questioned the unwieldy large size of the executive board, which included nine at-large members. (This number was later reduced to six.) Hildreth, at APA, noted (in her letter to Gloria Gottsegen, March 7, 1972) that theDivision's desire to have only one class of members, while laudable, conflicted with APA by-laws that prohibit a person from holding higher member status in a division than he/she does in APA. In the case of APA's three classes of membership (Fellow, Member, and Associate), it would be no problem to consider APA Fellows to be Members of Division 32, but Associates in APA could not be promoted to Member status in the Division. This dilemma was resolved, however, by allowing APA Associates to enjoy full membership status in the Division as members who could vote and hold office on an equal basis, with the sole exception that they could not vote for the Council Representative position (as that voting eligibility is part of APA's own by-laws). Division elections would henceforth require the Division secretary to count the ballots of Division members who, as Associates in APA, were not eligible to vote in APA elections, and whose ballots would therefore not be sent to APA. This added complication was seen as well worthwhile, to be able to establish a more egalitarian collegium of members, of whom about 20% were only Associate members of APA.As a result of the initial rapid growth in membership, along with a very positive response to Harari's first appeal of support in the APA apportionment balloting, the new Division was awarded two seats on APA's Council of Representatives. Following a call for nominations, the Division's first election was held, in 1972, to select its first actual (rather than acting) officers. Carmi Harari was elected president, Everett Shostrom president-elect, Gloria Gottsegen secretary, Barry Crown treasurer, Fred Massarik and Albert Ellis council representatives. Members-at-large of the executive board were also elected, to serve staggered terms. These included: David Bakan, Elizabeth Mintz, Joen Fagen, Robert Strom, Leonard Blank, Lawrence LeShan, James Klee, Janette Rainwater and Barton Knapp.When Shostrom became president he presented the executive board with a silver oil can engraved with the inscription, "APA Division 32 President's Actualizing Oil Can" on which he had inscribed the names of the first two division presidents (Harari and Shostrom). He recounted the story of the Wizard of Oz. The straw man, the tin man and the cowardly lion were seeking from an outside authority qualities they already possessed within themselves. Opening to these inner qualities is a prime message of humanistic psychology. The oil can used by the tin man to lubricate his joints became a ritual reminder of this message as it passes, each name added, from outgoing to incoming presidents.Beginning with the first elected executive board meeting, in 1972 during the APA convention in Honolulu, innovations and changes were typical. Convention programming was changed from being exclusively invitational. It was decided to allot only 50% to invited symposia and 50% to proposals solicited from members. A newsletter was inaugurated, with Alvin Manaster appointed as its first editor, and a Social Responsibility Committee was formed with James Klee as its first chair. A proposal by Robert Strom to hold a mid-year executive board meeting was also accepted. It was also decided to include a regular column about Division 32 in AHP's newsletter, so as to continue the hoped-for collaboration between the two groups.The election of 1974 featured a problem and creative resolution. The balloting for the position of president-elect resulted in a tie vote between Myron Arons and Stanley Graham. With the concurrence of the two candidates, President Shostrom flipped a coin to determine the results. It was agreed that, since Stanley Graham won the toss, he would function as President-elect for the 1974-1975 term and that he would function as。

法布里珀罗基模共振英文

法布里珀罗基模共振英文The Fabryperot ResonanceOptics, the study of light and its properties, has been a subject of fascination for scientists and researchers for centuries. One of the fundamental phenomena in optics is the Fabry-Perot resonance, named after the French physicists Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot, who first described it in the late 19th century. This resonance effect has numerous applications in various fields, ranging from telecommunications to quantum physics, and its understanding is crucial in the development of advanced optical technologies.The Fabry-Perot resonance occurs when light is reflected multiple times between two parallel, partially reflective surfaces, known as mirrors. This creates a standing wave pattern within the cavity formed by the mirrors, where the light waves interfere constructively and destructively to produce a series of sharp peaks and valleys in the transmitted and reflected light intensity. The specific wavelengths at which the constructive interference occurs are known as the resonant wavelengths of the Fabry-Perot cavity.The resonant wavelengths of a Fabry-Perot cavity are determined bythe distance between the mirrors, the refractive index of the material within the cavity, and the wavelength of the incident light. When the optical path length, which is the product of the refractive index and the physical distance between the mirrors, is an integer multiple of the wavelength of the incident light, the light waves interfere constructively, resulting in a high-intensity transmission through the cavity. Conversely, when the optical path length is not an integer multiple of the wavelength, the light waves interfere destructively, leading to a low-intensity transmission.The sharpness of the resonant peaks in a Fabry-Perot cavity is determined by the reflectivity of the mirrors. Highly reflective mirrors result in a higher finesse, which is a measure of the ratio of the spacing between the resonant peaks to their width. This high finesse allows for the creation of narrow-linewidth, high-resolution optical filters and laser cavities, which are essential components in various optical systems.One of the key applications of the Fabry-Perot resonance is in the field of optical telecommunications. Fiber-optic communication systems often utilize Fabry-Perot filters to select specific wavelength channels for data transmission, enabling the efficient use of the available bandwidth in fiber-optic networks. These filters can be tuned by adjusting the mirror separation or the refractive index of the cavity, allowing for dynamic wavelength selection andreconfiguration of the communication system.Another important application of the Fabry-Perot resonance is in the field of laser technology. Fabry-Perot cavities are commonly used as the optical resonator in various types of lasers, providing the necessary feedback to sustain the lasing process. The high finesse of the Fabry-Perot cavity allows for the generation of highly monochromatic and coherent light, which is crucial for applications such as spectroscopy, interferometry, and precision metrology.In the realm of quantum physics, the Fabry-Perot resonance plays a crucial role in the study of cavity quantum electrodynamics (cQED). In cQED, atoms or other quantum systems are placed inside a Fabry-Perot cavity, where the strong interaction between the atoms and the confined electromagnetic field can lead to the observation of fascinating quantum phenomena, such as the Purcell effect, vacuum Rabi oscillations, and the generation of nonclassical states of light.Furthermore, the Fabry-Perot resonance has found applications in the field of optical sensing, where it is used to detect small changes in physical parameters, such as displacement, pressure, or temperature. The high sensitivity and stability of Fabry-Perot interferometers make them valuable tools in various sensing and measurement applications, ranging from seismic monitoring to the detection of gravitational waves.The Fabry-Perot resonance is a fundamental concept in optics that has enabled the development of numerous advanced optical technologies. Its versatility and importance in various fields of science and engineering have made it a subject of continuous research and innovation. As the field of optics continues to advance, the Fabry-Perot resonance will undoubtedly play an increasingly crucial role in shaping the future of optical systems and applications.。

B2M2

默写单词（看英写汉） 1. addict n. 对药物上瘾的人，瘾君子 v. 使上瘾 addictive adj. 药物等上瘾的 addicted adj. 上瘾的，入迷的 addiction n. 沉溺，嗜好 2. danger 危险 dangerous 危险的 endanger 危害 endangered 濒危的 3. power 权利，电力 energy 精力，能源 force 暴力，自然界一切的力 strength 力气 , 优点 4. illegal 非法的 legal 合法的 5. reduce 减少 increase 增加 6. treat 治疗， cure 治愈 7. agree 同意 disagree 不同意 8. affect 影响 effect 效果，影响 effort 努力 influence 影响 9. ban v 禁止，取缔 n. 禁令 10. belong (v) 属于， belongings 随身携带的所有物，财物
1. commit a crime 犯罪 2. come into power 执政 3. power failure 断电 4. full of energy 精力充沛 5. agree with 同意某人…与…一致，适合 6. agree to/on 同意,对…达成一致 7. get one’s work recognised 使工作得到认可 8. even if/even though 即使，尽管 9. full of wonders 充满奇迹 10. as if/though 好像 11. if only 要是…就好了 12. only if 只要 13. what if 如果…怎么办？ 14. in case 万一 15. can not/never… enough/ too 越…越好，再…也不为过

大学英语精读Unit2LessonsfromJefferson词汇分析解析

Understand the following
I had rather be shut up in a very modest cottage, with my books, my family and a few old friends, dining on simple bacon, and letting the world roll on as it likes than to occupy the most splendid post which any human power can give. 我宁愿隐居在恬淡祥和的村庄里，粗茶淡饭，与书、朋友和家人为伴，让世界按照自己的方式自然的去运转，而不愿拥有世人所能赋予的显赫的职位。 No personal ambition love for books, family and friends

threat n. threatening adj.
the threatening letter 恐吓信
reject
She
vt. 拒绝，抵制
rejected his proposal．
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ It
is likely that she is rejected by the school because of the low score.

Jefferson was a good and tireless writer
Fifty
volumes of his complete works Author of the Declaration of Independence Millions have thrilled to his words
Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865):

萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说

萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设主要内容美国人萨丕尔及其弟子沃尔夫提出的有关语言与思维关系的假设是这个领域里至今为止最具争议的理论。

沃尔夫首先提出，所有高层次的思维都倚赖于语言。

说得更明白一些，就是语言决定思维，这就是语言决定论这一强假设。

由于语言在很多方面都有不同，沃尔夫还认为，使用不同语言的人对世界的感受和体验也不同，也就是说与他们的语言背景有关，这就是语言相对论。

Linguistic relativity stems from a question about the relationship between language and thought, about whether one's language determines the way one thinks. This question has given birth to a wide array of research within a variety of different disciplines, especially anthropology, cognitive science, linguistics, and philosophy. Among the most popular and controversial theories in this area of scholarly work is the theory of linguistic relativity(also known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis). An often cited "strong version" of the claim, first given by Lenneberg in 1953 proposes that the structure of our language in some way determines the way we perceive the world. A weaker version of this claim posits that language structure influences the world view adopted by the speakers of a given language, but does not determine it.[1]由萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设的这种强假设可以得出这样的结论：根本没有真正的翻译，学习者也不可能学会另一种文化区的语言，除非他抛弃了他自己的思维模式，并习得说目的语的本族语者的思维模式。

Implanon子宫内节育器使用说明书

162J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2005: 31(2)CASE REPORT/BOOK REVIEWSPrior to removal it is essential to identify the position of the implant by palpation. Careful palpation of the proximal and distal ends of the implant is important.Incorrect placement of the implant deeper in the subcutaneous tissue and subsequent increase in the patient’s weight could result in difficulty with palpation of the implant. Difficulty with removal in the present case was probably due to insertion of the implant at an angle as seen in the ultrasound images (Figures 1 and 2).Additional factors might have been the patient’s weight gain and postinsertion fibrosis.Implanon can be visualised with all ultrasound transducers (i.e. high, medium and low frequency).However, the best results are obtained with very high frequency linear array transducers of 12 and 15 MHz.2When using a low or intermediate frequency transducer,application of a large amount of gel enhances the visibility of the implant. The manufacturer’s medical information department have specified use of ultrasound frequencies above 8 MHz based on expert opinion from radiologists. In the present case, the radiologist decided to use a transducer of frequency 11 MHz.The ultrasound probe is placed at right angles to the longitudinal direction of the implant. Following identification of the acoustic shadow cast by the implant,the exact position of the two ends is visible as a clear echogenic spot.3The transducer is then rotated by 90º to obtain a longitudinal view of the implant.The present case emphasises that in difficult cases in which the Implanon is not easily palpable, even though ultrasound localisation of Implanon is done prior to attempting removal, incorrect plane of insertion, weight gain, fibrosis and scar tissue from previous failed attempts can make subsequent removal difficult. Removal of Implanon in the ultrasound room immediately after localisation is best practice but may be difficult to organise. There have been no previous reported cases in the literature of difficulty in removal of Implanon due to weight gain. During the long waiting time incurred for removal of Implanon our patient lost a stone in weight,which possibly made the final surgical retrieval easier.However, in complex cases such delays can be reduced by establishing a clear referral system to particular surgeons and radiologists who have developed expertise in this area.A modification of the recommended removal technique may also need to be considered in difficult cases.Statements on funding and competing interests Funding.None peting interests.None identified.References 1 Mascarenhas L. Insertion and removal of Implanon: practical considerations. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2000; 5(Suppl.2): 29–34.2 Kapstein M, Ganpat R. Localisation of nonpalpable single-rod contraceptive implants using ultrasound sonography. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2002; 7(Suppl. 1): 86.3 Lantz A, Nosher JL, Pasquale S, Siegel RL. Ultrasound characteristics of subdermally implanted Implanon contraceptive rods. Contraception 1997; 56: 323–327.Book ReviewsCommon Breast Lesions:A Photographic Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. S Pilnik (ed.). Contributing authors: S Jormark (pathologist), E Morton (radiologist), F Pezzulli (radiologist), N Schulman (plastic and reconstructive surgeon) (all from Lennox Hill Hospital, New York, NY , USA). Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN: 0 52182357 9. Pages: 272 (including 50 line diagrams,200 halftone and 400 colour plates). Price:£110.00 (hardback)Common Breast Lesions is a beautiful book:hardback, glossy with full colour and black and white photographs and clear text. It is divided into two sections: Section I – Reasons for breast consultation; Section II – Multidisciplinary roles in the treatment of breast lesions – roles of the clinician, radiologist, pathologist, surgeon and plastic surgeon.This book is edited by an American as a basic guide in the diagnosis and surgical treatment of breast lesions. His stated goal was to produce a book that would be suitable for the needs of medical students who would then carry it into their practice. I feel it would be of limited interest to medical students, American ones at that!This book is Mr Samuel Pilnik’s personal experience based on 14 000 records of patients he has treated over the last 35 years. He simply cannot resist photographs of very rare lesions he has seen; lesions one sees once in a lifetime.Picture after picture of little bits of people in glorious technicolour left me feeling a little nauseous. Each little lump looking remarkably like the others. I find his style quite condescending and old fashioned. There is no evidence base apparent in his approach and certainly no discussion. The text is repetitive; in parts whole paragraphs simply repeated!Scattered through the chapters was basic information about the structure and physiology of the breast, which I appreciated. However, whole chapters dedicated to surgical anatomy were less useful. Apart from surgery and radiology, there was minimal reference to other treatments such as tamoxifen or chemotherapy.His ‘multidisciplinary team’consists entirely of doctors. There is no mention of the hugecontributions of physiotherapists, radiographers,nurses, breast care nurses, psychologists,counsellors, general practitioners and a primary care team. More importantly, there is barely a reference or a thought about the most important person: the patient herself. He is paternalistic in his approach to the patient – I get no feeling of her being part of his team!This book started for me with great promise but I ended it with a feeling of disappointment and irritation.Reviewed by Sarah Cay , MRCGP, DFFP Staff Grade Doctor in Reproductive Health Care,Edinburgh, UK Psychotropic Drugs and Women: Fast Facts (1st edn). V Hendrick and M Gitlin. New York,NY: WW Norton & Company, 2004. ISBN: 0 39370421 1. Price: £14.39. Pages: 256 (paperback)The importance of gender differences in psychopharmacology is gradually becoming recognised by researchers and clinicians. This handbook for health professionals is written by North American authors in a concise, easy-to-read style.There are nine chapters, each with a brief introduction followed by bullet points and tables.The tables contain information on different drugs,which is useful for looking up a specific drug or making comparisons. The first two chapters deal with psychopharmacological treatment in women and gender differences. They include interesting facts such as the wide fluctuations in serum levels of certain drugs at different times in the menstrual cycle, and the ability of sodium valproate to induce polycystic ovarian syndrome. The last chapter touches upon the effects of endogenous and exogenous steroid hormones on the brain.The remaining chapters deal with different psychiatric conditions, from depression to eating disorders. An interesting chapter on premenstrualdysphoric disorder is included. In each chapter pregnancy and breastfeeding are discussed indetail. Treatment considerations for women ofreproductive age and peri/postmenopausal women are also mentioned. Although the main emphasis is on drug treatment, the authors provide some information on commonly used non-pharmacological treatment options with reference to current evidence on efficacy and safety.Drugs are generally referred to by the genericname, with the North American brand name in brackets. Unfortunately contraceptive and hormone replacement therapy preparations are listed only as the brand name. Certain recommendations are controversial and are not in keeping with UK practice (for example, emphasis on the use of benzodiazepines in the treatment ofgeneralised anxiety disorder, and the treatment of side effects of psychotropic drugs with amphetamines or Viagra ®).Despite these limitations, this is an interesting and well laid out book that is likely to be particularly relevant to general practice, but is also a useful reference for any health professional dealing with female patients.Reviewed by Dr Louise Melvin , MRPharmS, MRCOG Clinical Research Fellow, Simpson’s Centre for Reproductive Health, Edinburgh, UK 161-162 JFPRHC Apr 05 3/30/05 3:04 PM Page 2on August 5, 2023 by guest. Protected by copyright./J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care: first published as 10.1783/1471189053629473 on 1 April 2005. Downloaded from。

专八英语阅读

英语专业八级考试TEM-8阅读理解练习册（1）(英语专业2012级)UNIT 1Text AEvery minute of every day, what ecologist生态学家James Carlton calls a global ―conveyor belt‖, redistributes ocean organisms生物.It’s planetwide biological disruption生物的破坏that scientists have barely begun to understand.Dr. Carlton —an oceanographer at Williams College in Williamstown,Mass.—explains that, at any given moment, ―There are several thousand marine species traveling… in the ballast water of ships.‖ These creatures move from coastal waters where they fit into the local web of life to places where some of them could tear that web apart. This is the larger dimension of the infamous无耻的，邪恶的invasion of fish-destroying, pipe-clogging zebra mussels有斑马纹的贻贝.Such voracious贪婪的invaders at least make their presence known. What concerns Carlton and his fellow marine ecologists is the lack of knowledge about the hundreds of alien invaders that quietly enter coastal waters around the world every day. Many of them probably just die out. Some benignly亲切地，仁慈地—or even beneficially — join the local scene. But some will make trouble.In one sense, this is an old story. Organisms have ridden ships for centuries. They have clung to hulls and come along with cargo. What’s new is the scale and speed of the migrations made possible by the massive volume of ship-ballast water压载水— taken in to provide ship stability—continuously moving around the world…Ships load up with ballast water and its inhabitants in coastal waters of one port and dump the ballast in another port that may be thousands of kilometers away. A single load can run to hundreds of gallons. Some larger ships take on as much as 40 million gallons. The creatures that come along tend to be in their larva free-floating stage. When discharged排出in alien waters they can mature into crabs, jellyfish水母, slugs鼻涕虫，蛞蝓, and many other forms.Since the problem involves coastal species, simply banning ballast dumps in coastal waters would, in theory, solve it. Coastal organisms in ballast water that is flushed into midocean would not survive. Such a ban has worked for North American Inland Waterway. But it would be hard to enforce it worldwide. Heating ballast water or straining it should also halt the species spread. But before any such worldwide regulations were imposed, scientists would need a clearer view of what is going on.The continuous shuffling洗牌of marine organisms has changed the biology of the sea on a global scale. It can have devastating effects as in the case of the American comb jellyfish that recently invaded the Black Sea. It has destroyed that sea’s anchovy鳀鱼fishery by eating anchovy eggs. It may soon spread to western and northern European waters.The maritime nations that created the biological ―conveyor belt‖ should support a coordinated international effort to find out what is going on and what should be done about it. (456 words)1.According to Dr. Carlton, ocean organism‟s are_______.A.being moved to new environmentsB.destroying the planetC.succumbing to the zebra musselD.developing alien characteristics2.Oceanographers海洋学家are concerned because_________.A.their knowledge of this phenomenon is limitedB.they believe the oceans are dyingC.they fear an invasion from outer-spaceD.they have identified thousands of alien webs3.According to marine ecologists, transplanted marinespecies____________.A.may upset the ecosystems of coastal watersB.are all compatible with one anotherC.can only survive in their home watersD.sometimes disrupt shipping lanes4.The identified cause of the problem is_______.A.the rapidity with which larvae matureB. a common practice of the shipping industryC. a centuries old speciesD.the world wide movement of ocean currents5.The article suggests that a solution to the problem__________.A.is unlikely to be identifiedB.must precede further researchC.is hypothetically假设地，假想地easyD.will limit global shippingText BNew …Endangered‟ List Targets Many US RiversIt is hard to think of a major natural resource or pollution issue in North America today that does not affect rivers.Farm chemical runoff残渣, industrial waste, urban storm sewers, sewage treatment, mining, logging, grazing放牧,military bases, residential and business development, hydropower水力发电,loss of wetlands. The list goes on.Legislation like the Clean Water Act and Wild and Scenic Rivers Act have provided some protection, but threats continue.The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported yesterday that an assessment of 642,000 miles of rivers and streams showed 34 percent in less than good condition. In a major study of the Clean Water Act, the Natural Resources Defense Council last fall reported that poison runoff impairs损害more than 125,000 miles of rivers.More recently, the NRDC and Izaak Walton League warned that pollution and loss of wetlands—made worse by last year’s flooding—is degrading恶化the Mississippi River ecosystem.On Tuesday, the conservation group保护组织American Rivers issued its annual list of 10 ―endangered‖ and 20 ―threatened‖ rivers in 32 states, the District of Colombia, and Canada.At the top of the list is the Clarks Fork of the Yellowstone River, whereCanadian mining firms plan to build a 74-acre英亩reservoir水库，蓄水池as part of a gold mine less than three miles from Yellowstone National Park. The reservoir would hold the runoff from the sulfuric acid 硫酸used to extract gold from crushed rock.―In the event this tailings pond failed, the impact to th e greater Yellowstone ecosystem would be cataclysmic大变动的，灾难性的and the damage irreversible不可逆转的.‖ Sen. Max Baucus of Montana, chairman of the Environment and Public Works Committee, wrote to Noranda Minerals Inc., an owner of the ― New World Mine‖.Last fall, an EPA official expressed concern about the mine and its potential impact, especially the plastic-lined storage reservoir. ― I am unaware of any studies evaluating how a tailings pond尾矿池，残渣池could be maintained to ensure its structural integrity forev er,‖ said Stephen Hoffman, chief of the EPA’s Mining Waste Section. ―It is my opinion that underwater disposal of tailings at New World may present a potentially significant threat to human health and the environment.‖The results of an environmental-impact statement, now being drafted by the Forest Service and Montana Department of State Lands, could determine the mine’s future…In its recent proposal to reauthorize the Clean Water Act, the Clinton administration noted ―dramatically improved water quality since 1972,‖ when the act was passed. But it also reported that 30 percent of riverscontinue to be degraded, mainly by silt泥沙and nutrients from farm and urban runoff, combined sewer overflows, and municipal sewage城市污水. Bottom sediments沉积物are contaminated污染in more than 1,000 waterways, the administration reported in releasing its proposal in January. Between 60 and 80 percent of riparian corridors (riverbank lands) have been degraded.As with endangered species and their habitats in forests and deserts, the complexity of ecosystems is seen in rivers and the effects of development----beyond the obvious threats of industrial pollution, municipal waste, and in-stream diversions改道to slake消除the thirst of new communities in dry regions like the Southwes t…While there are many political hurdles障碍ahead, reauthorization of the Clean Water Act this year holds promise for US rivers. Rep. Norm Mineta of California, who chairs the House Committee overseeing the bill, calls it ―probably the most important env ironmental legislation this Congress will enact.‖ (553 words)6.According to the passage, the Clean Water Act______.A.has been ineffectiveB.will definitely be renewedC.has never been evaluatedD.was enacted some 30 years ago7.“Endangered” rivers are _________.A.catalogued annuallyB.less polluted than ―threatened rivers‖C.caused by floodingD.adjacent to large cities8.The “cataclysmic” event referred to in paragraph eight would be__________.A. fortuitous偶然的，意外的B. adventitious外加的，偶然的C. catastrophicD. precarious不稳定的，危险的9. The owners of the New World Mine appear to be______.A. ecologically aware of the impact of miningB. determined to construct a safe tailings pondC. indifferent to the concerns voiced by the EPAD. willing to relocate operations10. The passage conveys the impression that_______.A. Canadians are disinterested in natural resourcesB. private and public environmental groups aboundC. river banks are erodingD. the majority of US rivers are in poor conditionText CA classic series of experiments to determine the effects ofoverpopulation on communities of rats was reported in February of 1962 in an article in Scientific American. The experiments were conducted by a psychologist, John B. Calhoun and his associates. In each of these experiments, an equal number of male and female adult rats were placed in an enclosure and given an adequate supply of food, water, and other necessities. The rat populations were allowed to increase. Calhoun knew from experience approximately how many rats could live in the enclosures without experiencing stress due to overcrowding. He allowed the population to increase to approximately twice this number. Then he stabilized the population by removing offspring that were not dependent on their mothers. He and his associates then carefully observed and recorded behavior in these overpopulated communities. At the end of their experiments, Calhoun and his associates were able to conclude that overcrowding causes a breakdown in the normal social relationships among rats, a kind of social disease. The rats in the experiments did not follow the same patterns of behavior as rats would in a community without overcrowding.The females in the rat population were the most seriously affected by the high population density: They showed deviant异常的maternal behavior; they did not behave as mother rats normally do. In fact, many of the pups幼兽，幼崽, as rat babies are called, died as a result of poor maternal care. For example, mothers sometimes abandoned their pups,and, without their mothers' care, the pups died. Under normal conditions, a mother rat would not leave her pups alone to die. However, the experiments verified that in overpopulated communities, mother rats do not behave normally. Their behavior may be considered pathologically 病理上，病理学地diseased.The dominant males in the rat population were the least affected by overpopulation. Each of these strong males claimed an area of the enclosure as his own. Therefore, these individuals did not experience the overcrowding in the same way as the other rats did. The fact that the dominant males had adequate space in which to live may explain why they were not as seriously affected by overpopulation as the other rats. However, dominant males did behave pathologically at times. Their antisocial behavior consisted of attacks on weaker male,female, and immature rats. This deviant behavior showed that even though the dominant males had enough living space, they too were affected by the general overcrowding in the enclosure.Non-dominant males in the experimental rat communities also exhibited deviant social behavior. Some withdrew completely; they moved very little and ate and drank at times when the other rats were sleeping in order to avoid contact with them. Other non-dominant males were hyperactive; they were much more active than is normal, chasing other rats and fighting each other. This segment of the rat population, likeall the other parts, was affected by the overpopulation.The behavior of the non-dominant males and of the other components of the rat population has parallels in human behavior. People in densely populated areas exhibit deviant behavior similar to that of the rats in Calhoun's experiments. In large urban areas such as New York City, London, Mexican City, and Cairo, there are abandoned children. There are cruel, powerful individuals, both men and women. There are also people who withdraw and people who become hyperactive. The quantity of other forms of social pathology such as murder, rape, and robbery also frequently occur in densely populated human communities. Is the principal cause of these disorders overpopulation? Calhoun’s experiments suggest that it might be. In any case, social scientists and city planners have been influenced by the results of this series of experiments.11. Paragraph l is organized according to__________.A. reasonsB. descriptionC. examplesD. definition12．Calhoun stabilized the rat population_________.A. when it was double the number that could live in the enclosure without stressB. by removing young ratsC. at a constant number of adult rats in the enclosureD. all of the above are correct13.W hich of the following inferences CANNOT be made from theinformation inPara. 1?A. Calhoun's experiment is still considered important today.B. Overpopulation causes pathological behavior in rat populations.C. Stress does not occur in rat communities unless there is overcrowding.D. Calhoun had experimented with rats before.14. Which of the following behavior didn‟t happen in this experiment?A. All the male rats exhibited pathological behavior.B. Mother rats abandoned their pups.C. Female rats showed deviant maternal behavior.D. Mother rats left their rat babies alone.15. The main idea of the paragraph three is that __________.A. dominant males had adequate living spaceB. dominant males were not as seriously affected by overcrowding as the otherratsC. dominant males attacked weaker ratsD. the strongest males are always able to adapt to bad conditionsText DThe first mention of slavery in the statutes法令，法规of the English colonies of North America does not occur until after 1660—some forty years after the importation of the first Black people. Lest we think that existed in fact before it did in law, Oscar and Mary Handlin assure us, that the status of B lack people down to the 1660’s was that of servants. A critique批判of the Handlins’ interpretation of why legal slavery did not appear until the 1660’s suggests that assumptions about the relation between slavery and racial prejudice should be reexamined, and that explanation for the different treatment of Black slaves in North and South America should be expanded.The Handlins explain the appearance of legal slavery by arguing that, during the 1660’s, the position of white servants was improving relative to that of black servants. Thus, the Handlins contend, Black and White servants, heretofore treated alike, each attained a different status. There are, however, important objections to this argument. First, the Handlins cannot adequately demonstrate that t he White servant’s position was improving, during and after the 1660’s; several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures indicate otherwise. Another flaw in the Handlins’ interpretation is their assumption that prior to the establishment of legal slavery there was no discrimination against Black people. It is true that before the 1660’s Black people were rarely called slaves. But this shouldnot overshadow evidence from the 1630’s on that points to racial discrimination without using the term slavery. Such discrimination sometimes stopped short of lifetime servitude or inherited status—the two attributes of true slavery—yet in other cases it included both. The Handlins’ argument excludes the real possibility that Black people in the English colonies were never treated as the equals of White people.The possibility has important ramifications后果，影响.If from the outset Black people were discriminated against, then legal slavery should be viewed as a reflection and an extension of racial prejudice rather than, as many historians including the Handlins have argued, the cause of prejudice. In addition, the existence of discrimination before the advent of legal slavery offers a further explanation for the harsher treatment of Black slaves in North than in South America. Freyre and Tannenbaum have rightly argued that the lack of certain traditions in North America—such as a Roman conception of slavery and a Roman Catholic emphasis on equality— explains why the treatment of Black slaves was more severe there than in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America. But this cannot be the whole explanation since it is merely negative, based only on a lack of something. A more compelling令人信服的explanation is that the early and sometimes extreme racial discrimination in the English colonies helped determine the particular nature of the slavery that followed. (462 words)16. Which of the following is the most logical inference to be drawn from the passage about the effects of “several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures” (Para.2) passed during and after the 1660‟s?A. The acts negatively affected the pre-1660’s position of Black as wellas of White servants.B. The acts had the effect of impairing rather than improving theposition of White servants relative to what it had been before the 1660’s.C. The acts had a different effect on the position of white servants thandid many of the acts passed during this time by the legislatures of other colonies.D. The acts, at the very least, caused the position of White servants toremain no better than it had been before the 1660’s.17. With which of the following statements regarding the status ofBlack people in the English colonies of North America before the 1660‟s would the author be LEAST likely to agree?A. Although black people were not legally considered to be slaves,they were often called slaves.B. Although subject to some discrimination, black people had a higherlegal status than they did after the 1660’s.C. Although sometimes subject to lifetime servitude, black peoplewere not legally considered to be slaves.D. Although often not treated the same as White people, black people,like many white people, possessed the legal status of servants.18. According to the passage, the Handlins have argued which of thefollowing about the relationship between racial prejudice and the institution of legal slavery in the English colonies of North America?A. Racial prejudice and the institution of slavery arose simultaneously.B. Racial prejudice most often the form of the imposition of inheritedstatus, one of the attributes of slavery.C. The source of racial prejudice was the institution of slavery.D. Because of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, racialprejudice sometimes did not result in slavery.19. The passage suggests that the existence of a Roman conception ofslavery in Spanish and Portuguese colonies had the effect of _________.A. extending rather than causing racial prejudice in these coloniesB. hastening the legalization of slavery in these colonies.C. mitigating some of the conditions of slavery for black people in these coloniesD. delaying the introduction of slavery into the English colonies20. The author considers the explanation put forward by Freyre andTannenbaum for the treatment accorded B lack slaves in the English colonies of North America to be _____________.A. ambitious but misguidedB. valid有根据的but limitedC. popular but suspectD. anachronistic过时的，时代错误的and controversialUNIT 2Text AThe sea lay like an unbroken mirror all around the pine-girt, lonely shores of Orr’s Island. Tall, kingly spruce s wore their regal王室的crowns of cones high in air, sparkling with diamonds of clear exuded gum流出的树胶; vast old hemlocks铁杉of primeval原始的growth stood darkling in their forest shadows, their branches hung with long hoary moss久远的青苔;while feathery larches羽毛般的落叶松,turned to brilliant gold by autumn frosts, lighted up the darker shadows of the evergreens. It was one of those hazy朦胧的, calm, dissolving days of Indian summer, when everything is so quiet that the fainest kiss of the wave on the beach can be heard, and white clouds seem to faint into the blue of the sky, and soft swathing一长条bands of violet vapor make all earth look dreamy, and give to the sharp, clear-cut outlines of the northern landscape all those mysteries of light and shade which impart such tenderness to Italian scenery.The funeral was over,--- the tread鞋底的花纹/ 踏of many feet, bearing the heavy burden of two broken lives, had been to the lonely graveyard, and had come back again,--- each footstep lighter and more unconstrained不受拘束的as each one went his way from the great old tragedy of Death to the common cheerful of Life.The solemn black clock stood swaying with its eternal ―tick-tock, tick-tock,‖ in the kitchen of the brown house on Orr’s Island. There was there that sense of a stillness that can be felt,---such as settles down on a dwelling住处when any of its inmates have passed through its doors for the last time, to go whence they shall not return. The best room was shut up and darkened, with only so much light as could fall through a little heart-shaped hole in the window-shutter,---for except on solemn visits, or prayer-meetings or weddings, or funerals, that room formed no part of the daily family scenery.The kitchen was clean and ample, hearth灶台, and oven on one side, and rows of old-fashioned splint-bottomed chairs against the wall. A table scoured to snowy whiteness, and a little work-stand whereon lay the Bible, the Missionary Herald, and the Weekly Christian Mirror, before named, formed the principal furniture. One feature, however, must not be forgotten, ---a great sea-chest水手用的储物箱,which had been the companion of Zephaniah through all the countries of the earth. Old, and battered破旧的，磨损的, and unsightly难看的it looked, yet report said that there was good store within which men for the most part respect more than anything else; and, indeed it proved often when a deed of grace was to be done--- when a woman was suddenly made a widow in a coast gale大风，狂风, or a fishing-smack小渔船was run down in the fogs off the banks, leaving in some neighboring cottage a family of orphans,---in all such cases, the opening of this sea-chest was an event of good omen 预兆to the bereaved丧亲者;for Zephaniah had a large heart and a large hand, and was apt有…的倾向to take it out full of silver dollars when once it went in. So the ark of the covenant约柜could not have been looked on with more reverence崇敬than the neighbours usually showed to Captain Pennel’s sea-chest.1. The author describes Orr‟s Island in a(n)______way.A.emotionally appealing, imaginativeB.rational, logically preciseC.factually detailed, objectiveD.vague, uncertain2.According to the passage, the “best room”_____.A.has its many windows boarded upB.has had the furniture removedC.is used only on formal and ceremonious occasionsD.is the busiest room in the house3.From the description of the kitchen we can infer that thehouse belongs to people who_____.A.never have guestsB.like modern appliancesC.are probably religiousD.dislike housework4.The passage implies that_______.A.few people attended the funeralB.fishing is a secure vocationC.the island is densely populatedD.the house belonged to the deceased5.From the description of Zephaniah we can see thathe_________.A.was physically a very big manB.preferred the lonely life of a sailorC.always stayed at homeD.was frugal and saved a lotText BBasic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is the country' s impressive population growth. For every three Canadians in 1945, there were over five in 1966. In September 1966 Canada's population passed the 20 million mark. Most of this surging growth came from natural increase. The depression of the 1930s and the war had held back marriages, and the catching-up process began after 1945. The baby boom continued through the decade of the 1950s, producing a population increase of nearly fifteen percent in the five years from 1951 to 1956. This rate of increase had been exceeded only once before in Canada's history, in the decade before 1911 when the prairies were being settled. Undoubtedly, the good economic conditions of the 1950s supported a growth in the population, but the expansion also derived from a trend toward earlier marriages and an increase in the average size of families; In 1957 the Canadian birth rate stood at 28 per thousand, one of the highest in the world. After the peak year of 1957, thebirth rate in Canada began to decline. It continued falling until in 1966 it stood at the lowest level in 25 years. Partly this decline reflected the low level of births during the depression and the war, but it was also caused by changes in Canadian society. Young people were staying at school longer, more women were working; young married couples were buying automobiles or houses before starting families; rising living standards were cutting down the size of families. It appeared that Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families that had occurred all through theWestern world since the time of the Industrial Revolution. Although the growth in Canada’s population had slowed down by 1966 (the cent), another increase in the first half of the 1960s was only nine percent), another large population wave was coming over the horizon. It would be composed of the children of the children who were born during the period of the high birth rate prior to 1957.6. What does the passage mainly discuss?A. Educational changes in Canadian society.B. Canada during the Second World War.C. Population trends in postwar Canada.D. Standards of living in Canada.7. According to the passage, when did Canada's baby boom begin?A. In the decade after 1911.B. After 1945.C. During the depression of the 1930s.D. In 1966.8. The author suggests that in Canada during the 1950s____________.A. the urban population decreased rapidlyB. fewer people marriedC. economic conditions were poorD. the birth rate was very high9. When was the birth rate in Canada at its lowest postwar level?A. 1966.B. 1957.C. 1956.D. 1951.10. The author mentions all of the following as causes of declines inpopulation growth after 1957 EXCEPT_________________.A. people being better educatedB. people getting married earlierC. better standards of livingD. couples buying houses11.I t can be inferred from the passage that before the IndustrialRevolution_______________.A. families were largerB. population statistics were unreliableC. the population grew steadilyD. economic conditions were badText CI was just a boy when my father brought me to Harlem for the first time, almost 50 years ago. We stayed at the hotel Theresa, a grand brick structure at 125th Street and Seventh avenue. Once, in the hotel restaurant, my father pointed out Joe Louis. He even got Mr. Brown, the hotel manager, to introduce me to him, a bit punchy强力的but still champ焦急as fast as I was concerned.Much has changed since then. Business and real estate are booming. Some say a new renaissance is under way. Others decry责难what they see as outside forces running roughshod肆意践踏over the old Harlem. New York meant Harlem to me, and as a young man I visited it whenever I could. But many of my old haunts are gone. The Theresa shut down in 1966. National chains that once ignored Harlem now anticipate yuppie money and want pieces of this prime Manhattan real estate. So here I am on a hot August afternoon, sitting in a Starbucks that two years ago opened a block away from the Theresa, snatching抓取，攫取at memories between sips of high-priced coffee. I am about to open up a piece of the old Harlem---the New York Amsterdam News---when a tourist。

Decomposition Procedures for Distributional Analysis A Unified Framework Based on the

Decomposition Procedures for Distributional Analysis:A Unified Framework Based on the Shapley ValueAnthony F. ShorrocksUniversity of EssexandInstitute for Fiscal StudiesFirst draft, June 1999Mailing Address:Department of EconomicsUniversity of EssexColchester CO4 3SQ, UKshora@1. IntroductionDecomposition techniques are used in many fields of economics to help disentangle and quantify the impact of various causal factors. Their use is particularly widespread in studies of poverty and inequality. In poverty analysis, most practitioners now employ decomposable poverty measures — especially the Foster et al. (1984) family of indices —which enable the overall level of poverty to be allocated among subgroups of the population, such as those defined by geographical region, household composition, labour market characteristics or education level. Recent examples include Grootaert (1995), Szekely (1995), Thorbecke and Jung (1996). Other dynamic decomposition procedures are used to examine how economic growth contributes to a reduction in poverty over time, and to assess the extent to which the impact of growth is reinforced, or attenuated, by changes in income inequality: see for example, Ravallion and Huppi (1991), Datt and Ravallion (1992) and Tsui (1996). In the context of income inequality, decomposition techniques enable researchers to distinguish the “between-group” effect due to differences in average incomes across subgroups (males and females, say), from the “within-group” effect due to inequality within the population subgroups. (See ???). Decomposition techniques have also been developed in order to measure the importance of components of income such as earnings or transfer payments.Despite their widespread use, these procedures have a number of shortcomings which have become increasingly evident as more sophisticated models and econometrics are brought to bear on distributional questions. Four broad categories of problems can be distinguished. First, the contribution assigned to a specific factor is not always interpretable in an intuitively meaningful way. As Chantreuil and Trannoy (1997) and Morduch and Sinclair (1998) point out, this is particularly true of the decomposition by income components proposed by Shorrocks (1982). In other cases, the interpretation commonly given to a component may not be strictly accurate. Foster and Shneyerov (1996), for example, question the conventional interpretation of the between-group term in the decomposition of inequality by subgroups.The second problem with conventional procedures is that they often place constraints on the kinds of poverty and inequality indices which can be used. Only certain forms of indices yield a set of contributions that sum up to the amount of poverty or inequality thatX k ,k '1,2,...,m I 'f (X 1,X 2,...,X m )f (@)requires explanation. Similar methods applied to other indices require the introduction of a vaguely defined residual or “interaction” term in order to maintain the decomposition identity. The best known example is the subgroup decomposition of the Gini coefficient,which has exercised the minds of many authors including Pyatt (1976) and Lambert and Aronson (1993).A less familiar, but potentially much more serious, problem concerns the limitations placed on the types of contributory factors which can be considered. Subgroupdecompositions can handle situations in which the population is partitioned on the basis of a single attribute, but have difficulty identifying the relevant contributions in multi-variate decompositions. Nor is there any established method of dealing with mixtures of factors,such as a simultaneous decomposition by subgroups (into, say, males and females) and income components (say, earnings and unearned income). As more sophisticated models are used to analyse distributional issues, these limitations have become increasingly evident.The studies by Cowell and Jenkins (1995), Jenkins (1995), Bourguignon et al. (1998), and Bouillon et al. (1998) illustrate the range of problems faced by those trying to apply current techniques to complex distributional questions.The final criticism of current decomposition methods is that the individual applications are viewed as different problems requiring different solutions. No attempt has been made to integrate the various techniques within a common overall framework. This is the mainreason why it is impossible at present to combine decompositions by subgroups and income components. Yet the individual applications share certain features and objectives which enable a common structure to be formulated. Let I represent an aggregate statistical indicator, such as the overall level of poverty or inequality, and let ,denote a set of contributory factors which together account for the value of I . Then we can write(1.1),where is a suitable aggregator function representing the underlying model. The objective in all types of decomposition exercises is to assign contributions C to each of the k factors X , ideally in a manner that allows the value of I to be expressed as the sum of the k factor contributions.The aim of this paper is to offer a solution to this general decomposition problem and to compare the results with the specific procedures currently applied to a number of distributional questions. In broad terms, the proposed solution considers the marginal effect on I of eliminating each of the contributory factors in sequence, and then assigns to each factor the average of its marginal contributions in all possible elimination sequences. This procedure yields an exact additive decomposition of I into m contributions.Posing the decomposition issue in the general way indicated by (1.1) highlights formal similarities with problems encountered in other areas of economics and econometrics. Of particular relevance to this paper is the classic question of cooperative game theory, which asks how a certain amount of output (or costs) should be allocated among a set of contributors (or beneficiaries). The Shapley value (Shapley, 1953) provides a popular answer to this question. The proposed solution to the general decomposition problem turns out to formally equivalent to the Shapley value, and is therefore referred to as the Shapley decomposition. Rongve (1995) and Chantreuil and Trannoy (1997) have both applied the Shapley value to the decomposition of inequality by income components, but fail to realise that a similar procedure can be used in all forms of distributional analysis, regardless of the complexity of the model, or the number and types of factors considered. Indeed, the procedure can be employed in all areas of applied economics whenever one wishes to assess the relative importance of the explanatory variables.The paper begins with a description of the general decomposition problem and the proposed solution based on the Shapley value. Section 3 shows how the procedure may be applied to three issues concerned with poverty: the effects of growth and redistribution on changes in poverty; the conventional application of decomposable poverty indices; and the impact of population shifts and changes in within-group poverty on the level of poverty over time.Section 4 looks in more detail at the features of the Shapley decomposition in the context of a hierarchical model in which groups of factors may be treated as single units. This leads to a discussion of the two-stage Shapley procedure associated with the Owen value (Owen, 1977). A number of results in this section establish the conditions under which the Shapley and Owen decompositions coincide, and indicate several ways of simplifying the calculation of the factor contributions. These results are then used tok0K'{1,2,...,m}I'f(X1,X2,...,Xm)f(@)XkX k ,kóSgenerate the Shapley solution to the multi-variate decomposition of poverty by subgroups, a problem which has not been solved before.In Sections 5 and 6, attention turns to inequality analysis, beginning with decomposition by subgroups using the Entropy and Gini measures of inequality. This is followed by a discussion of the application of the Shapley rule to decomposition by source of income.The main purpose of these applications is to see how the Shapley procedure compares with existing techniques in the context of a variety of standard decomposition problems. The overall results are encouraging. In all cases, the Shapley decomposition either replicates current practice or (arguably) provides a more satisfactory method of assigning contributions to the explanatory factors. However, the greatest attraction of the procedure proposed in this paper is that it overcomes all four of the categories of problems associated with present techniques. As a consequence, it offers a unified framework capable of handling any type of decomposition exercise. After summarising the principal findings of this paper, Section 8 briefly discusses the wide range of potential applications to issues which have not previously been considered candidates for decomposition analysis.2. A General Framework for Decomposition AnalysisConsider a statistical indicator I whose value is completely determined by a set of m contributory factors, X, indexed by , so that we may writek(2.1),where describes the underlying model. In the applications examined later, the indicator I will represent the overall level of poverty or inequality in the population, or the change in poverty over time. The factor may refer to a conventional scalar or vector variable, but other interpretations are possible and often desirable; for the moment it is best regarded as a loose descriptive label capturing influences like “uncertain returns to investments”,“differences in household composition” or “supply-side effects”.In what follows, we imagine scenarios in which some or all of the factors are eliminated, and use F(S) to signify the value that I takes when the factors , have been dropped. As each of the factors is either present or absent, it is convenient to characterise+K ,F ,F :{S |S f K }6ú+K ,F ,C k ,k 0K ,C k 'C k (K ,F ),k 0K ,+K ,F ,j k 0KC k (K ,F )'F (K ),+K ,F ,M k (K ,F )'F (K )&F (K \{k }),k 0K .F '(F 1,F 2,...,F m )S (F r ,F )'{F i |i >r }F r If F (·) is derived from an econometric model, this constraint will usually mean that one of the factors 1represents the unexplained residuals. When the constraint is not satisfied automatically, I can always be renormalised so that it measures the “surplus” due to the identified factors.the model structure in terms of the set of factors (or, more accurately, “factor indices”), K , and the function . Since that the set of factors completely accounts for I , it will also be convenient to assume throughout that F (i ) = 0: in other words, that I is zero when all the factors are removed.1A decomposition of is a set of real values indicating thecontribution of each of the factors. A decomposition rule C is a function which yields a set of factor contributions(2.2)for any possible model .In seeking to construct a decomposition rule, several desiderata come to mind. First,that it should be symmetric (or anonymous ) in the sense that the contribution assigned to any given factor should not depend on the way in which the factors are labelled or listed.Secondly, that the decomposition should be exact (and additive), so that(2.3) for all .When condition (2.3) is satisfied, it is meaningful to speak of the proportion of observed inequality or poverty attributable to factor k .It is also desirable that the contributions of the factors can be interpreted in an intuitively appealing way. In this respect, the most natural candidate is the rule which equates the contribution of each factor to its (first round) marginal impact(2.4)This decomposition rule is symmetric, but will not normally yield an exact decomposition. A second possibility is to consider the marginal impact of each of the factors when they are eliminated in sequence. Let indicate the order in which the factors are removed, and let be the set of factors that remain after factorB (|S |,|M |)|M |C Fk 'F (S (k ,F )^{k })&F (S (k ,F ))')k F (S (k ,F )),k 0K ,)k F (S )/F (S ^{k })&F (S ),S f K \{k },S (F r ,F )S (F r %1,F )^{F r %1}r '1,2,...,m &1j k 0K C F k 'j m r '1C F F r 'j mr '1[F (S (F r ,F )^{F r })&F (S (F r ,F ))]'F (S (F 1,F )^{F 1})&F (S (F m ,F ))'F (K )&F (i )'F (K ).C F k C S k (K ,F )'1m !j F 0E C F k '1m !j F 0E)k F (S (k ,F ))'j m &1s '0j S f K \{k }|S |'s 1m !j F 0E S (k ,F )'S )k F (S )'j m &1s '0j S f K \{k }|S |'s (m &1&s )!s !m !)k F (S ).B (s ,m &1)'(m &1&s )!s !/m !C S k (K ,F )'j S K \{k }B (|S |,|K \{k }|))k F (S )'õS f K \{k })k F (S ),k 0K ,õS f L is the probability of randomly selecting the subset S from M , given that all subset sizes from 0 to 2 are equally likely.has been eliminated. Then the marginal impacts are given by(2.5)where(2.6)is the marginal effect of adding factor k to the set S . Using the fact that = for , we deduce(2.7) The decomposition (2.5) is therefore exact. However, the value of the contribution assigned to any given factor depends on the order in which the factors appear in the elimination sequence F , so the factors are not treated symmetrically. This “path dependence” problem may be remedied by considering the m ! possible elimination sequences, denoted here by the set E , and by computing the expected value of when the sequences in E are chosen at random. This yields the decomposition rule C given byS (2.8)Using to indicate the relevant probability, equation (2.8)2is expressed more succinctly as(2.9) where is the expectation taken with respect to the subsets of L .From (2.7) it is clear that C is an exact decomposition rule, and also one which treats SC k (K ,F ){)k F (S )|S f K \{k }}P (µt ,L t )G 'µ2/µ1&1 Several characterisations of the Shapley value are available, and may be reinterpreted in the present3framework. For example, (2.8) is the only symmetric and exact decomposition rule which, for each k , yields contributions that depend only on the set of marginal effects relating to factor k (Young, 1985).the factors symmetrically. Furthermore, the contributions can be interpreted as the expected marginal impact of each factor when the expectation is taken over all the possibleelimination paths.Expression (2.8) will be familiar to many readers, since it corresponds to the Shapley value for the cooperative game in which “output” or “surplus” F (K ) is shared amongst the set of “inputs” or “agents” K (see, for example, Moulin (1988, Chapter 5)). The application to distributional analysis is quite different from the context in which the Shapley value was conceived, and the results therefore need to be reinterpreted. Nevertheless, it seems convenient and appropriate to refer to (2.8) as the Shapley decomposition rule .33. Applications of the Shapley Decomposition to Poverty AnalysisTo illustrate how the Shapley decomposition operates in practice, this section looks at three simple applications to poverty analysis.3.1. The Impact of Growth and Redistribution on the Change in PovertyAn important issue in development economics concerns the extent to which economic growth helps to alleviate poverty. With a fixed real poverty standard, growth is normally expected to raise the incomes of some of the poor, thereby reducing the value of anyconventional poverty index. However, thus tendency can be moderated, or even reversed,if economic growth is accompanied by redistribution in the direction of increased inequality.Datt and Ravallion (1992) suggest a method for separating out the effects of growth and redistribution on the change in poverty between two points of time. Given a fixed poverty line, the poverty level at time t (t = 1, 2) may be expressed as a function of mean income µ and the Lorenz curve L . Denoting the growth factor by , and the t tR 'L 2&L 1)P 'P (µ2,L 2)&P (µ1,L 1)'P (µ1(1%G ),L 1%R )&P (µ1,L 1)'F (G ,R ).F (G ,R )F (R )F (G )F (G ,R )&F (R )F (R ) This is a slight abuse of notation, as the growth and redistribution factors ought to be distinguished from the 4variables representing growth and redistribution. However, in this example, the growth and redistribution factors are eliminated by setting G and R equal to zero, so no serious confusion arises. Factors and variables are distinguished more carefully in later sections.redistribution factor by , the problem becomes one of identifying the4contributions of growth G and redistribution R in the decomposition of(3.1) Figure 1: The Shapley decomposition for the growth andredistribution components of the change in poverty'(('F (i ) = 0 Figure 1 illustrates the basic structure of the Shapley decomposition for this example,which is particularly simple given that there are just two factors,G and R , and hence only two possible elimination sequences. Eliminating G before R produces the path portrayed on the left, with the marginal contribution for the growth factor, and the contribution for the redistribution effect. Repeating the exercise for the right-handC S G '12[F(G,R)&F(R)%F(G)]C S R '12[F(G,R)&F(G)%F(R)]F(R)P(µ1,L2)&P(µ1,L1)DLP(µ1,L)DL P(µ,L)P(µ,L2)&P(µ,L1)F(G)P(µ2,L1)&P(µ1,L1)DµP(µ,L1)DµP(µ,L)P(µ2,L)&P(µ1,L)C SG'12[F(G,R)&F(R)%F(G)]'12[P(µ2,L2)&P(µ1,L2)%P(µ2,L1)&P(µ1,L1)]'12[DµP(µ,L1)%DµP(µ,L2)]C SR'12[DLP(µ1,L)%DLP(µ2,L)].C SGC SRpath, and then averaging the results, yields the Shapley contributions(3.2)When growth is absent, G takes the value 0 and the change in poverty becomes(3.3) = = ,where = indicates the rise in poverty due to a shift in theLorenz curve from L to L, holding mean income constant at µ. Conversely, eliminating12the redistribution factor by setting R = 0 yields(3.4) = = ,where = is the rise in poverty due to a change in meanincome from µ to µ, with the fixed Lorenz curve L. The Shapley contributions for the 12growth and redistribution effects are therefore given by(3.5)These contributions sum up, as expected, to the overall change in poverty, and have intuitively appealing interpretations. The growth component, , indicates the rise inpoverty due to a shift in mean income from µ to µ, averaged with respect to the Lorenz12curves prevailing in the base and final years, while the redistribution effect, , represents the average impact of the change in the distribution of relative incomes, with the average taken with respect to the mean income levels in the two periods.Despite the attractions of the Shapley decomposition values given in (3.5), these are not the contributions proposed by Datt and Ravallion (1992). Instead, they associate the growth and redistribution effects with the marginal change in poverty starting from the base yearC G 'M G ({G ,R },F )C R 'M R ({G ,R },F )C G 'D µP (µ,L 1)C R 'D L P (µ1,L ))P 'C G %C R %E P 'j mk '1<k P k k 0K '{1,2,...,m } These terms correspond to the first round marginal effects; in other words, and 5 in the notation of (2.4).situation. This yields the contributions and . These do 5not sum to the observed change in poverty, so Datt and Ravallion are obliged to introduce a residual term E into their decomposition equation(3.6).They acknowledge the criticisms which can be levelled against the residual component, and note that it can be made to vanish by averaging over the base and final years, as is done in (3.5). However, this solution is rejected as being arbitrary (Datt and Ravallion, 1992,footnote 3). Far from being arbitrary, the above analysis suggests that this is exactly the outcome which results from applying a systematic decomposition procedure to the growth-redistribution issue. Furthermore, the general framework outlined in Section 2 offers the chance of extending the analysis to cover not only changes in the poverty line, but also more disaggregated influences such as changes in mean incomes and income inequality within the modern and traditional sectors.3.2 Decomposable Poverty IndicesAnother standard application of decomposition techniques involves the use ofdecomposable poverty indices. When assigning contributions to subgroups of the population, such indices enable the overall degree of poverty, P , to be written(3.7) ,where < and P respectively indicate the population share and poverty level associated with k k subgroup . Indices with this propoerty — especially the family of measures proposed by Foster et al. (1984) — are nowadays used routinely to study theway in which differences according to region, household size, age, and education attainment contribute to the overall level of poverty.In many respects, this is the simplest and most clear-cut application of decomposition techniques. Suppose, for instance, that the population is partitioned into m regions. Then factor k can be interpreted as “poverty within region k ”, and the question of interest is the+K ,F ,F (S )'j k 0S<k P k )k F (S )'<k P k for all S f K \{k }<k P kC S k (K ,F )'M k (K ,F )'<k P k ,k 0K .P 'j k 0K j R 0L<k R P k R m 1%m 2+K ^L ,F ,F (S ^T )'j k 0S j R 0T <k R P k R S f K ,T f L contribution which this factor makes to poverty in the whole country. Adopting the notation of Section 2, the model structure is defined by(3.8),so(3.9).Since eliminating poverty in region k reduces aggregate poverty by the amount regardless of the order in which the regions are considered, it follows from (2.4) and (2.9)that these values yield both the first round marginal effects and the terms in the Shapley decomposition; in other words(3.10)Not surprisingly, this allocation of poverty contributions to population subgroups accords exactly with common practice.A more complex situation emerges if we wish to perform a simultaneous decomposition by more than one attribute. In fact there is no recognised procedure at present for dealing with this problem. Suppose, for instance, that the population is subdivided into m regions 1indexed by K and m age groups indexed by L . This yields a total of m m region-age cells 2 1 2which, if treated separately, can be assigned contributions as before, by replacing equation (3.7) with(3.11),where the subscripts k R refer to region k and age group R . However, we are more likely to be interested in the overall impact of poverty in region k , or in age group R , rather than the contribution of the subgroup corresponding to region k and age group R . In other words,what we really seek are the contributions associated with the regional and age factors.The Shapley procedure offers a solution to this problem by defining the model structure where(3.12).)k F (S ^T )'j R 0T <k R P k R ')k F (T ),S f K \{k },T f L {S |S f M }{M \S |S f M }B (|S |,|M |)B (|M \S |,|M |)õS f M F (S )'12õS f M [F (S )%F (M \S )])k F (S )%)k F (M \S )'j R 0S _L <k R P k R %j R 0(M \S )_L<k R P k R ')k F (M _L ),S f M f K ^L k 0K M 'L ^K \{k }C S k (K ^L ,F )'õS f M )k F (S )'12õS f M [)k F (S )%)k F (M \S )]'12õS f M )k F (L )'12)k F (L )'12j R 0L <k R P k R ,C S k (K ^L ,F )'12<k P kSee Proposition 4 in the next section.6Eliminating poverty in region k now yields(3.13).In contrast to (3.9) above, equation (3.13) shows that the factors no longer operateindependently: the marginal impact of removing poverty in region k depends on whether poverty has already been eliminated in one or more of the age groups.To obtain the Shapley contributions for the regions, first note that = and = , so(3.14).Note also that (3.13) implies(3.15)for all . So choosing any and setting yields(3.16)or equivalently, in the notation of (3.7),(3.17)Thus, in this two attribute example, each region is assigned exactly half the contribution that would be obtained in a decomposition by region alone. A similar result applies to the age group factors. More generally, in a simultaneous decomposition by n attributes, each factor is allocated one n th of the contribution obtained in the single attributedecomposition.6This result will be comforting to those who use decomposable poverty indices, for it shows that nothing is lost by looking at each attribute in isolation; the outcomes of multi-attribute decompositions can be calculated immediately from the series of single attribute< k t P k t)P'j k0K[<k2P k2&<k1P k1])Pk 'Pk2&Pk1,k0K)<k '<k2&<k1,k0KKp'{pk,k0K}Ks+Kp ^{Ks},F,F(S^T)'j k0K[<k(T)P k(S)&<k1P k1],S f K p,T f{K s}Pk(S)'9P k2if p k0SPk1if pkóS<k(T)'9<k2if T'Ks<k1if T'ipk0Kp)pkF(S^T)'<k(T)Pk(S^{pk})&<k(T)Pk(S)'<k(T))Pk,S f Kp\{pk},T f{Ks},M'{Ks}^Kp\{pk})pkF(S)%)pkF(M\S)'<k(S_{Ks}))Pk%<k((M\S)_{Ks}))Pk'(<k1%<k2))Pk,results, and the relative importance of different subgroups remains the same, regardless of the number of attributes considered.3.3 Changes in Poverty Over TimeDecomposable poverty indices can also be used to identify the subgroup contributions to poverty changes over time. If and represent the population share and poverty level of subgroup k0K at time t (t = 1, 2), equation (3.7) yields(3.18).The aim here is to account for the overall change in poverty, )P, in terms of changes in poverty within subgroups, , and the population shifts between subgroups, .The subgroup poverty values can be changed independently, so the poverty change factors may be indexed by the set . However the population shifts necessarily sum to zero. To avoid complications at this stage, the population shift factors will be treated as a single composite factor, denoted by . The model structureis then given by(3.19),where(3.20) ;For each we have(3.21)and setting , it follows that(3.22)S f MC S pk 'õS f M)pkF(S)'12õS f M[)pkF(S)%)pkF(M\S)]'12õS f M(<k1%<k2))Pk'<k1%<k22)Pk.)KsF(S)'j k0K[<k(K s)&<k(i)]P k(S)'j k0K P k(S))<k,S f K p.C S Ks 'õS f Kp)KsF(S)'12õS f Kp[)KsF(S)%)KsF(Kp\S)]'12õS f Kpjk0K[Pk(S)%Pk(Kp\S)])<k'12õS f Kpjk0K[Pk1%Pk2])<k'j k0K P k1%P k22)<k )P'j k0K<k1%<k22)P k%j k0K P k1%P k22)<kfor all . So, using (3.14), the Shapley contribution associated with the change in poverty within subgroup k is given by(3.23)Conversely(3.24)So(3.25)This is a very natural allocation of contributions given that we seek a decomposition which treats the factors in a symmetric way, and given that (3.18) may be rewritten(3.26).4. Hierarchical StructuresDespite its attractive properties, the Shapley decomposition has one major drawback for distributional analysis: the contribution assigned to any given factor is usually sensitive to the way in which the other factors are treated. In many applications, certain groups of factors naturally cluster together. This leads to a hierarchical structure comprising a set of primary factors, each of which is subdivided into a (possibly single element) group of secondary factors. For example, when income inequality is decomposed by source of income (see Section 6 below), one may first wish to regard income as the sum of labour income, investment income and transfers. Then investment income, say, might be split into interest, dividends, capital gains and rent. The Shapley decomposition does not guarantee。

“脑雾”我们需要了解更多

Psychology 心理世卫组织2022年3月的一份科学简报指出，在新冠大流行的第一年，全球焦虑和抑郁患病率增加了25%。

其中，年轻人、女性、患有哮喘、癌症和心脏病等基础病症的人，以及具有严重精神障碍的患者受影响最大。

文｜徐文姣图｜南阳“脑雾”我们需要了解更多新冠与抑郁Psychology32岁的爱德华兹已经连续几周都夜不能寐，也记不清“阳过”后是3个月还是4个月都没来例假。

头痛也毫无规律、没完没了地折磨她。

作为一名毕业于临床心理健康咨询专业的研究生，爱德华兹知道自己正在抑郁和焦虑的两种症状中挣扎。

“我十分努力地从情绪低落中挣脱出来，但每次又会被强行拉回去，在出逃和被抓的来来回回中，情况好像变得越来越差。

”30岁的林登默斯也有类似的遭遇。

在从新冠康复后的几周内，难以自抑的悲伤和失眠让她猝不及防。

她总是莫名其妙就突然堕入心情的低谷，晚上要不睡不着，要不就一个接一个地不停做噩梦。

即使她醒着，大脑有时好像也并不清醒，甚至会蹦出一些非常阴暗的念头来，“伤害你的身体，说不定会好受点”。

和爱德华兹不同的是，林登默斯是发”。

十几岁的时候，她曾患过抑郁症。

康复后的她性格活泼外向，现在还在纽约一家公司做企业宣传工作。

但新冠病毒似乎唤醒了她的身体记忆，再次将她拖回了那个看不见的牢笼里。

她又开始出现“社交焦虑”，害怕和朋友见面，周末在床上一趟一整天，躲着电话和信息。

在斗争了半年后，她还是选择了去看精神科，医生确诊她再一次患上了抑郁症。

抑郁情绪与新冠疫情相关也许我们并不像爱德华兹和林登默斯那样，有如此明显的抑郁和焦虑症状。

但很多人觉得即使自己身体已经“阳康”，心理仍会受到情绪低落、疲劳、冷漠、焦虑或其他情绪问题的困扰。

这可能表现为觉得自己周身乏力、做事打不起精神，感觉没有动力，也好像更容易掉眼泪、突然陷入暴躁或感觉悲伤。

这究竟是怎么回事？新冠感染和情绪抑郁真的有直接关系吗？到底是自己心理素质差，还是有可能真生病了？人事务部卫生系统中数百万人的健康信息。

2025版高考英语一轮总复习重点单词选择性必修第四册Unit2IconicAttractions

选择性必修第四册 Unit 2 Iconic Attractions 阅读词汇会认1．equator n. 赤道2．barbecue n．(abbr.BBQ) 户外烧烤；烤架3．butcher n. 肉贩；屠夫；刽子手4．premier adj. 最著名的；第一的；首要的n. 总理；首相5．herb n. 药草；香草；草本6．dim sim (特指澳大利亚的)点心7．hollow adj. 中空的；空心的8．slogan n. 标语；口号9．getaway n. 适合度假的地方10．domain n. 领域；领土；范围11．liberty n. 自由12．strait n. 海峡13．monument n. 纪念碑(或馆、堂、像等)；历史遗迹14．phase n. 阶段；时期15．mammal n. 哺乳动物16．iconic adj. 符号的；图标的重点词汇会写1． bakery n．面包(糕饼)店；面包厂2． joint n．公共场所(尤指价格低廉的饮食和消遣场所)；关节adj.联合的；共同的3． straightforward adj.坦率的；简洁的4． minister n．部长；大臣；外交使节5． frog n．蛙；青蛙6． arrow n．箭；箭头7． entitle vt.给……命名(或题名)；使享有权利8． dive vi.& n．潜水；跳水；俯冲9． sponsor vt.倡议；赞助；主办n．(法案等的)倡议者；赞助者10． golf n．高尔夫球运动11． sample n．样本；样品12． temporary adj.短暂的；短暂的13． trunk n．树干14． session n．一场；一段时间；会议15． nest n．巢穴；鸟窝；隐私窝点16． hatch vi.孵出；破壳vt.使孵出；策划；(尤指)密谋17． fence n．栅栏；围栏18． prison n．监狱；监禁19． grand adj.大；宏大的拓展词汇会变1． foundation n．创建；基础；地基→found vt.创办；创建；建立→founder n．创建者；创始人2． political adj.政治的→politics n．政治；政治学→politician n．政治家；政客3． located adj.位于→ locate vt.找出……的位置；把……设置(在)；使……坐落(于)→ location n．地点；位置4． freedom n．自由；不受……影响的状态→ free adj.自由的；空闲的；免费的vt.释放；使摆脱；解除5． distribution n．分布；支配；分发→ distribute vt.分发；支配；分布6． licensed adj.得到正式许可的→ license vt.批准；许可n．(＝licence)许可证；执照7． frequency n．发生率；重复率；(声波或电磁波振动的)频率→frequent adj.常见的→ frequently adv.频繁地8． violent adj.暴力的；猛烈的→violence n．暴力；暴行→violently adv.粗暴地；猛烈地9． biology n．生理；生物学→biological adj.生物学的→biologist n．生物学家10． capacity n．实力；容量→ capable adj.有实力的；能干的运用巩固提能1．(2024·全国甲卷)Every weekend this is “Wales” premier (最著名的)comedy club where having a great time is the order for both audiences and comedy stars alike.2．(2024·天津卷)Perhaps you'd like to learn a language or improve your English.The library may sponsor (赞助) a language group you could join.3．(2024·江苏卷)They tested the men's fitness and resting metabolic(新陈代谢的) rates and took samples (样本) of their blood and fat tissue.4．(朗文当代)You might want to consider temporary (短暂的) work until you decide what you want to do.5．(2024·天津卷)All applicants must have a driver's license (执照) andaccess to a car.6．(2024·浙江卷)It crashed through a wooden fence (栅栏) and disappeared.7．(剑桥高阶)The Palace of Versailles is very grand (宏大的)．8．(朗文当代)The fuel tank has a capacity (容量) of 40 litres.9．(朗文当代)The eggs take three days to hatch (hatch)．10．(剑桥高阶)Being unemployed entitles (title) you to free medical treatment.11．I am keen on politics ，so I have a good knowledge of political terms.In the future, I desire to be a politician .(politics)12．We must oppose violence ，because violent behaviors can have a bad influence on us.(violence)13．Undoubtedly those who are expert in biology are called biologists .(biology)14．He is capable of memorizing fifty English words in five minutes, so he has the capacity to understand the difficult English article.(capable) 15．He longed to be free of his responsibilities, and then he had the freedom to do what he liked.(free)16．I can certainly tell you the location of the library.It is located in the west of the campus.(locate)17．The machine broke down with increasing frequency ，so we must repair it frequently .(frequent)18．The books in the library are distributed according to subjects, so you can easily find the book you like based on the distribution(s) .(distribute)。

Coulomb Distrotions in PREX - Jefferson Lab：在库仑distrotions前缀-杰佛逊实验室

• 1989 Donnelly, Dubach, Sick PV for n densities. • 2019 CJH calculates PV asy with Coulomb
distortions. • 2019 Michaels + CJH optimize PREX kinematics. • 2000 PREX discussed at ECT* PV conference. • 2019 Relation of neutron density to:
– Pressure of neutron matter (Alex Brown) – Density dependence of symmetry energy – Many neutron star properties • 2000- HAPPEX, HAPPEX II, HAPPEX He …experiments
PREX History
• Electron scattering workshop, INT 2019
• An=0 in Born approx. from time reversal. Nonzero value only from 2 or more photons.
• An is large for high Z of nucleus, since distortions large . • An is potential systematic error for parity experiments. • We exactly solve Dirac equation to sum photon
exchanges to all orders. Only keep elቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱstic intermediate states. These are coherent / Z2 for

IpsconfususandIpsparaconfusus

EPPO quarantine pest Prepared by CABI and EPPO for the EUunder Contract 90/399003Data Sheets on Quarantine PestsIps confusus and Ips paraconfususIDENTITYTaxonomic position: Insecta: Coleoptera: ScolytidaeNotes on taxonomy and nomenclature: Although the quarantine pest which appears in the EPPO and EU lists is named as I. confusus, Furniss & Carolin (1977) explain that this species, the piñon ips, has in the past been confused with the very similar I. paraconfusus, the California five-spined ips. The former is confined to pinyon pines, while the latter occurs on all pine species within its range, especially P. ponderosa. For this reason, it seems evident that the intended quarantine pest, originally listed in the 1970s, must have been I. paraconfusus at least as much as I. confusus. Both species are therefore covered in this sheet. With their range in western USA, they belong to the same group as the very similar sibling species I. grandicollis (southeastern USA and Caribbean) and I. lecontei (Arizona and Mexico) (EPPO/CABI, 1996).• Ips confususName: Ips confusus (LeConte)Synonyms: Tomicus confusus (LeConte)Common names: Piñon ips (English)Bayer computer code: IPSXCOEPPO A1 list: No. 271EU Annex designation: II/A1 - under non-European Scolytidae• Ips paraconfususName: Ips paraconfusus LanierCommon names: California five-spined engraver, California five-spined ips (English) Bayer computer code: IPSXPAEU Annex designation: II/A1 - under non-European ScolytidaeHOSTSI. confusus attacks the pinyon pines Pinus edulis and P. monophylla, and rarely other Pinus spp., while I. paraconfusus attacks the timber species P. ponderosa, P. attenuata, P. contorta, P. coulteri, P. lambertiana, P. monticola, P. muricata, P. radiata and P. sabiniana. According to Cane et al. (1990), female I. confusus are attracted specifically to pinyon pines on which males have aggregated, while male I. confusus and both sexes of I. paraconfusus are not specifically attracted to individual pine species. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION• Ips confususEPPO region: Absent.North America: Mexico, southwestern USA (Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Wyoming).EU: Absent.• Ips paraconfususEPPO region: Absent.North America: USA (California, Oregon).EU: Absent.BIOLOGYThere is little specific information available about I. confusus or I. paraconfusus and the following account relates to North American Ips spp. in general. Adults and larvae are phloeophagous or bark-feeding, mainly attacking declining or dead trees and freshly cut wood. They frequently carry the spores of bluestain fungi. They usually overwinter in the adult and larval stage with the proportion of adults to larvae varying from species to species (Wood, 1982).Adults emerge from overwintering sites between February and June. Activity is resumed when subcortical temperatures become sufficiently high, about 7-10°C. The insects fly individually or in small groups, during the warmth of the day in spring or near nightfall in summer (at temperatures between 20 and 45°C), and infest further trees. Terpenes in the oleoresin are the primary source of attraction, guiding pioneer beetles in the selection of a new host. Pheromones are responsible for the secondary attraction of other members of the same species and are the means by which individuals communicate after colonization.Ips spp. are polygamous: the male excavates the entrance tunnel and nuptial chamber, and then admits two to five females. The females push their frass into the nuptial chamber. The male has the responsibility for ejecting their frass and for protecting the entrance hole. The eggs are usually deposited in individual niches, contiguous in I. confusus. There are three larval instars (Wilkinson, 1963). The length of the larval period under optimum conditions is, as in other scolytids, 30-90 days. The end of the larval mine is usually slightly enlarged and cleared of frass to form a pupal chamber. The pupal stage, as in other scolytids, requires 3-30 days, but averages 6-9 days under ideal conditions. It may be extended if pupation begins in late autumn, but is rarely an overwintering stage except in areas where the winters are very mild.The adult beetles may emerge from the host tree immediately, even before becoming fully coloured, or may require a period of maturation feeding before emerging. After completing one gallery system it is not uncommon for the parent beetles to re-emerge and construct a second, third or fourth system of tunnels to produce an equal number of broods.A few old adults may survive the winter and participate in the production of the spring brood.I. confusus has three or sometimes four annual generations. I. paraconfusus typically has two summer generations in fallen logs and an overwintering generation in standing trees. In the southern part of its range, there may be 3-5 summer generations. DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATIONSymptomsIn Ips spp., the gallery system is situated in the phloem-cambial region and consists of a central nuptial chamber from which elongate egg galleries fork or radiate, forming a species-diagnostic pattern. In I. paraconfusus, the egg galleries comprise 3-5 nearly straight tunnels radiating from the entrance chamber. The typical pattern has three galleries in an inverted "Y" pattern.The larval galleries commence more or less parallel to or divergent from the egg gallery, penetrating the bark or wood to varying depths and progressively widening awayfrom it. These galleries are usually full of debris. The gallery terminates in a small chamber, where pupation occurs and the adult emerges through a hole from this chamber. Larval mines are always visible on peeled bark.MorphologyEggsSmooth, oval, white, translucent.LarvaWhite, legless, with lightly sclerotized head; head usually as broad as long with evenly curved sides, protracted or slightly retracted; frons sometimes with pair of tubercles (some Ips spp.). Body at most only slightly curved; abdominal segments each with two or three tergal folds; pleuron not longitudinally divided. Larvae do not change appreciably in form as they grow. For generic keys to the larvae of Ips and other bark beetles, see Thomas (1957).PupaThe pupae of scolytids are less well known than the larva: exarate; usually whitish; sometimes with paired abdominal urogomphi; elytra rugose or smooth; head and thoracic tubercles sometimes prominent.AdultIn general, Ips adults are small, 0.5-8 mm in length (3.0-5.5 mm in I. confusus), cylindrical to hemispherical in form, usually yellow, brown or black, sometimes shining and glabrous, dull and coarsely granulate, densely pubescent or covered with scales. Antennae geniculate, funicle five-segmented, with abrupt three-segmented club; subcircular to oval, strongly flattened, with sutures strongly to moderately bisinuate. Head partly concealed in dorsal view, not prolonged into distinct rostrum, narrower than pronotum, with mouthparts directed downwards. Eyes flat, usually elongate, sometimes notched, very rarely rounded or divided. Pronotum weakly to strongly declivous anteriorly and usually with many asperate crenulations in anterior half. Scutellum large and flat. Elytra entire, concealing pygidium, with basal margin straight and without crenulations. Elytra terminate in a rounded or blunt slope (the declivity) which is concavely excavated with lateral margins dentate, all teeth on summit (I. confusus and I. paraconfusus belong to a group with 5 spines on the elytral declivity). Tibiae unguiculate. Tarsal segment 1 not longer than 2 or 3, distinctly five-segmented. For generic and specific keys to Ips and other genera, see Wood (1982). I. confusus and I. paraconfusus closely resemble each other morphologically.I. confusus and I. paraconfusus can be distinguished from each other and from other members of the Ips grandicollis group (I. grandicollis,I. lecontei and others) by the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique, which yielded a diagnostic DNA banding pattern for each species (Cognato et al., 1995).MEANS OF MOVEMENT AND DISPERSALSome bark beetles are strong fliers with the ability to migrate long distances. The most common mode of introduction into new areas is unseasoned sawn wood and wooden crates with bark on them. If wood is barked, there is no possibility of introducing bark beetles. Dunnage is also a high-hazard category of material, on which most of the scolytids intercepted in the USA are found. It is particularly difficult to monitor properly.PEST SIGNIFICANCEEconomic impactLike other scolytids, Ips spp. periodically cause loss of wood (cut wood and sometimes standing trees) over extensive areas. Their galleries do not affect the structural properties ofthe wood significantly, but may render it useless for veneer or furniture making. However, they tend to be less aggressive and less host-specific than Dendroctonus spp.They mostly breed in slash, or in broken, fallen or dying trees. In this way, I. confusus can kill pinyon pines in southwest USA, when outbreaks start on trees that are damaged or uprooted in land-clearance schemes (Furniss & Carolin, 1977). I. paraconfusus is of greater practical importance because it attacks the timber tree P. ponderosa, killing saplings and young trees up to about 65 cm in diameter. Outbreaks develop on recently cut wood and spread to nearby living trees. This is reflected by a much greater number of publications on I. paraconfusus than on I. confusus. Top-killing by I. paraconfusus can contribute to outbreaks of the more dangerous pest Dendroctonus brevicomis (EPPO/CABI, 1996).I. paraconfusus is also one of the possible vectors of Fusarium subglutinans f.sp. pini, the pathogen of pine pitch canker, a disease which is increasing in importance in California (Storer et al., 1994).ControlBroadly, the same control methods are available for all bark beetles. A tree that has been attacked usually cannot be saved, so preventive rather than curative control is best. Since scolytid populations are probably always present in a forest, breeding on unthrifty, injured, broken, wind-thrown or felled material, damage can be reduced or avoided by maintaining the health and vigour of the stand; especially by thinning stagnated young stands or removal of overmature trees in older stands.Losses caused by bark beetles usually involve individual trees or irregularly distributed groups of trees. Insect surveys are made to locate and appraise infestations in their early stages. If endemic conditions prevail, natural control factors (climate, weather, predators, parasites, disease) will hold the population at a steady level at which damage is within normal limits (losses less than annual tree growth). If epidemic conditions exist, damage exceeds normal limits (losses exceed annual growth). Such surveys determine the need for direct control. The available methods have been reviewed in EPPO/CABI (1992). Treatment with insecticides is used, if at all, for logs rather than for trees. Phytosanitary riskI. confusus is an A1 quarantine pest for EPPO, within the category "non-European Scolytidae" (EPPO/CABI, 1992); it may be that this A1 entry was based in part, or mostly, on the risk presented by I. paraconfusus. For I. confusus in the strict sense, the risk for the EPPO region can be assessed as practically negligible, since this species is a secondary pest of pinyon pines only, in a specific montane environment in southwestern USA. I. paraconfusus can, however, make primary attacks on Pinus spp. and presents a moderately high risk for the EPPO region, since the geographical range of this species in North America (California and southern Oregon) covers climatic conditions which are similar to those of southern Europe and because the main Pinus species concerned in North America is P. ponderosa, which has been widely planted in the EPPO region.Indigenous Ips spp. already occur on conifers throughout most of the EPPO region, so the risk arising from introduced species is uncertain. However, those areas of the EPPO region which lack indigenous Ips spp. and protect themselves from species already present elsewhere in Europe (e.g. I. typographus) have evident reason to protect themselves also from North American pest species of Ips.PHYTOSANITARY MEASURESIf measures are needed against I. paraconfusus, those recommended for I. pini (EPPO/CABI, 1996) should also exclude it.BIBLIOGRAPHYCane, J.H.; Wood, D.L.; Fox, J.W. (1990) Ancestral semiochemical attraction persists for adjoining populations of sibling Ips bark beetles. Journal of Chemical Ecology16, 993-1013.Cognato, A.I.; Rogers, S.O.; Teale, S.A. (1995) Species diagnosis and phylogeny of the Ips grandicollis group (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) using random amplified polymorphic DNA. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 88, 397-405.EPPO/CABI (1992) Scolytidae (non-European). In: Quarantine pests for Europe (Ed. by Smith, I.M.;McNamara, D.G.; Scott, P.R.; Harris, K.M.). CAB International, Wallingford, UK.EPPO/CABI (1996) Ips calligraphus. Ips grandicollis. Ips lecontei. In: Quarantine pests for Europe.2nd edition (Ed. by Smith, I.M.; McNamara, D.G.; Scott, P.R.; Holderness, M.). CAB INTERNATIONAL, Wallingford, UK.Furniss, R.L.; Carolin, V.M. (1977) Western forest insects (Scolytidae, Platypodidae). Miscellaneous Publications, United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service No. 1339, pp. 1-654. Storer, A.J.; Gordon, T.R.; Dallara, P.L.; Wood, D.L. (1994) Pitch canker kills pines, spreads to new species and regions. California Agriculture48, 9-13.Thomas, J.B. (1957) The use of larval anatomy in the study of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae).Canadian Entomologist, Supplement5, 3-45.Wilkinson, R.C. (1963) Larval instars and head capsule morphology in three southeastern Ips bark beetles. Florida Entomologist46, 19-22.Wood, S.L. (1982) The bark and ambrosia beetles of North and Central America (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), a taxonomic monograph. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs6, 1-1359.。

Diseases of Bioterrorist Potential For Environmental ：对环境生物恐怖潜在疾病

Not currently recommended by CDC Accuracy limited by technology
Negative result does not rule out lower level of contamination
Positive results have been obtained with nonanthrax bacillus bacteria
Pre-Sampling Considerations
Байду номын сангаасoom airflow patterns
Discuss with building engineer May need to shut off ventilation
systems serving contaminated area
Size of contaminated area
Validated sampling & analytical methods
Decontamination of sampling equipment, if not disposable
9
UW Northwest Center for Public Health Practice
Environmental Sampling
Preparing for and Responding to Bioterrorism:
Information for the Public Health Workforce
Northwest Center for Public Health Practice
1
University of Washington School of Public Health and Community Medicine

当梦幻与拖延症相遇_J_阿尔弗瑞_省略_克的情歌_中普鲁弗洛克的心理解读_隋..

DOI ：10．3969/J．ISSN．1674－1471．2013．02．020当梦幻与拖延症相遇———《J ·阿尔弗瑞德·普鲁弗洛克的情歌》中普鲁弗洛克的心理解读收稿日期：2013－03－29作者简介：隋亚男（1988－），女，山东青岛人，山东大学英语专业2011级硕士研究生。

研究方向：英美文学。

隋亚男（山东大学外国语学院，山东济南250100）摘要：艾略特诗歌《J ·阿尔弗瑞德·普鲁弗洛克的情歌》中的普鲁弗洛克，欲向心爱的姑娘求爱却迟迟不能采取行动;憧憬爱情，却怕遭遇嘲笑，最后只能在梦呓中完成一次独白式求爱。

这一过程中的内心活动符合了当下流行的心理学疾病症状———拖延症。

究其病因，主要是他心中隐匿着的完美主义倾向及内心对失败的恐惧，还有源于以上二者的“固定心态”而导致的怯懦。

关键词：拖延症;普鲁弗洛克;完美主义倾向;恐惧;怯懦中图分类号：I106．4文献标识码：A文章编号：1674－1471（2013）02－0088－05Day dreaming and Procrastination ：A Psychological Study on Profrock ＇sMentality in The Love Song of J．Alfred PrufrockSUI Ya-nan（School of Foreign languages ，Shandong University ，Ji＇n an 250100，China ）Abstract ：In the The love Song of J．Alfred Prufrock ，Prufrock wants to pay court to the lady he admires ，but he de-lays and delays until he loses the ability of taking action and drowns in his daydreaming．During this process ，his mental activities could be interpreted as classic symptoms of procrastination ———a popular psychological disease nowadays．By analyzing its symptoms ，causative factors can be recognized as the hidden Perfectionism ，fare of failure and cowardice caused by the “fixed mindset ”．Key words ：procrastination ；Profruck ；Perfectionism ；fare ；cowardice 拖延症（procrastination ）是普遍存在于现代人中的一种心理疾病。

Magnetism and Electromagnetics

ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETICS: JAMES CLERK MAXWELL:SYMMETRY AND UNIFICATION IN PHYSICSElectric charges⏹Since the Greeks rubbed one thing on another.☐around 700 BC someone was polishing amber with cats fur and noticed that things like straw and feathers were attracted to it.☐the Greek word for amber is electron –hence electric, electricity, electronics, electron …Was it the amber itself?⏹By 1600 Sir William Gilbert showed that this property ofattracting things when rubbed was not a property of amber but was universal.☐Other stuff showed the same effect.☐Gilbert also showed that the earth was a magnet.⏹The problem was that no one knew what was beingrubbed.☐Was it a fluid, an essence, or particles?☐Was the process of rubbing creating whatever was responsible for the effect or was it moving something around?Lightning strikes!⏹Benjamin Franklin showed that the same process asinvolved in rubbing one thing on another gave rise tolightning.☐He identified two types of charges and called them positive and negative.☐The only problem was that he got his signs wrong. Thecharges that move about are negative not positive charges.⏹Whatever they were, charges were very small.☐When there were many they could be thought of as resulting in a continuous distribution in or on an object.⏹Later it was found that the smallest increment offree charge that we can find in the universe isthat on the electron or 1.6 x 10-19coulombs.⏹This is a description of things to come -charge wasconsidered quantized early.Quantify and make measurable⏹Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806)⏹The law of force between point charges isan inverse square law force.☐The electrostatic force had the same functional form as Newton’s law of gravity☐Carl Freidrich Gauss would show this is due to the fact that there are 3 dimensions to space.⏹Introduced a proportionality constant to getthe units of force to be the same on bothsides of his equation.☐The famous e0.⏹Maxwell was to show this constant isrelated to the speed of light.Related but not yet recognized ⏹1803 -Thomas Young reported one ofthe most brilliant and epochalexperiments ever.⏹The two slit interference experimentgave incontrovertible proof that lightis wavelike.☐Keep in mind that Newton, the toweringfigure of science, considered light to becorpuscular.☐97 years later Max Planck showed that light has a particle like nature.Confusingisn’t it?☐This problem of duality is inherent in modern quantum mechanics as we will discuss later.☐For the time being however, light waswavelike and Young had proved it.☐Maxwell would show that light wasWhat if charges moved?⏹Clearly charges could move.⏹What happened when charges moved?☐They exerted Coulomb’s force when static.☐What would be observed when they moved?⏹How did they interact with each other, with other objects and what effects would result?⏹To understand this we have to consider magnetism.Magnets⏹Magnets (lodestones are natural magnets) had beenknown for centuries.⏹Since about 2000 BC the Chinese used them to makecompasses.⏹The word magnet comes from the name of a city inTurkey, Magnesia, where the mineral magnetite isfound.⏹It was soon clear that magnets always have bothnorth and south poles.☐No mater how small you divided your magnet it always had both a north and a south.☐ A modern way of saying this is to say that we have never found a magnetic monopole, dipoles yes but nomonopoles.Moving charges affect magnets⏹In 1820 Hans Christian Oersted observed thatcurrents (moving electric charges) affectedmagnets much the same way as other magnets did.☐They exerted forces on the magnets.☐He offered no explanation and no numerical measurements.⏹Also in 1820 Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart, twoFrenchmen demonstrated that the magnetic forcedue to a current was given by an inverse square law.☐They introduced another constant to get the units right.☐The equally famous m0/4p⏹Maxwell was to show that it too was related to thespeed of light.The genius of Faraday⏹In London (in a lab I visited in 1997) MichaelFaraday (1791-1867), an unschooledbookbinder’s assistant, experimented withmagnets and currents.⏹In 1831 he observed that a moving magnet couldinduce a current in a circuit.☐This is the inverse of Oersted’s observation.☐Somehow electricity and magnetism were intimatelyrelated!!!⏹This became Faraday’s law of induction andultimately one of Maxwell’s equationsOther events of 1831⏹Faraday also observed that a changing currentcould, through its magnetic effects, induce acurrent to flow in another circuit.⏹If you spin a magnet inside a circuit it will generatecurrent –the electric generator.The real genius of Faraday⏹Since he had no mathematical training but thoughtgeometrically, he⏹invented the concept of fields of force.☐A geometric means of conceiving of what his experiments were showing him.⏹This concept, this interpretation of what he saw iswhat set him apart from his predecessors.⏹It enables modern science!!!!James Clerk Maxwell⏹James Clerk Maxwell had themathematical skills that Faradaylacked and used them to becomethe greatest theoretician of the19th century.⏹He graduated EdinburghUniversity at age 15 and becamea full professor at AberdeenUniversity at age 17.⏹In the 40 years (1839-1879) of hislife he established the foundationsof electricity and magnetism aselectromagnetics, establishedthe kinetic theory of gasses,explained the rings of Saturnand experimented with colorvision.Maxwell’s symmetry and unification⏹Two rules governed electricity and two other rules governedmagnetism.⏹Maxwell noticed that in these laws the electric field and themagnetic field appeared nearly symmetrically in the equations. ⏹For example, in Faraday’s Law a time varying magnetic field gaverise to an electric field.⏹In Ampere’s law, as Maxwell modified it, a time varying electricfield gave rise to a magnetic field.⏹When made symmetric in electric and magnetic fields the set offour equations described them both, they described the subjectwe now call electromagnetism.⏹Electricity and magnetism had been unifiedinto electromagnetism!It had to be so⏹Maxwell’s equations gave rise to a wave equation for waves that propagated at the speed of light.⏹Young had shown that light was a wave phenomenon.⏹Light had to be an electromagnetic wave and so:⏹Remarkably, the speed of light was (e 0m 0)-1/2and ttq∂∂e m m ∂∂e E J B B E B E 0000+=⨯∇-=⨯∇=⋅∇=⋅∇God said and there was light.All sorts of electromagnetic waves⏹Not only did Maxwell’s waves travel at the speed oflight, they were polarized just as is light, they carried energy as does light and they diffracted andinterfered as does light.☐Faraday, by now an old man, had claimed light was atransverse wave. He had been ridiculed for this. Maxwellvisited him to explain that he, Faraday, had been right after all.⏹They also reflected and refracted.⏹Clearly, Maxwell’s electromagnetic waves were a formof light.⏹Later it became clear that so were radio waves,microwaves and many others.☐See the work of Hertz and Marconi for example.Victory⏹Light was an electromagnetic wave.⏹Hertz and Marconi had shown that so were radiowaves.⏹Einstein was to show that Maxwell’s laws wereexactly valid in the relativistic case.☐The only pre-Einstein theory that required norelativistic corrections.⏹After all it is the theory of light.⏹ A stunning set of victories for the theory andfor the notions of symmetry and unification.⏹The first step towards unification of the differentforces that governed our universe.☐Today we believe only 4 forces describe everything:⏹Gravity; Electromagnetism; Weak nuclear; Strong nuclear⏹Maxwell’s principles, symmetry of form andunification, are still in use today in science and。

addition and omission

C-E translation: techniques & skillsaoslix@School of Foreign LanguagesOmission of wordContentsOne-one equivalenceAddition of wordcombination1234•原文“假朋友”☹正确译文☺白菜White cabbage 密码Secret code 手机Hand phone 早恋Early love买一赠一Buy one,present one 长镜头Long lens 隐形眼镜Invisible glassesFalse friend: word-for-word translationChinese cabbage passwordMobile phone Puppy love Buy one, get one free Zoom lensContact glasses•原文“假朋友”☹正确译文☺绿豆Green bean 卧室Living room 食言Eat one’s words 酸奶Sour milk戴绿帽子To wear a green bonnet 黄色书籍Yellow book 高等学校High schoolFalse friend: conceptual –referential meaningMung bean bedroom Break a promise yoghurt To cuckold sb.Pornography book Higher school•原文“假朋友”☹正确译文☺农民peasant宣传propaganda物美价廉Cheap and good他红光满面His face is very red.他是个“气管炎”He suffers fromtracheitis.False friend: language differencefarmerPopularize/publicityEconomical and goodHe looks healthy andenergetic.He is a hen-pecked man.•原文“假朋友”☹正确译文☺假花False flower 假唱False singing 假钞False money 假酒False wine 假新闻False news 恶性循环Harmful circle 恶性肿瘤Harmful tumorFalse friend: collocationArtificial flower Lip synch Counterfeit money Adulterate winePseudo-news Vicious circle Malignant tumor•你们偶然看见一棵花生瑟缩地长在地上，不能立刻辨出它有没有果实，非得等到你接触它才能知道。