2.2 Phonology
phonology名词解释
phonology名词解释音系学(Phonology)：1、定义：音系学是一门研究音韵特征及构成的学科，涉及说话者、聆听者、语言和它们之间相互关系的研究，它被描述为语言的声音学分支。
它旨在确定什么样的音素对字段、音节和句子语音有影响，以及声音是怎样变化的，从而影响语义和其他考虑因素。
2、概述：音系学是研究语音学的分支，它研究音素的结构和音的变化。
它的关注点是音的分类和构成，以及成音素的音形结构，并且能够确定声音对语言的影响。
根据不同的语言，音系学确定哪些音素是可以区分和平行强调，而不会影响消息的传递，从而推断不同类型的语音，像同化、替换、谐音和异化等现象。
它是语音学史上最古老的学科，发展了诸如音位系统学或描述性音系学等流派。
3、适用范围：音系学不仅涉及像高等语言学的范畴，而且浸染到多种学科范畴，如音乐学、耳聋学、心理学、语言学和语用学等，专业人士（如语言学家、教育家、历史学家、音乐家、会计师、口腔科医生等）都在运用音系学来发现其中的语言特征。
音系学在理解正常语音行为和治疗语音障碍方面都起着关键的作用，因此在临床语言学、发音治疗、耳聋照老和特殊教育等领域都有着广泛的应用。
4、研究内容：音系学主要关注语言的声音及声音的变化，包括：（1）描述性音系学：分析特定语言的声音组件，比如音节、音素、发声音位，以及他们之间的关系。
（2）音位系统学：系统性阐释不同语言之间传说所存在的音位和模式。
（3）音系学变异：研究不同发音者时期和地区的变异，注重压缩、减少或扩展范围的声音。
（4）说话的模式：研究特定时期、地区或语言的传说和发音模式。
（5）语言变化：分析有关单词拼写、语意和形式如何变化以及影响因素等各种研究。
5、研究方法：音系学的研究方法涉及多种学术学科，分析不同得研究领域也拥有不同的方法。
针对描述信息研究最常用的方法是调查法，如样本调查和实验调查。
在概念研究方面，它主要包括测量法和文献研究，能够帮助确定特定语言的发音特征和音素、国家以及主题的影响。
英语语言学 第二章 Phonetics and Phonology
scope of phonetics
articulatory phonetics
auditory phonetics
acoustic phonetics
articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 From the speaker’s point of view： studying how a speaker uses his or her speech organ to articulate sounds （ 研究语音的产生）
当声带分离时，气流容易通过，由此产生的语 音叫清音（voiceless），如 [p, s, t]。 当声带贴近时，气流使其产生震动 （vibration），形成的声音成为浊音 （voicing），如[ b, z, d]。 当声带完全紧贴时，气流无法通过，不发出声 音。
pharyngeal cavity: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
2.1 the phonic medium of language
two media of language : speech and writing Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.
2.2.2 speech
organs (发音器官)
英语语言学概论第二章phonology(共14张PPT)
2.3.1 Coarticulation (协同发音)
Map PK Lamb
[mæp]
[læm]
A nasal + a vowel
Soft palate: from the lowered position to the raised position
Proceeding influenced following (perseverative)
Broad and narrow transcriptions
Velarization rule (软腭化): A vowel + a nasal
the
string,
the
two
sound
combinations
are
phonemic contrast, complementary distribution
when simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.
Broad and narrow transcriptions
[pi:k]
Peak
[pʰi:k]
Broad
Narrow
1. Broad transcription (宽式音标): The transcription of sounds with letter-symbols only. [ _ ]
said to form a minimal pair.
Pill/bill; pill/till; till/kill; kill/dill/; dill/gill
big/peg; peak/leap
Minimal pairs
Four requirements for identifying minimal pairs:
语言学Chapter+2+phonetics+and__+phonology
Description of consonants
How do you describe (classify) the consonants such as [p], [b], [s], [z]? When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. (P30)
The manner of articulation is very important during the production of the sound. It is based on the size of the air passage. (24 consonants)
Describe the six groups respectively according to manner of articulation
The place of articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. (the place of obstruction)
Manner of Articulation
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sound and is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds according to how they are produced, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案Chapter One Introduction4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。
除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?Speech is prior to writing;The writing system is invented when needed;Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written;Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication; Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing; Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.9.what are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.The descriptive function.It is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied,and in some cases even verified,e.g.”The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.”The expressive function,supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences,prejudices.and values,e.g.”I will never go camping with the Simpsons again.”The social function,serves to establish and maintain socialrelations between people,e.g.”How can I help you, sir?Chapter Two Phonology1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writing are two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards speech as the primary one for some reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system is to record speech. Even today, there are some tribes without writing system. From the view of children’s development, children acquire his mother tongue before they learn to write.5.what criteria are used to classify the English vowels?The criteria used to classify English vowels are:The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, and lowThe position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, and back The degree of lip rounding: rounded, un-rounded The degree of tenseness/the length of sound: tense (long) or lax (short) The change of sound quality: pure(monophthong), gliding(diphthong)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? . Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech soundswe hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.。
phonology英语定义
phonology英语定义
Phonology 是语言学的一个分支，主要研究语言的发音和音系结构。
更具
体地说，它研究的是音素（即语音的最小单位）如何在特定语言中组合、分布和替换，以及这些组合如何形成有意义的词和短语。
例如，在英语中，“cat” 和“hat” 虽然发音相同，但在音系结构上却有不同的音素组合。
在“cat” 中，音素是/k/, /æ/, 和 /t/；而在“hat” 中，音素是/h/, /æ/, 和 /t/。
虽然两个词的音素在某些位置上是相同的（例如
/æ/ 和 /t/），但它们在关键位置上的音素不同（即 /k/ 和 /h/），这使得
两个词在音系结构上有所不同。
Phonology 的研究还包括音位的对立关系（即哪些音素在特定语言中是不
同的）、音位的互补关系（即哪些音素在特定语言中是互相补充的，不会出现在同一个位置或组合中）以及音位的分布和替换规则等。
戴炜栋语言学-Chapter 2 Phonology
戴炜栋语言学-Chapter 2 Phonology●2.1语言的语音媒介●2.1.1语言的语音媒介定义：The limited range of sounds which are meaningful inhuman communication constitute the phonic medium of language在人类交流中有意义的、有限的声音构成了语言的语音媒介（就是人类可以用发音器官发出的，并且能在交流中起作用的那些声音）●2.1.2语音定义：The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds我们把其中单个的声音成为语音。
individual sounds 单个的声音语音the speech sounds●2.2语音学●2.2.1What is phonetics语音学phonetics 的定义●定义：Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.语音学是指对于语言的语音媒介进行得研究，它关注世界中的所有语音。
●2.2.2three branches of phonetics语音学被研究的三个角度●articulatory phonetics发音语音学●the longest history发展历史最悠久●auditory phonetics听觉语音学●acoustic phonetics声学语音学●recording the sounds waves on spectrograph用频谱仪记录声波●2.2.3 Organs of speech发音器官●the pharyngeal cavity咽腔--the throat喉咙●the oral cavity 口腔--the mouth嘴巴●speech organs发音器官●the tongue舌头●the uvula小舌●the soft palate or the velum软腭●the hard palate硬腭●the teeth ridge齿龈●the teeth齿●the lips唇●如何发音●舌和软腭阻塞-[k],[g]●硬腭和舌前之间的空间变窄--[j]●舌尖和齿龈之间的阻塞--[t][d]●前齿上部和舌尖部分阻塞--[θ][ð]●上唇和下唇阻塞--[f][v]●双唇之间阻塞--[m][n][ŋ]●the nasal cavity 鼻腔--the nose鼻子●鼻音化：鼻腔张开，让气流全部或部分通过，例如三个鼻辅音[m][n][ŋ]●通过声带震动产生的2个语音特征●voicing浊化●voiceless清音●2.2.4 Orthographic representation of speech sounds--broad and narrow transcriptions语言的正字法表征--宽式标音和严式标音●broad transcription宽式标音●国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet, 挑选出一个字母，用来代表一个语音●用代表字母的符号来标音the transcriptions with letter-symbols only transcription标音●narrow transcription严式标音●定义●“严式音标”用来记录“音素”，音标写在方括号 [ ] 之间。
简明语言学第二章笔记
4) by the length of the vowels Tense vowels: long vowels Lax vowels: short vowels
2.3 Phonology
2.3.1 Phonology and phonetics 2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 2.3.4 Some rules in phonology 2.3.5 Suprasegmental features — stress, tone, intonation
[ph]
[l] clear /l/
[l] dark
2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
1) Phonemic contrast(音位对立): if two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. eg. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]
Chapter 2 Phonology
2.1 The phonetic medium of language 2.2 Phonetics 2.3 Phonology
2.1 The phonic medium of language
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.
语言学第二章语音学资料
Phonetic & Phonology
———the study of speech sounds
Speech sounds--- Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound.
----A phonetician is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds. He is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
❖ Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学） ----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”
❖ Acoustic phonetics---- （声学语音学） from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. It tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speakers issues
(alveolar) 4. Hard palate 5. Soft palate (velum) 6. Uvula 7. Tip of tongue 8. Blade of tongue 9. Back of tongue 10. Vocal cords 11. PhaWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless.
Chapter-2-Phonology-音系学(现代语言学)
Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Linguists are not interested in all sounds ；they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs in so far as they have a role to play in linguistic communication .These sounds are limited in number .This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language ;and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.语言学家也并不是对所有的声音感兴趣，他们只关注那些在语言交际中占有一席之地、由人类的发音器官所发出来的那些声音。
这些声音在数量上是有限的。
这些范围有限，但对人类交际活动意义重大、对语言学研究价值不菲的声音就是语言的声音媒介，凡是在这个范围的每个单个的声音都叫做语音。
2.Phonetics 语音学2.1What is phonetics? 什么是语音学？language; it is concerned with all the sound that occur in the world’s languages.上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音。
These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively.语音学的三个分支分别被称为发音语音学，听觉语音学和声学语音学。
新篇简明英语语言学 Chapter Two Phonology
二、知识点2.2.1 Three branches of phonetics 语音学的三个分支⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（longest established, mostly developed ）Studies how speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学Studies how sounds are perceived by the hearer.⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学Sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.2.2.2 Organs of Speech 发音器官1. Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔（the throat-喉咙）2. Oral cavity–口腔（the mouth-口）greatest source of modification of air stream found here 气流调节的最主要源泉来自口腔The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other所有器官中，舌头最灵活，而且比其他任何器官能控制更多的发音。
3. Nasal cavity–鼻腔（the nose-鼻）2.2.3 Orthogarphic representation of speech sounds - broad and narrow transcription 语音的正字表征—宽式和严式标音*Distinctions between broad and narrow transcriptionBroad transcription：the transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.Narrow transcription：the transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类元音和辅音之间的实质性区别：元音产生的过程中，来自肺部的气流不受任何阻塞。
Chapter 2 Phonology
Chapter 2 Phonology1.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study ofspeech sounds?1、Articulatory phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.2、Auditory phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, it studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view, and reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.3、Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hear.2.Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human being contained?In the three cavities: pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity, and nasal cavity.3.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants.4.What is the function of nasal cavity? How does it perform this function?To nasalize the sounds that are produced. It does this by closing the air passage connecting the oral and nasal cavities so that he air stream can only go through the nasal cavity.5.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity which are involved in the production ofspeech sounds?The various parts of the tongue: the tip, the front, the blade, and the back of the tongue; the uvula; the soft palate; the hard palate, the teeth ridge (alveolar); the upper and lower teeth; the lips. Of all, tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other.6.Explain which examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? Broad transcription– one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription–a way to transcribe speech sounds. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter – symbols together with the diacritics. Diacritics are added to show the finer differences between sounds.7.How are the English consonants classified?Two ways to classify consonants: by place of articulation and by manner of articulation.For example, [p] is stop from the classification according to manner of articulation, and from the classification of place of articulation, [p] is a bilabial sound.8.What criteria are used to classify the English vow els?I.Position of the tongue. ( front vowel, central vowel, back vowel)i.e., a front vowel is a vowel which is produced with the front part of the tongue that isheld highest.II.Openness of the mouth. (close vowels, semi-close vowels)III.Length of the sound. (long vowel [I:] [u:], short vowel [I]IV.Shape of the lips (rounded vowels and unrounded vowels) [a:] are rounded vowels.xity of the glottis.9.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound description:1)V oiced palatal affricate: [d ]2)V oiceless labiodental fricative: [f]3)V oiced alveolar stop: [d]4)Front, close, short: [i]5)Back, semi-open, long: [ ]6)V oiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1)[d]: voiced, alveolar, stop2)[l ]: alveolar, liquid, lateral3)[t ]: voiceless, palatal, affricate4)[w]: glide, labial5)[u ]: back, close, short6)[æ ]: front, open10.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you thinkwill be more interested in the difference betw een, say, [l] and [l ], [p] and [p ], a phonetician or phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics: study of the phonic medium of language, it is the description of all speech sounds in the world’s language and their fine differences.Phonology: description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.For example the [t] sounds in the two English words stop an top are pronounced differently. The first one is what we call an unaspirated [t] and the second one an aspirated [th]. Phoneticians have recognized two quite distinct sounds for [t] in English; but if we consider these two sounds from the phonological point of view, we wound say these two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication, in distinguishing between words and meanings.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences because such differences will not cause the differences in meaning.11.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones relatedto a phoneme? (31)Phone – a speech sound we use when speaking a language, it is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme – a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.Allophones –the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. ( actual realizations of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts).E.g. the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [t], clear [l], etc, which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.12.What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identifythe minimal set in a language?Minimal pair refers to two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. That is, minimal pairs are word forms that differ from each other only be one sound. pill and till, till and kill, kill and dill, and dill and gill. According, we can conclude that p, b, t, d, k, g are phonemes in English. Then all these sound combinations together constitute a minimal set, they are identical in form except for the initial consonant, this also applies to the vowels. The pronunciations of the following words are identical except for the vowel: beat, bit, bet, bat, ect.By identifying the minimal pairs of the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.13.Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletionrule.Sequential rule– rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.E.g. If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.Assimilation rule–rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the tow phones similar.E.g. impossible is the negative form of possible, as the [n] sound is assimilated to [m].）Deletion rule– rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.14.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?Suprasengmental features –phonological features above the sound segment level, these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word and the sentences. The major suprasegmental features in English are stress (word stress and sentence stress) intonation and tone;1、Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pronounced with greater force than the other or others. The shift of stress changes the meaning or the part of speech of a word and the meaning of a sentence.E.g. from n to v. import to import.2、Intonation: pitch variation is known as intonation. More specific, when pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. The three most frequently used intonations are the fall, the rise and the fall-rise. When spoken in different tone, the same sequence of words may have different meaning, e.g. the falling intonation conveys a straight-forward fact, the rising intonation indicates a question; and the fall-rise intonation always conveys some implication.3、Tone: Tone refers to the pitch variation which is caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. It is an important feature for some languages, such as Chinese, it distinguishes meaning just like phonemes.15.Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration1)Phoneme (05).A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is an abstract notion instead of a concrete sound. A phoneme consists of a collection of features, and can be realized as different speech sounds in different phonetic contexts called allophones. E.g /l/ can be pronounced as clear [l] or darl [l] depending on where it occurs2)Complementary distributionWhen two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution.” E.g. the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially.16.What is the basic difference between a consonant and a vowel?The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of a vowel, the air stream from the lungs meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in the pronunciation of a consonant, the air stream from the lungs is obstructed in one way or another.17.How do you set up the allophones of the same phoneme?Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologist is to find out these rules.。
phonology名词解释
语音学是语言研究中最根本的学科，讨论语言研究中基本的组成部分，语言的发音系统，语音学也被称为声音研究。
它探索语言表达方式，
如发音、音节、句子语法、语音的变化等。
此外，语音学还考虑语言
标记系统，诸如单词，音素，音节，发音节等。
语音学主要由声学学，语言学和音乐学三类研究构成，主要用于研究音标及声音，确定音节
系统，研究音节和语词的变换以及调整，并研究发音语法，以及音乐
理论。
基本上，语音学主要研究语言的三个主要特性：声音（节奏，音调，
声调，及其他特征），句子构建（词序，结构，及其他），以及语义
和语用（习语、省略语、低调、限制），以及其他语言学家和语言学
家所研究的话语解读领域。
另外，语音学也涉及其他的方面，如普通
话研究，外语发音研究，儿童语音学，以及动态识别研究。
语音学包括了发音规律，发音角色，发音机制和发音特性，以及发音
性别等。
它要求听等功能，能正确识别和掌握声音。
发音机制包括了
发声器件和机构，以及语言文本合成，回声室效应，暂态音频信号，
路径特性和持续声音处理，以及信号处理，另外还有各类模式。
发音
特征包括了特征空间的建立，特征的表示，特征特征和特征特性之间
的关联性，以及特征
从上述讨论可以看出，语音学是一门涉及多方面的学科，语音学家在
研究声学，语言学，音乐学等方面提出了很多问题，例如如何正确掌
握发音、语法、语义等，根据上述内容可知语音学的研究非常复杂，
牵涉诸多方面，对了解语言和发音系统是非常重要的研究工作。
虽然
语音学的研究和探索是一个不断发展的过程，但是它的重要性无可否认，因为它从根。
语言学导论-第2章(2)Phonology
Some rules in phonology
Sequential rules 序列规则 Assimilation rule 同化原则 Deletion rule 省略原则
Sequential rules 序列规则
The patterning of sounds Which phonemes can begin a word? Which phonemes can end a word? Which phonemes can follow each other?
Some sequential rules
Words begin with [l] or [r]
The second sound must be a vowel E.g. *lkib *lbik
Three consonants cluster together
First: /s/ Second: /p/ or /t/ or /k/ Third: /r/ or /l/ or /w/ E.g. spring, street, square
Phoneme 音位 A phonological unit; an abstract unit; The distinctive sound of a language.
[p] vs. [ph]
two phones one phoneme /p/ Phoneme
in slashes /…/
Assimilation rule 同化原则
Assimilate one sound to another by “copying” feature of a sequential phoneme
Nasalization E.g. bean, green, team, scream Pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] E.g. indiscreet --- indiscreet correct --- incorrect Reflected in Spelling E.g. infor plausible, legal, implausible, illegal,
简明语言学教程第2章Chapter 2-Phonology
[j]: the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of
the tongue [t] [d]: the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the velar ridge [θ] [ð ]: partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of
Classification of vowels
1. According to the position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back vowels front vowel: the front part of tongue maintains the highest
semi-open vowels: [ə] [ɔ:]
The place of articulation
1. Bilabial; 2. Labiodental; 3. Dental or interdental; 4. Alveolar; 5. Palato alveolar; 6. Palatal; 7. Velar; 8. Uvular; 9. Glottal.
[t] [d]
[f]
[v]
[k] [g]
Fricatives
Affricates
VL
VD VL VD
[θ]
[ ð]
[s]
[z]
([tʃ] ) ([dʒ])
[ʃ]
[ʒ] [ tʃ ] [ dʒ ]
[h]
Nasals
戴炜栋Chapter 2 phonology
English Linguistics
Chapter Two
Phonology (Speech Sounds)
2.1 The phonic medium of language
Speech, writing and speech sounds We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology. 2.2 Phonetics 2.2.1 What is phonetics ? ---A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Phonetics looks at sounds from three distinct but related points of view: Articulatory Phonetics 发音(from the speaker's point of view)is the study of the production of speech sounds. Auditory Phonetics 听觉(hearer's)is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics 声学(the way sounds travel)is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.
英语语言学整理1
Chapter 2 Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介).Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language(语言的声音媒介).2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Types of phonetics：Phonetics looks at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view:1) From the speaker’s point of view: how a speaker uses his speec h organs to articulate the sounds, which results in articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）.2) From the hearer’s point of view：:how the sounds are perceived bythe hearer, which results in auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）.3) From the way sounds travel: how sounds travel by looking at the sound saves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another, which results in acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）.By studying sound waves with the help of spectrographs, acoustic phoneticians find that the same sounds we claim to have heard are in most cases only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical.2.2.2 Organs of speech（发声器官）1.lips2.teeth3.teeth ridge （齿龈）(alveolus)4. Hard palate（硬腭）5.soft palate (velum)（软腭）6.uvula （小舌）7.tip of tongue （舌尖）8. Blade of tongue （舌面）9. Back of tongue （舌后）10.vocal cords （声带）11.pharyngeal cavity （咽腔）12. Nasal cavity （鼻腔）1)The pharyngeal cavity（咽腔）:Vibration（颤动）of the vocal cords（声带）results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing（浊化）, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration,the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless（清音）.2)The oral cavity(口腔)The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity.The speech organs located in this cavity are the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate (the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge (the alveolus), the teeth and the lips.Of all the above, the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other3) The nasal cavity（鼻腔）The nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity.The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized.If the passage is left open to allow air to exit through the nose, the sounds produced are nasalized sounds.2.2.3 orthographic representation of speech sounds-broad transcription and narrow transcription (宽式标音和严式标音)A standardized and internationally accepted phonetictranscription is the International Phonetic Alphabet（IPA）（国际音标）.The basic principle of the IPA is using one letterselected from major European language to representone speech sound.However, there are some speech sounds which differ in some detailed aspects. Phoneticians need another set of symbols to distinguish these detailed differences.For example:[l] in feel and leaf[p] in peace and speedThus the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics(变音符).The diacritics are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.For example:[l] in leaf is a clear [l][l] in feel is a dark [l][l] in health is a dental [l]Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ]Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Diacritics does not make a difference between words in English.E.g. / sph it/ and /spit/ .But the substitution of /p/ for /t/ does make a difference of word in English.e.g. /pip/ and /tip/2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds （英语语音的分类）The speech sounds in the English language can be divided into vowels and consonants.The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that(元音与辅音的根本区别在于) : In the pronunciation of a vowel the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth,While in the pronunciation of a consonant it is obstructed in one way or another.2.2.4.1Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified either in terms of manner of articulation（发音方式）or in terms of place of articulation（发音位置）：In terms of the manner of articulationstops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h];affricates: [tF], [dV];liquids: [l](lateral), [r]（retroflex）;nasals: [m], [n], [N];glides/semivowels: [w], [j].Stops（闭塞音/爆破音）: When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.The English stops fall into three pairs: [p] [b], [t] [d], and [k] [g],fricatives（摩擦音）:When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative. The fricatives in English:refer to the textbook, page 19.Affricates（塞擦音）: When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.In English there are two affricates [ʧ] and [ʤ].Liquids（流音）: When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides ) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids.The English liquids are [ 1 ] and [ r ].[ 1 ] is called a lateral sound（边音）because in the production of it the surface of the tongue, instead of being more or less flat, is made slightly convex and causes stoppage in the centreof the roof of the mouth while allowing air to pass at the sides.In the production of the other liquid [r], the tip of the tongue is curled back and the air passes over it. It is also called “retroflex(卷舌音).”Nasals（鼻音）: When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English [ m ] [ n ] and [ŋ].Glides（滑音）, sometimes called " semivowels," are a rather marginal category.The English glides are [w] and [j], both voiced. They are formed in the same manner as the vowels [u] and [i]，which is why they are called semi-vowels.In terms of the place of articulationbilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w];labiodental: [ f ], [v];dental: [W], [T];alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];palatal: [F], [V], [tF], [dV], [ j ];velar: [k], [g], [N];glottal: [h].The place of articulationBilabial;Labiodental;Dental or interdental;Alveolar;Palato-alveolar;Palatal;Velar;Uvular;Glottal.In terms of place of articulation: Bilabial（双唇音）The English bilabials are [p] [b] [m] [w].labiodentals（唇齿音）: the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth.The labiodentals sounds in English are [f] and [v].Dental（齿音）: the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth.There are two dental sounds in English.Alveolar（齿龈音）: The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge. The alveolar sounds are [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [1] [r] ．Palatal（腭音）: The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate. There are 5 palatals in English (refer to the textbook).Velar（软腭音）: The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum, or the soft palate.The sounds thus produced in English are [k]，[g] and [ŋ].Glottal（喉音）: The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English, i.e.[h].The description of Englishconsonants2.2.4.2Classification of English vowels （元音分类）Vowel sounds are classified according to: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.1）The position of the tongue in the mouth----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:front vowels（前元音）: [I:], [I], [e], [Z], [A], [B];central vowels（中元音）: [E:], [E], [Q];back vowels（后元音）: [u:], [u], [C:], [C], [B:].Front vowels are the ones in the production of which the front part of the tongue is raised the highest such as [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a].When the central part of the tongue maintains its highest position, the vowels thus produced are central vowels such as [3:]，[Ə] and [ ] .If the back of the tongue is held the highest, the vowels thus produced are back vowels such as [u:]，[u]．2)the openness of the mouthclose vowels（闭元音）: [i:] [i] [u:] and [u];semi-close vowels（半闭元音）: [e] and [3：]semi-open vowels（半开元音）: [ə] and [Չ:]open vowels（开元音）: [æ] [a] [ ] [Չ ] [ :].The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:3) the shape of the lipsrounded vowels（圆唇元音）: All the back vowels in English are rounded except [ɑ:]. Un-rounded vowels（非圆唇元音）: All the front vowels and central vowels in English are un-rounded.4)the length of vowelslong vowels（长元音）: They are usually marked with a colon。
自考00830现代语言学 自考核心考点笔记 自考重点资料
自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料0830 - 现代语言学 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 Dichotic listening research of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has 3. The language centers 2.2 The conceptualist view undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a 完整版9.5页 3.1 Broca’s area 2.3 Contextualism diachronic study. 笔记依据教材 3.2 Wernicke’s area ompetence: The ideal user’s 2.4 Behaviorism 6).Language c《现代语言学》3. Lexical meaning 3.3 The angular gyrus knowledge of the rules of his language. A 何兆熊、梅德明主编外语教学与研究出版社 3.1 Sense and reference 3.4 Language perception, comprehension and transformational-generative grammar(转化生成语笔记依据目录 3.2 Major sense relations production 法)is a model of language competence. Chapter 1 Introduction 4. The critical period for language acquisition 3.2.1 Synonymy7).Language performance: performance is the 1. What is linguistics? 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 3.2.2 Polysemy actual realization of the ideal language user’s 1.1 Definition 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of 3.2.3 Homonymy knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 1.2 The scope of linguistics 3.2.4 Hyponymy language faculty with age 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 3.2.5 Antonymy 5. Language and thought system shared by all the members of a speech 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 4. Sense relations between sentences 5.1 Early views on language and thought community; Langue is the set ofconventions and 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 5. Analysis of meaning 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis rules which language users all have to follow; 1.3.3 Speech and writing 5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze 5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Langue is relatively stable, it does not change 1.3.4 Langue and parole lexical meaning 5.3.1 Words and meaning frequently. 1.3.5 Competence and performance 5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue 2. What is language? sentence meaning 5.3.3 Translation in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the 2.1 Definitions of language Study questions5.3.4 Second language acquisition conventions and the application of the rules; parole 2.2 Design features Chapter 6 Pragmatics 5.3.5 Language and world views varies from person to person, and from situation to Study questions 1. What is pragmatics? 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and situation. Chapter 2 Phonology 1.1 Definition thought 10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary 1. The phonic medium of language 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 5.4.1 Major functions of language vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Phonetics 1.3 Context5.4.2 The development and blending of language 11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of 2.1 What is phonetics? 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 5.4.3 Thinking without language language. It means that there is no logical 2.2 Organs of speech 2. Speech act theory 5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system connection between meanings and sounds. A good 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech 3.Principle of conversation to express thought example is the fact that different sounds are used sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions to refer to the same object in different languages. 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds Study questions Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics12).Productivity: Language is productive or 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. The purpose and significance of the historical creative in that it makes possible the construction 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 1. First language acquisition study of language and interpretation of new signals by its users. 3. Phonology 2. The nature of language change 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3. The historical development of English 1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.1 Major periods in the history of English grammatical rules sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, 3.1.1 Old English 1.3 The role of input and interaction meanings at the higher level. and minimal pair 3.1.2 Middle English 1.4 The role of instruction 14).Displacement: language can be used to refer 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.1.3 Modern English 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement to things which are present or not present, real or 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.2 linguistic change of English 1.6 The role of imitation imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or 3.4.2 Assimilation rules 3.2.1 Sound change 2. Stages offirst language acquisition in far-away places. In other words, language can 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.2.2 Morphological change 2.1 The prelinguistic stage be used to refer to contexts removed from the 3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, 3.2.3 Syntactic change 2.2 The one-word stage immediate situations of the speaker. intonation 2.3 The two-word stage 3.2.4 Lexical change 15).Cultural transmission: While we are born 3.5.1 Stress 2.4 The multiword stage 3.2.5 Semantic change with the ability to acquire language, the details of 3.5.2 Tone 3. The development of the grammatical system 4. Language family any language are not genetically transmitted, but 3.5.3 Intonation 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 3.1 The development of phonology instead have to be taught and learned. Study questions 4.2 The Indo-English language family 3.2 The development of syntax 16).Design features: It refers to the defining Chapter 3 Morphology 5. The causes of language change 3.3 The development of morphology properties of human language that distinguishit 1. Definition 5.1 Sound assimilation 3.4 The development ofvocabulary and semantics from any animal system of communication 2. Morpheme 5.2 Rule simplification and regularization 4. Second language acquisition 2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of 5.3 Internal borrowing 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning Linguistics is the scientific study of language. language 4.2 Transfer and interference 5.4 Elaboration Linguistics investigates not any particular language, 2.2 Types of morphemes 5.5Sociological triggers 4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA but languages in general. 2.2.1 Free morphemes 5.6 Cultural transmission development Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on 2.2.2 Bound morphemes 5.7 Children’s approximation toward the adult 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，2.2.3 Morphological rules grammar 4.5 The role of input 真实的) language data. No serious linguistic 3. Compounding Study questions 4.6 The role of formal instruction conclusion is reached until after the linguist has 3.1 Types of compound words Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 4.7 Individual learner factors done the following three things: observing the way 3.2 Features of compounds 1. Languagevariation 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language Study questions language is actually used, formulating some 1.1 Speech community acquisition Chapter 4 Syntax hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against 1.2 Speech variety 4.7.2 Motivation 1.Syntax as a system of rules linguistic facts to prove their validity. 1.3 Regional variation 4.7.3 Acculturation 2. Sentence structure 3.What are the branches of linguistics? What 1.4 Social variation 4.7.4 Personality 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 1.5 Stylistic variation …does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是… (中间部分略) 2.2 Types of sentences 1.6 Idiolectal variation 完整版请——什么每个分支的研究对象是什么,) 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2. Standard and nonstandard language QQ:1273114568 索取 Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 1)Generallinguistics, which is the study of 2.2.3 The complex sentence Study questions 2.2 Lingua francas language as a whole and which deals with the 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of Suggested Answers to Study Questions 2.3 Pidgins basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and sentences An English-Chinese Glossary 2.4 Creoles methods applicable in any linguistic study 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence A Detailed Note for Modern Linguistics 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 3.1 Diglossia Chapter 1: Introduction used in linguistic communication 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3.2 Bilingualism 1.Define the following terms:3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put 3. Syntactic categories 4. Ethnic dialect 1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the together and used to convey meaning in 3.1 Lexical categories 4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect scientific study of language. communication 3.2 Phrasal categories 4.2 The social environment of Black English 2).General linguistics: The study of language as 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which 4. Grammatical relations 5. Socialdialect a whole is called general linguistics. morphemes are arranged to form words 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Education varieties 3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 Age varieties linguistics refers to the application of linguistic words are combined to form sentences 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 Gendervarieties principles and theories to language teaching and 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in 5.3 X-bar theory 5.4 Register varieties learning, especially the teaching of foreign and lan?guage. 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 5.5 Address terms second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 5.6 Slang the application of linguistic findings to the solution isolation, but in the context of use 6.2 Other types of movement 5.7 Linguistic taboo of practical problems such as the recovery of 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 5.8 Euphemism speech ability. with reference to society 6.4 M ove α—a general movement rule Study questions 4).Synchronic study: The study of a language9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics at some point in time.e.g. A study of the features of with reference to the workings of mind.7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 1. The biological foundations of language the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage synchronic study. the application of linguistic findings in linguistic Study questions 1.2 The human brain 5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as studies; in a nar?row sense, applied linguistics Chapter 5 Semantics 1.3 Brain lateralization it changes through time. A diachronic study of refers to the application of linguistic principles and 1. What is semantics? 2.Linguistic lateralization language is a historical study, which studies the theories to language teaching, especially the 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language historical development of language over a period teaching of foreign and second languages. matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks languages communication. Speech is considered primary 11)Other related branches are anthropological at language from a psychological point of view and 2).auditory phonetics:It studies the speech over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics(神to him competenceis a property of the mind of sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies writing in language evolution, speech plays a each individual. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. greater role in daily communications, and speech 经语言学), mathematical linguistics(数学语言学), 10.What characteristics of language do you 3).acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds is the way in which people acquire their native and computational linguistics(计算机语言学). by looking at the sound waves. It studies the language. think should be included in a good, 4.What makes modern linguistics different physical means by which speech sounds are 3.What are the three branches of phonetics? comprehensive definition of language? from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语transmitted through the air from one person to How do they contribute to the study of speech Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 法有什么区别,) another. sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么它们是如何研used forhuman communication. 4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a Traditional grammar is prescriptive(规定性); it is First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of 究语言学的, (可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易standardized and internationally accepted system based on "high "(religious, literary) written language are combined according to rules. of phonetic transcription. 理解) language. It sets models for language users to Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that5).Broad transcription: the transcription with 1)Articulatory phonetics describes the way our follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive(描述there is no intrinsic connection between the word letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one speech organs work to produce the speech sounds 性); its investigations are based on authentic and and the thing it refers to. sound. This is the transcription normally used in and how they differ. Third, language is vocal because the primary mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be dictionaries and teaching textbooks.2)Auditory phonetics studies the physical medium is sound for all languages. scientific and objective and the task of linguists is6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription with properties of the speech sounds, and reaches The term “human” is meant to specify that supposed to describe the language people actually letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a language is human-specific. use, whether it is "correct" or not. the transcription used by the phoneticians in their theoretical ideal. 11.What features of human language have 5.Is modernlinguistics mainly synchronic(共study of speech sounds. 3)Acoustic phonetics studies the physical been specified by Charles Hockett to show that 时性) or diachronic(历时性)? Why? 7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be properties of the speech sounds, the way sounds it is essentially different from any animal (The description of language at some point in time added to the letter-symbols to make finer travel from the speaker to the hearer; it deals with communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征is a synchronic study; the description of a language distinctions than the letters alone make possible. the sound waves through the use of such as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) 8).Voiceless(清音): when the vocal cords are machines as a spectrograph(声谱仪). 是什么, Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing drawn wide apart, letting air go through without 4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of 1.Arbitrariness(任意性): (课本答案:a sign of on the present-day language. Unless the various causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a human being contained? sophistication only humans are capable of) It states of a language are successfully studied, it will condition are called voiceless sounds. means that there is no logical connection between Pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity and nasal cavity. not be possible to describe language from a 9).Voicing (浊音): Sounds produced while the meanings and sounds. Although language is5.What is voicing and how is it caused? 什么叫diachronic point of view. vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. 浊音化,它是如何形成的,6.Which enjoyspriority in modern linguistics, 10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which no Non-arbitrary words make up only a small Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal speech or writing? Why? articulators come very close together and the air percentage of the total number. The arbitrary cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken stream passes through the vocal tract without nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it letting air go through without causing vibration, the language for the following reasons: obstruction are called vowels. makes it possible for language to have an sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. First, speech precedes writing. The writing system 11).Consonants: the sounds in the production of unlimited source of expressions. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that is always a later invention used to record the which there is an obstruction of the air stream at2.Productivity(创造性): (课本答案:creativity: the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced some point of the vocal tract are called speech. There are still some languages that only animals are quite limited in the messages they are in this way are voiced. consonants. have the spoken form. able to send)Language is productive or creative in 6.What is the function of nasal cavity? How 12).phonology: Phonology studies the system of Then, a larger amount of communication is carried that it makes possible the con?struction and sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover does it perform this function? out in speech than in writing. interpretation of an infinitely large number ofhow speech sounds in a language form patterns Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire The function of nasal cavity is to nasalize the sentences, including those they have never said or and how these sounds are used to convey their native language. sounds that are produced. It does this by closing heard before. meaning in linguistic communication.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语the air passage connecting the oral and nasal 3.Duality(二重性): (课本答案:a feature totally 13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as the cavities so that the air stream can only go through parole的, lacking in any animal communication)It means that speech sounds we use when speaking a language. the nasal cavity. (The distinction between langue and parole was language is a system, which consists of two sets of A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not 7.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower necessarily distinguish meaning. which are involved in the production of speech Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are level and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic sounds? French words.) At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system The various pats of the tongue: the tip, the front, of individual and meaningless sounds, which can represented or realized as a certain phone by a shared by all the members of a speech community, the blade, and the back; the uvula; the soft palate; be grouped into meaningfulunits at the higher level. certain phonetic context. and parole refers to the realization of langue in the hard palate; the teeth ridge (alveolar); the This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of 15).allophone: The different phones which can actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and upper and lower teeth; the lips. language enables its users to talk about anything represent a phoneme in different phonetic rules which language users all have to follow while 8.How broad transcription and narrow within their knowledge. environments are called the allophones of that parole is the concrete use of the conventions and transcription differ? 宽式标音和严式标音有什4.Displacement(移位性): (课本答案:no animal phoneme. For example [l] and [l] the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is can “talk” about things remov ed from the 16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers 么区别, not the language people actually use, but parole is immediate situation)Language can be used to to the relation between two phonemes. If two The broad transcription is the transcription of concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring phonemes can occur in the same environment and refer to things which are present or not present, sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. language events. Langue is relatively stable, it distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic real or imagined matters in the past, present, or The narrow transcription is the transcription with does not change frequently; while parole varies contrast. future, orfar-away places. In other words, diacritics (变音符号) to show detailed articulatory from person to person, and from situation to17).Complementary distribution: refers to the language can be used to refer to contexts removed features of sounds. situation. relation between two similar phones which are from the immediate situations of the speaker. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] in used for the8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur 5. Cultural transmission(文化传递性): (课本sound [l] in words like leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], performance各指什么, in different environments. 答案:details of human language system are taught and health [helθ]. The sound [l] in all these words is18).minimal pair: When two different forms are (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s and lear ned while animals are born with the differ slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a identical in every way except for one sound proposed the distinction between competence and capacity to send out certain signals as a means of vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is segment which occurs in the same place in the performance.) limited communication)While we are born with the needed to indicate it; the [l] in [fi:l] and [bild], strings, the two words are said to form a minimal Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s occurring before another consonant, is called dark ability to acquire language, the details of any pair. For example: bin and pin. knowledge of the rules of his language. This [l], indicated in narrow transcription as [l]. Then in language are not genetically transmitted, but 19).suprasegmental features: the phonemic internalized set of rules enables the language user [helθ], the sound [l] isfollowed by the dental sound instead have to be taught and learned. features that occur above the level of the segments to produce and understand an infinitely large [θ], it is thus called a dental [l], and transcribed as 12.Do you think human language is entirely are called suprasegmental features. The main number of sentences and recognize sentences [helθ](注:l下有一个向下的框，无法打印) in narrow arbitrary? Why? suprasegmental features include stress, tone and that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According transcription. Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely intonation. to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization 9.How are the English consonants classified? arbitrary, because there are a limited number of 20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are of this knowledge in linguistic communication. words whose connections between forms and 英语的辅音是如何分类的, caused by the differing rates of vibration of the Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother meanings can be logically explained to a certain 1)by manner of articulation. vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish tongue is perfect, his performances may have extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words a.stops(plosive爆破音):[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g] meaning just like phonemes. The mistakes because of social and psychological which are coined on the basis of imitation of meaning-distinctive function of the tone is b.fricatives(磨擦音): [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[,ð], [? ], [?], [h] factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. especially important in tone languages, for Chomsky believes that whatlinguists should study c.affricates(破擦音): [ t?], [d?] Take compounds for another example. The two example, in Chinese. is the competence, which is systematic, not the d.liquids(lateral边音，流音): [l], [r] elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are 21).intonati on: When pitch, stress and sound performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). e.nasals(鼻音): [m],[ n],[,, ?] non-motivated, but the compound is not length are tied to the sentence rather than the word 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between arbitrary. f.glide s (semivowels半元音): [w], [ j] in isolation, they are collectively known as langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s … … (中间部分略) 2)by place of articulation : intonation. For example, English has four basic 完整版请—— distinction between competence and a.bilabial(双唇音): [p],[b],[m],[w] types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, QQ:1273114568 索取performance? And what is their difference? biodental(唇齿音): [f],[v] the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction c.dental(舌齿音): [θ],[,, ð] 2.What are the two major media of Chapter 2: Phonology between the abstract language system and the d.alveolar(齿龈音): [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r] communication?Of the two, which one is 1.Define the terms: actual use of language. Their purpose is to single e.palatal(腭音): [?], [?],[ t? ], [d?], [j] primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么,1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of out one aspect of language for serious study.f.velar(软腭音): [k], [g], [? ] the phonic medium of language; it is concerned 哪一个是基本的交际媒介,为什么, They differ in that Saussuretakes a sociological with all the sounds that occur in the world’ sg.glottal(喉音，声门单): [h] view of language and his notion of langueis a Speech and writing are the major media of10.What criteria are used to classify the Assimilation rule: rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one ofits English vowels? 英语的元音是如何分类的, phonetic features. 1) According to the position of the tongue, vowels Deletion rule: rule governing the deletion of a may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] sound in a certain phonetic context although it is [e] [æ] [a], central vowels such as [?:] [?] [?], and represented in spelling. back vowels such as [u:] [? ] [?:] [? ] [ɑ:] 17.What are supresegmental features? How do 2) According to the openness of the mouth, we the major suprasegmental features of English classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels function in conveying meaning? 什么是超音位such as [i:] [i] [u:] [? ], semi-close vowels such as [e] [?:], semi-open vowels such as [?] [?:], and 特征,它是如何影响语义的, (p40) open vowels such as [æ] [a] [? ] [? ] and [ɑ:]. Suprasegmental features are phonological 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are features above the sound segment level. divided into rounded vowels and unrounded The major suprasegmental features in English are vowels. In English all the front and central vowels word stress, sentence stress and intonation. are unrounded vowels, all the back vowels, with 1)The location of stress in English distinguishes exception of [ɑ:], are rounded. meaning, such as`import and im`port. The similar 4) According to the length of thevowels, the alternation of stress also occurs between a English vowels can also be classified into long compound noun and a phrase consisting of the vowels and short vowels. The long vowels include same elements. A phonological feature of the [i:] [?:] [?: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels. English compounds is that the stress of the word11.What is the difference between a always falls on the first element and the second monophthong and a diphthong? element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a black. deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in 2) Sentence stress refers to the relative force the position of one vowel and immediately moving which is given to the words in a sentence. The more important words such as nouns, main verbs, in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] adjectives, adverbs, and demonstrative pronouns, are monophthongs, and [a? ], [e? ] are are pronounced with greater force and made more diphthongs. 12.How do phonetics and phonology differ in prominent. And the other categories of words (articles, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, their focus of study? Who do you think will be prepositions, and conjunctions) are usually not more interested in the difference between stressed. But to give special emphasis to a certain [l]and [l], [p] and [ph], a phonetician or a notion, a word in sentence that is usually phonologist? Why? unstressed can be stressed to。
Phonology 2
Deleting word-final [n] after [ə ]:
e.g. UR: /tek ə n/N SR: [tek ə ] (‘sign’)
ə
UR: //te:k ə n/V + ə n/ INF SR: [tek ə n ə ] (‘to draw’)
Phonological features
Perseverations
a. give the goy [give the boy] b. Michael Malliday [Michael Halliday]
Substitution
his retters [letters]
Addition
country presents [peasants]
Conclusion
[t] and [d] occurred significantly more often than [s] and [z] and [s] and [z] were used significantly more often than [f] and [v].
Palatalization
Discrepancy between child perception and production
Contrast between /l/ and either /r/ or /j/ when there is already an occurrence of /l/ in the word Both the /l/ and the /r/ in lorry are pronounced by the child as [l]. Lateral harmony as feature spreading
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
allophones of the phoneme /p/
2.2.2 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.
Phonemic contrast (音位对立 音位对立) 音位对立
• Phonemic contrast----if two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in phonemic contrast (or contrastive distribution). • Different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. /b/ and /p/ in [ bit ] and [pit].
1. /k/
2. /g/ 3. /p/ 4. /l/ 5. /e/ 6. /m/ 7. /t/
8. /n/
1. [k] [kȹ] [c] [cȹ] [k¬] [c¬] 2. [ ] [g] 3. [p] [pȹ] [p¬] 4. [l] [ɫ] ɫ 5. [e] [ ] 6. [m] [ɱ] 7. [t] [tȹ] [t¬] [ ] 8. [n] [ ]
2.2.1 Phone, phoneme, allophone
Question: Do the underlined letters or letter combinations in each group share the same pronunciation?
1. scar class skin kiss cocktail factory 2. give garden 3. spit pity stop talking 4. lead milk 5. pet pen 6. meat comfort 7. stop top get to eighth 8. ten tenth
Minimal pair
(最小对立体 最小对立体) 最小对立体
• Purpose: to determine which are distinctive sounds. • Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. bit & bet Practice: Please find out the minimal pairs. sink, fine, seed, ban, vine, soup, zinc, bin
Phoneme(音位 音位) 音位
• A phoneme---- it is • a phonological unit; • a unit of distinctive value; • an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context. • e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pȹit], [tip¬] and [spit].
Minimal Biblioteka et• e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat • Minimal set: if a group of words can satisfy the three conditions, they form a minimal set. • • • • Practice: find words of the same minimal set for “pit”. --- pit, bit, hit, fit, lit, sit, shit… --- pit, pat, pet, pot, put, peat… --- pit, pig, pick, pill, pin, piss…
2.2 Phonology: definition
• Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
Minimal pair
• • • • conditions: I. the two forms are different in meaning; II. the two forms are different in one sound segment; III. the different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.
2.2.3 Some rules of phonology
• Sequential rules (序列规则) • Assimilation rules (同化规则) • Deletion rules (省略规则)
Sequential rules
• Practice: Can you divide the following list into two groups: the group of English and the group of nonEnglish words? • creck crick nbread bread • splash zsplash block blokc • English words: crick, bread, splash, block, *creck • Question: Why do you think “creck” is an English word?
Linguistics
Topic 2 Phonology
Wang Lijuan
Phonetics & phonology
• Similarity: Both are concerned with the speech sounds. • Differences: They differ in their approach and focus. • What’s the focus of Phonetics? (Think of what we have discussed last time.)
Complementary distribution (互补分布 互补分布) 互补分布
• Complementary distribution---- two or more sounds never appear in the same environment. • Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. • dark [ɫ] & clear [l], aspirated [pȹ] & unaspirated [p].
Phonetics & phonology
Phonetics Sounds of languages Parole, speech act Universal Concrete Phone [ ] Phonology Patterning of sounds as part of a language Langue, language system Language-specific Abstract Phoneme / /
Phone(音素 音素) 音素
• A phone---- the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment. • The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. • Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, • e.g. [ bi:t ] & [ bit ], [spit] & [spȹit].
Sequential rules
• Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb, but not ilbk, lbki… • Sonority scale: • Most sonorous • • • • • Least sonorous
Allophone(音位变体 音位变体) 音位变体
• Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. • E.g. • • phoneme: phones: /p/ [pȹ] [p¬] [p]