专业英语第6课-哈工程
车辆工程-汽车专业英语课件-汽车基础知识部分---Chapter-3-Power-Train--3
['flaiwi:l] [spriŋ] ['ɔpəreit] ['mekənizəm] [trænz'mi∫ən] [tɔ:k]
n.飞轮 n.弹簧 vt.操作，控制，使运行 n.（机械）结构，机械装置 n.变速器 n.扭转力；转矩
压盘
Chapter 3 Power Train 3.1 Clutches
摩擦式限滑差速器
Chapter 3 Power Train 3.2 Manuel Transmission
3.2.1 Text
1.Transmission Gear Ratios
The modern manual transmission can provide the driver with up to six forward gear ratios. The reduction gears provide gear ratios of approximately 3.5:1 (stated as 3.5 to 1) for the lowest gear, to about 1.5:1 for the highest. The direct drive gear has a 1:1 gear ratio. The overdrive gears have a gear ratio of about 0.7:1.
[ə'prɔksimə tli]
adv.近似地，大约；许
bearing
['bɛəriŋ] n.[机]轴承，支座
mesh
[me∫]
vi.（机器零件）啮合
transaxle
[ֽtræ ns'æ k sl]
n.变速驱动桥
车辆工程专业英语词汇
车辆工程专业英语词汇摘要车辆工程是一门涉及机械、电子、控制、材料等多方面知识的综合性学科，主要研究车辆的设计、制造、试验、维修和管理等方面的理论和方法。
车辆工程专业的学生需要掌握一定的专业英语词汇，以便与国际同行进行交流和合作，以及阅读和撰写相关的文献和报告。
本文根据车辆工程专业的主要课程，给出了所涉及的专业英语词汇。
本文旨在为车辆工程专业的学生和教师提供一个参考和学习的资料。
1. 物理 Physics物理是一门研究自然界基本规律和现象的科学，是车辆工程专业的基础课程之一。
物理主要包括力学、热学、电磁学、光学、近代物理等分支。
以下是物理课程中常用的专业英语词汇：中文英文物理physics力学mechanics热学thermodynamics电磁学electromagnetism光学optics近代物理modern physics力force质量mass速度velocity加速度acceleration动量momentum功work能量energy功率power压强pressure温度temperature熵entropy热力学第一定律the first law of thermodynamics热力学第二定律the second law of thermodynamics电荷charge电流current电压voltage电阻resistance电容capacitance电感inductance欧姆定律Ohm's law基尔霍夫定律Kirchhoff's laws磁场magnetic field磁通量magnetic flux中文英文法拉第定律Faraday's law麦克斯韦方程组Maxwell's equations光源light source光线ray of light光强度intensity of light波长wavelength频率frequency折射率refractive index反射定律the law of reflection折射定律the law of refraction2. 高等数学 Advanced Mathematics高等数学是一门研究函数、极限、微积分、线性代数、微分方程等数学内容的科学，是车辆工程专业的基础课程之一。
环境科学与工程专业英语第三版课后练习题含答案
环境科学与工程专业英语第三版课后练习题含答案简介
环境科学与工程专业英语第三版课后练习题含答案是一本旨在帮助环境科学与工程专业学生提高英语水平的教材。
本书从环境科学与工程各个领域的基本概念、理论与技术出发，涵盖了大量的英语词汇、短语和语法知识，并结合具体案例进行讲解，帮助读者深入理解专业知识，提升英语交流能力。
本书共分为9个单元，每个单元包含多个章节，每章节都有相应的练习题目及答案，涵盖了阅读、写作、听力和口语四个方面的练习。
目录
本书共包含以下9个单元：
1.环境科学介绍
2.大气环境与空气质量控制
3.水资源与水环境管理
4.土壤与固体废物处理与管理
5.声环境与噪声控制
6.环境风险评估与管理
7.温室效应与气候变化
8.低碳节能与清洁生产
9.环境优化与可持续发展
每个单元的章节与练习题数量都不同，具体可参考本书目录。
1。
工业设计专业英语(第三版)第六课意大利设计
The evolution in Italy of（ a self - conscious “ high culture” design movement）, which coexists alongside design within the more banal production and consumption of goods, is what has earned Italy its special place within the world of contemporary material culture.
意大利工业化的特殊性质是尊重传统手工业同时实施大批量生产的新 系统.
and the creative geniuses of the small cluster of Italian architect - designers whose names have become synonymous with the concept of modern Italian design.
In achieving this ambition Italy has evolved a unique approach towards the practice, the aesthetic and the theory of design which depends, （only minimally）, upon models borrowed from elsewhere.
具有现代风格的、批量生产的家具、具有装饰风格的家用物品、电器、办公设备、汽 车和后来的设计师服装以及附属品为意大利设计在当代物质文化中赢得主要地位。从 实质上讲，通过本世纪的奋斗，（意大利设计师）作为这个国家要求和奋斗现代化的 一面镜子，反映了意大利将确定成为现代工业国家的历程。
工程管理专业英语
目录Unit One About Engineering Economy第一单元关于工程经济Unit Two The Principles of Engineering Economy第二单元工程经济原理Unit Three Cost Concept第三单元成本概念Unit Four Time Value of Money第四单元金钱的时间价值Unit Five The Basic Methods of Engineering Economy 第五单元工程经济的基本方法Unit Six The Definition of a “Project”第六单元项目的定义Unit Seven Why Project Management?第七单元为什么要对项目进行管理？Unit Eight The Project Life Cycle第八单元项目的寿命周期Unit Nine The Project Manager第九单元项目经理Unit Ten Project Planning第十单元制订项目计划Unit Eleven Initial Project Coordination第十一单元开始的项目协调Unit Twelve Budgeting and Cost Estimation第十二单元预算和成本估算Unit Thirteen The Monitoring System of Project第十三单元项目监测系统Unit Fourteen Project Control第十四单元项目控制Unit Fifteen Conditions of Contract for Construction(Excerpts)第十五单元施工合同条件（节选）Unit One About Engineering EconomyEngineering economy——what is it, and why is it important? The initial reaction of many engineering students to these questions is “Money matters will be handled by someone else. It is not something I need to worry about.” In reality, any engineering project must be not only physically realizable, but also economically affordable. For example, a child's tricycle could be built with an aluminum frame or a composite frame. Some may argue that because the composite frame will be stronger and lighter, it is a better choice. However, there is not much of a market for thousand dollar tricycles! One might suggest that this argument is ridiculously simplistic and that common sense would dictate choosing aluminum for the framing material. Although the scenario is an exaggeration, it reinforces the idea that the economic factors of a design weigh heavily in the design process, and that engineering economy is an integral part of that process, regardless of the engineering discipline. Engineering, without economy, makes no sense at all.In broad terms, for an engineering design to be successful, it must be technically sound and produce benefits. These benefits must exceed the costs associated with the design in order for the design to enhance net value. The field of engineering economy is concerned with the systematic evaluation of the benefits and costs of projects involving engineering design and analysis. In other words, engineering economy quantifies the benefits and costs associated with engineering projects to determine whether they make (or save) enough money to warrant their capital investments. Thus, engineering economy requires the application of engineering design and analysis principles to provide goods and services that satisfy the consumer at an affordable cost. As we shall see, engineering economy is as relevant to the design engineer who considers material selection as it is to the chief executive officer whoapproves capital expenditures for new ventures.The technological and social environments in which we live continue to change at a rapid rate. In recent decades, advances in science and engineering have made space travel possible, transformed our transportation systems, revolutionized the practice of medicine, and miniaturized electronic circuits so that a computer can be placed on a semiconductor chip. The list of such achievements seems almost endless. In your science and engineering courses, you will learn about some of the physical laws that underlie these accomplishments.The utilization of scientific and engineering knowledge for our benefit is achieved through the design of things we use, such as machines, structures, products, and services. However, these achievements don't occur without a price, monetary or otherwise. Therefore, the purpose of this book is to develop and illustrate the principles and methodology required to answer the basic economic question of any design: Do its benefits exceed its costs?The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology states that engineering “is the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.”*In this definition, the economic aspects of engineering are emphasized, as well as the physical aspects. Clearly, it is essential that the economic part of engineering practice be accomplished well.Therefore，engineering economy is the dollars-and-cents side of the decisions that engineers make or recommend as they work to position a firm to be profitable in a highly competitive marketplace．Inherent to these decisions are trade-offs among different types of costs and the performance(response time，safety, weight, reliability, etc.) provided by the proposed design or problem solution．The mission of engineering economy is to balance thesetrade-offs in the most economical manner. For instance, if an engineer at Ford Motor Company invents a new transmission lubricant that increases fuel mileage by 10% and extend s the life of the transmission by 30,000 miles，how much can the company afford to spend to implement this invention? Engineering economy can provide an answer.A few more of the myriad situations in which engineering economy plays a cruclal role come to mind：1. Choosing the best design for a high-efficiency gas furnace.2. Selecting the most suitable robot for a welding operation on an automotive assembly line.3. Making a recommendation about whether jet airplanes for an overnight delivery service should be purchased or leased.4. Determining the optimal staffing plan for a computer help desk.From these illustrations，it should be obvious that engineering economy includes significant technical considerations．Thus，engineering economy involves technical analysis with emphasis on the economic aspects, and has the objective of assisting decisions．This is true whether the decision maker is an engineer interactively analyzing alternatives at a computer-aided design workstation or the Chief Executive Officer(CEO)considering a new project．A n engineer who is unprepared to excel at engineering economy is not properly equipped for，his or her job.Cost considerations and comparisons are fundamental aspects of engineering practice．This basic point was emphasized in Section 1.1. However, the development of engineering economy methodology, which is now used in nearly all engineering work，is relatively recent．This does not mean that，historically, costs were usually overlooked in engineering decisions. However, the perspective that ultimate economy is a primary concern to the engineer and the availability of sound techniques to address this concern differentiate this aspect of modern engineering practicefrom that of the past.A pioneer in the field was Arthur M．Wellington, a civil engineer, who in the latter part of the nineteenth century specifically addressed the role of economic analysis in engineering projects. His particular area of interest was railroad building in the United States．This early work was followed by other contributions in which the emphasis was on techniques that depended primarily on financial and actuarial mathematics．In 1930. Eugene Grant published the first edition of his textbook.+ This was a milestone in the development of engineering economy as we know it today. He placed emphasis on developing an economic point of view in engineering，and(as he stated in the preface) “this point of view involves a realization that quite as definite a body of principles governs the economic aspects of an engineering decision as governs its physical aspects.” In 1942，Woods and DeGarmo wrote the first edition of this book，later titled Engineering Economy.Unit Two The Principles of Engineering EconomyThe development, study, and application of any discipline must begin with a basic foundation．We define the foundation for engineering economy to be a set of principles，or fundamental concepts，that provide a comprehensive doctrine for developing the methodology, These principles will be mastered by students as they progress through this book. However, in engineering economic analysis, experience has shown that most errors can be traced to some violation of or lack of adherence to the basic principles．Once aproblem or need has been clearly defined, the foundation of the discipline can be discussed in terms of seven principles.PRINCIPLE1－DEVELOP THE ALTERNATIVES:The choice(decision) is among alternatives. The alternatives need to be identified and then defined for subsequent analysisA decision situation involves making a choice among two or more alternatives. Developing and defining the alternatives for detailed evaluation is important because of the resulting impact on the quality of the decision．Engineers and managers should place a high priority on this responsibility．Creativity and innovation are essential to the process.One alternative that may be feasible in a decision situation is making no change to the current operation or set of conditions(i.e., doing nothing). If you judge this option feasible，make sure it is considered in the analysis. However, do not focus on the status quo to the detriment of innovative or necessary change.PRINCIPLE2-FOCUS ON THE DIFFERENCES:Only the differences in expected future outcomes among the alternatives are relevant to their comparison and should be considered in the decision.If all prospective outcomes of the feasible alternatives were exactly the same，there would be no basis or need for comparison．We would be indifferent among the alternatives and could make a decision using a random selection.Obviously, only the differences in the future outcomes of the alternatives are important．Outcomes that are common to all alternatives can be disregarded in the comparison and decision．For example，if your feasible housing alternatives were two residences with the same purchase(or rental)price，price would be inconsequential to your final choice．Instead，the decision would depend on other factors, such as location and annual operating and maintenance expenses. This example illustrates，in a simple way, Principle 2，which emphasizes the basic purpose of an engineeringeconomic analysis：to recommend a future course of action based on the differences among feasible alternatives.PRINCIPLE 3-USE A CONSISTENT VIEWPOINT:The prospective outcomes of the alternatives, economic and other, should be consistently developed from a defined viewpoint (perspective).The perspective of the decision maker, which is often that of the owners of the firm，would normally be used．However, it is important that the viewpoint for the particular decision be first defined and then used consistently in the description analysis，and comparison of the alternatives.As an example，consider a public organization operating for the purpose of developing a river basin，including the generation and wholesale distribution of electricity from dams on the river system．A program is being planned to upgrade and increase the capacity of the power generators at two sites. What perspective should be used in defining the technical alternatives for the program? The “owners of the firm” in this example means the segment of the public that will pay the cost of the program and their viewpoint should be adopted in this situation.Now let us look at an example where the viewpoint may not be that of the owners of the firm．Suppose that the company in this example is a private firm and that the problem deals with providing a flexible benefits package for the employees. Also, assume that the feasible alternatives for operating the plan all have the same future costs to the company．The alternatives，however, have differences from the perspective of the employees，and their satisfaction is an important decision criterion. The viewpoint for this analysis and decision should be that of the employees of the company as a group, and the feasible alternatives should be defined from their perspective.PRINCIPLE 4-USE A COMMON UNIT OF MEASURE:Using a common unit of measurement to enumerate asmany of the prospective outcomes as possible will simplify the analysis and comparison of the alternatives.It is desirable to make as many prospective outcomes as possible commensurable (directly comparable)．For economic consequences，a monetary unit such as dollars is the common measure．You should also try to translate other outcomes(which do not initially appear to be economic) into the monetary unit．This translation，of course, will not be feasible with some of the outcomes, but the additional effort toward this goal will enhance commensurabilitv and make the subsequent analysis and comparison of alternatives easier.What should you do with the outcomes that are not economic(i.e., the expected consequences that cannot be translated (and estimated) using the monetary unit)? First, if possible, quantify the expected future results using an appropriate unit of measurement for each outcome．If this is not feasible for one or more outcomes，describe these consequences explicitly so that the information is useful to the decision maker in the comparison of the alternatives．PRINCIPLE 5-CONSIDER ALL RELEV ANT CRITERIASelection of a preferred alternative (decision making) requires the use of a criterion (or several criteria). The decision process should consider both the outcomes enumerated in the monetary unit and those expressed in some other unit of measurement or made explicit in a descriptive manner.The decision maker will normally select the alternative that will best serve the long-term interests of the owners of the organization. In engineering economic analysis, the primary criterion relates to the long-term financial interests of the owners. This is based on the assumption that available capital will be allocated to provide maximum monetary return to the owners. Often, though, there are other organizational objectives you would like to achieve with your decision, and these should be considered and given weight in the selection of an alternative. These nonmonetarv attributes andmultiple objectives become the basis for additional criteria in the decision-making process.PRINCIPLE6-MAKE UNCERTAINTY EXPLICIT:Uncertainty is inherent in projecting (or estimating) the future outcomes of the alternatives and should be recognized in their analysis and comparison.The analysis of the alternatives involves projecting or estimating the future consequences associated with each of them．The magnitude and the impact of future outcomes of any course of action are uncertain．Even if the alternative involves no change from current operations, the probability is high that today‟s estimates of, for example，future cash receipts and expenses will not be what eventually occurs. Thus, dealing with uncertainty is an important aspect of engineering economic analysis and is the subject of Chapters 10 and 13.PRINCIPLE 7- REVISIT YOUR DECISIONS:Improved decision making results from an adaptive process, to the extent practicable, the initial projected outcomes of the selected alternative should be subsequently compared with actual results achieved.A good decision-making process can result in a decision that has an undesirable outcome. Other decisions, even though relatively successful，will have results significantly different from the initial estimates of the consequences. Learning from and adapting based on our experience are essential and are indicators of a good organization.The evaluation of results versus the initial estimate of outcomes for the selected alternative is often considered impracticable or not worth the effort. Too often, no feedback to the decision-making process occurs. Organizational discipline is needed to ensure tha t implemented decisions are routinely postevaluated and that the results used to improve future analyses of alternatives and the quality of decision making．The percentage of important decisions inan organization that are not postevaluated should be small．For example，a common mistake made in the comparison of alternatives is the failure to examine adequately the impact of uncertainty in the estimates for selected factors on the decision．Only postevaluations will highlight this type of weakness in the engineering economy studies being done in an organization.Unit Three Cost Concept3.1 Fixed, Variable, and Incremental CostsFixed costs are those unaffected by changes in activity level over a feasible range of operations for the capacity or capability available. Typical fixed costs include insurance and taxes on facilities, general management and administrative salaries, license fees, and interest costs on borrowed capital.Of course, any cost is subject to change, but fixed costs tend to remain constant over a specific range of operating conditions. When large changes in usage of resources occur, or when plant expansion or shutdown is involved, fixed costs will be affected.Variable costs are those associated with an operation that vary in total with the quantity of output or other measures of activity level. If you were making an engineering economic analysis of a proposed change to an existing operation, the variable costs would be the primary part of the prospective differences between the present andchanged operations as long as the range of activities is not significantly changed. For example, the costs of material and labor used in a product or service are variable costs, because they vary in total with the number of output units, even though the costs per unit stay the same.An incremental cost (or incremental revenue) is the additional cost (or revenue) that results from increasing the output of a system by one (or more) units. Incremental cost is often associated with “go-no go” decisions that involve a limited change in output or activity level.③For instance, the incremental cost per mile for driving an automobile may be. $0.27, but this cost depends on considerations such as total mileage driven during the year (normal operating range), mileage expected for the next major trip, and the age of the automobile. Also, it is common to read of the “incremental cost of producing a barrel of oil” and “incremental cost to the state for educating a student.” As these examples indicate, the incremental cost (or revenue) is often quite difficult to determine in practice.3.2 Recurring and Nonrecurring CostsThese two general cost terms are often used to describe various types of expenditures. Recurring costs are those that are repetitive and occur when an organization produces similar goods or services on a continuing basis. Variable costs are also recurring costs, because they repeat with each unit of output. But recurring costs are not limited to variable costs. A fixed cost that is paid on a repeatable basis is a recurring cost. For example, in an organization providing architectural and engineering services, office space rental, which is a fixed cost, is also a recurring cost.Nonrecurring costs, then, are those which are not repetitive, even though the total expenditure may be cumulative over a relatively short period of time. Typically, nonrecurring costs involve developing or establishing a capability or capacity to operate. For example, the purchase cost for real estate upon which a plant will bebuilt is a nonrecurring cost, as is the cost of constructing the plant itself.3.3 Direct, Indirect, and Standard CostsThese frequently encountered cost terms involve most of the cost elements that also fit into the previous overlapping categories of fixed and variable costs, and recurring and nonrecurring costs. Direct costs are costs that can be reasonably measured and allocated to a specific output or work activity. The labor and material costs directly associated with a product, service, or construction activity are direct costs. For example, the materials needed to make a pair of scissors would be a direct cost.Indirect costs are costs that are difficult to attribute or allocate to a specific output or work activity. The term normally refers to types of costs that would involve too much effort to allocate directly to a specific output. In this usage, they are costs allocated through a selected formula (such as, proportional to direct labor hours, direct labor dollars, or direct material dollars) to the outputs or work activities. For example, the costs of common tools, general supplies, and equipment maintenance in a plant are treated as indirect costs.Overhead consists of plant operating costs that are not direct labor or direct material costs. In this book, the terms indirect costs, overhead, and burden are used interchangeably. Examples of overhead include electricity, general repairs, property taxes, and supervision. Administrative and selling expenses are usually added to direct costs and overhead costs to arrive at a unit selling price for a product or service. (Appendix A provides a more detailed discussion of cost accounting principles.)Various methods are used to allocate overhead costs among products, services, and activities. The most commonly used methods involve allocation in proportion to direct labor costs, direct labor hours, direct materials costs, the sum of direct labor and direct materials costs (referred to as prime cost in a manufacturing operation), or machine hours. In each of these methods, it isnecessary to know what the total overhead costs have been or are estimated to be for a time period (typically a year) to allocate them to the production (or service delivery) outputs.Standard costs are representative costs per unit of output that are established in advance of actual production or service delivery. They are developed from anticipated direct labor hours, materials, and overhead categories (with their established costs per unit). Because total overhead costs are associated with a certain level of production, this is an important condition that should be remembered when dealing with standard cost data (for example, see Section 2.5.3). Standard costs play an important role in cost control and other management functions. Some typical uses are the following:1. Estimating future manufacturing costs.2. Measuring operating performance by comparing actual cost per unit with the standard unit cost.3. Preparing bids on products or services requested by customers.4. Establishing the value of work in process and finished inventories.3.4 Cash Cost versus Book CostA cost that involves payment of cash is called a cash cost (and results in a cash flow) to distinguish it from one that does not involve a cash transaction and is reflected in the accounting system as a noncash cost. This noncash cost is often referred to as a book cost. Cash costs are estimated from the perspective established for the analysis (Principle 3, Section 1.3) and are the future expenses incurred for the alternatives being analyzed. Book costs are costs that do not involve cash payments, but rather represent the recovery of past expenditures over a fixed period of time. The most common example of book cost is the depreciation charged for the use of assets such as plant and equipment. In engineering economic analysis, only those costs that are cash flows or potential cash flows from the defined perspective for the analysis need to be considered.Depreciation, for example, is not a cash flow and is important in an analysis only because it affects income taxes, which are cash flows. We discuss the topics of depreciation and income taxes in Chapter 6.3.5 Sunk CostA sunk cost is one that has occurred in the past and has no relevance to estimates of future costs and revenues related to an alternative course of action. Thus, a sunk cost is common to all alternatives, is not part of the future (prospective) cash flows, and can be disregarded in an engineering economic analysis. For instance, sunk costs are nonrefundable cash outlays, such as earnest money on a house or money spent on a passport.We need to be able to recognize sunk costs and then handle them properly in an analysis. Specifically, we need to be alert for the possible existence of sunk costs in any situation that involves a past expenditure that cannot be recovered, or capital that has already been invested and cannot be retrieved.The concept of sunk cost is illustrated in the next simple example. Suppose that Joe College finds a motorcycle he likes and pays $40 as a down payment, which will be applied to the $1,300 purchase price, but which must be forfeited if he decides not to take the cycle. Over the weekend, Joe finds another motorcycle he considers equally desirable for a purchase price of $1,230. For the purpose of deciding which cycle to purchase, the $40 is a sunk cost and thus, would not enter into the decision, except that it lowers the remaining cost of the first cycle. The decision then is between paying $1,260 ($1,300～$40) for the first motorcycle versus $1,230 for the second motorcycle.In summary, sunk costs result from past decisions and therefore are irrelevant in the analysis and comparison of alternatives that affect the future. Even though it is sometimes emotionally difficult to do, sunk costs should be ignored, except possibly to the extent that their existence assists you to anticipate better what will happen in the future.3.6 Opportunity CostAn opportunity cost is incurred because of the use of limited resources, such that the opportunity to use those resources to monetary advantage in an alternative use is foregone. Thus, it is the cost of the best rejected (i.e., foregone) opportunity and is often hidden or implied.For example, suppose that a project involves the use of vacant warehouse space presently owned by a company. The cost for that space to the project should be the income or savings that possible alternative uses of the space may bring to the firm. In other words, the opportunity cost for the warehouse space should be the income derived from the best alternative use of the space. This may be more than or less than the average cost of that space obtained from the accounting records of the company.Consider also a student who could earn $20,000 for working during a year, but chooses instead to go to school for a year and spend $5,000 to do so. The opportunity cost of going to school for that year is $25,000:$5,000 cash outlay and $20,000 for income foregone. (This figure neglects the influence of income taxes and assumes that the student has no earning capability while in school.)3.7 Life-Cycle CostIn engineering practice, the term life-cycle cost is often encountered. This term refers to a summation of all the costs, both recurring and nonrecurring, related to a product, structure, system, or service during its life span, The life cycle is illustrated in Figure 2-2. The life cycle begins with identification of the economic need or want (the requirement) and ends with retirement and disposal activities. It is a time horizon that must be defined in the context of the specific situation-whether it is a highway bridge, a jet engine for commercial aircraft, or an automated flexible manufacturing cell for a factory. The end of the life cycle may be projected on a functional or an economic basis. For example, the amount of time that a structure or piece of equipment is able to perform economically maybe shorter than that permitted by its physical capability. Changes in the design efficiency of a boiler illustrate this situation. The old boiler may be able to produce the steam required, but not economically enough for the intended use.Unit Four Time Value of Money4.1 IntroductionThe term capital refers to wealth in the form of money or property that can be used to produce more wealth. The majority of engineering economy studies involve commitment of capital for extended periods of time, so the effect of time must be considered. In this regard, it is recognized that a dollar today is worth more than a dollar one or more years from now because of the interest (or profit) it can earn. Therefore, money has a time value.4.2 Why Consider Return to Capital?Capital in the form of money for the people, machines, materials, energy, and other things needed in the operation of an。
《机械工程专业英语教程》课文翻译
机械工程专业英语教程第一课：机械工程简介Introduction to Mechanical EngineeringSection 1: OverviewMechanical engineering is a diverse and dynamic field that encompasses the design, development, and operation of machinery, structures, and systems. This branch of engineering plays a crucial role in various industries, including automotive, aerospace, manufacturing, and energy.Section 2: Responsibilities and SkillsAs a mechanical engineer, your responsibilities will include designing and analyzing mechanical systems, conducting tests and experiments, and supervising the manufacturing process. You will also need to have a strong understanding of physics, mathematics, and computer-aided design (CAD). Additionally, problem-solving skills, attention to detail, and the ability to work well in teams are essential.Section 3: Career OpportunitiesA degree in mechanical engineering can open up a wide range of career opportunities. You could work in research and development, product design, manufacturing, or projectmanagement. Mechanical engineers are in demand in almost every industry, ensuring a stable and rewarding career path.Section 4: University CoursesTo become a mechanical engineer, it is essential to pursue a degree in mechanical engineering from a reputable university. The curriculum typically includes courses in engineering principles, materials science, thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and mechanical design. Additionally, practical training through internships or cooperative education programs is crucial for gaining hands-on experience.Section 5: ConclusionMechanical engineering offers a challenging and rewarding career for those with a passion for solving problems and a desire to create innovative solutions. With the right education and skills, you can embark on a successful journey in the field of mechanical engineering. Remember, the possibilities are endless in this ever-evolving discipline.第二课：机械设计基础Fundamentals of Mechanical DesignSection 1: IntroductionIn this lesson, we will explore the fundamentals of mechanical design. Mechanical design involves the creation and development of physical systems and components that meet specific requirements and specifications. This processrequires a deep understanding of materials, mechanics, and engineering principles.Section 2: Design ProcessThe design process typically follows a systematic approach that includes several stages. These stages include problem identification, conceptual design, detailed design, manufacturing, and testing. Each stage involves various activities such as brainstorming, prototyping, and evaluation.Section 3: Design ConsiderationsDuring the design process, there are several important considerations to keep in mind. These include functionality, efficiency, reliability, safety, and cost-effectiveness. It is also crucial to consider the environmental impact and sustainability of the design.Section 4: Tools and SoftwareTo aid in the design process, engineers use various tools and software. Computer-aided design (CAD) software allows for precise modeling and simulation of mechanical systems. Finite element analysis (FEA) software helps in analyzing the structural integrity and performance of designs.Section 5: Case StudyTo further understand the application of mechanical design principles, we will examine a case study. This real-world example will demonstrate how the design process isimplemented to solve a specific problem and achieve desired outcomes.Section 6: ConclusionMechanical design is a critical aspect of mechanical engineering. It requires a combination of creativity, technical knowledge, and attention to detail. By mastering the fundamentals of mechanical design, you will be well-equippedto tackle complex challenges and contribute to the development of innovative solutions.以上是《机械工程专业英语教程》的课文翻译。
《计算机专业英语》电子教案第6章
本章将介绍面向对象编程的基本概念和应用，包括面向过程与面向对象编程 的比较、类与对象、封装与继承、多态与接口以及设计模式的应用。
面向对象编程
1
面向过程与面向对象编程的比较
比较面向过程和面向对象编程的优缺点，了
面向对象的基本概念
2
解为什么面向对象编程在现代软件开发中更 为广泛使用。
了解封装的概念，学习如何使用封装技术保护类的数据和实现细节，提高代码的 可维护性和安全性。
2
继承的概念与实现方式
深入研究继承的概念，学习如何通过继承创建类之间的层次结构，实现代码的重 用和扩展。
多态与接口
多态的定义与特点
探讨多态的概念和特点，了解如何利用多态实现代码的 灵活性和可扩展性。
接口的定义与使用
学习如何定义接口以及如何通过接口实现不同类之间的 统一访问接口，提高代码的灵活性和可复用性。
设计模式
1 常见设计模式介绍
2 设计模式在面向对象编程中的应用
介绍一些常见的设计模式，例如工厂模式、单例 模式、观察者模式等，了解它们的特点和适用场 景。
探索设计模式在面向对象编程中的实际应用，了 解如何根据不同需求选择合适的设计模式并应用 到代码中。
探索面向对象的基本概念，包括类、对象、
方法、属性等，了解它们在编程中的作用和
相互关系。
类与对象
类的定义与声明
学习如何定义和声明类，了解类的成员变量和成员 函数的特性以及如何使用它们。
对象的定义与创建
探究如何定义和创建对象，了解对象与类之间的关 系以及如何使用对象进行实际的编程。
封装与继承
1
封装的概念向对象编程的核心概念 和技术。
下一章预告
工业工程专业英语第二版课后答案
工业工程专业英语第二版课后答案1、I think _______ is nothing wrong with my car. [单选题] *A. thatB. hereC. there(正确答案)D. where2、12．Who will ________ the Palace Museum after Shan Jixiang retires? [单选题] * A．in chargeB．in charge ofC．be in charge of (正确答案)D．be in the charge of3、_____ to wait for hours,she brought along a book to read. [单选题] *A. ExpectedB. Expecting(正确答案)C. ExpectsD. To expect4、73．The moonlight goes ____ the window and makes the room bright. [单选题] *A．acrossB．through(正确答案)C．overD．in5、He has bought an unusual car. [单选题] *A. 平常的B. 异常的(正确答案)C. 漂亮的D. 废弃的6、Having stayed in the United States for more than ten years, he got an American（）[单选题] *A. speechB. accent(正确答案)C. voiceD. sound7、This is the news _______ you want to know. [单选题] *A. that(正确答案)B. whatC. whenD. who8、We can’t go out ______ school nights. （）[单选题] *A. inB. on(正确答案)C. atD. by9、Seldom _____ in such a rude way. [单选题] *A.we have been treatedB. we have treatedC. have we been treated(正确答案)D. have treated10、—______ is it from your home to the bookstore?—About 15 kilometers.（）[单选题] *A. How far(正确答案)B. How muchC. How longD. How many11、I’m sorry there are ______ apples in the fridge. You must go and buy some right now.（）[单选题] *A. a littleB. littleC. a fewD. few(正确答案)12、We moved to the front row_____we could hear and see better. [单选题] *A. so asB. so that(正确答案)C. becauseD. such that13、Have you done something _______ on the weekends? [单选题] *A. special(正确答案)B. soreC. convenientD. slim14、Nowadays more and more people travel by _______, because its safe, cheap and fast. [单选题] *A. footB. bikeC. high-speed train(正确答案)D. boat15、8．—Will she have a picnic next week?—________. And she is ready. [单选题] *A．Yes, she doesB．No, she doesn'tC．Yes, she will(正确答案)D．No, she won't16、He was proud of what he had done. [单选题] *A. 对…感到自豪(正确答案)B. 对…感到满足C. 对…表示不满D. 对…表示后悔17、Do you know what（）the change in his attitude? [单选题] *A. got throughB. brought about(正确答案)C. turned intoD. resulted from18、53．On your way home, you can buy some fruit, meat, vegetables and ________. [单选题] * A．something else(正确答案)B．else somethingC．everything elseD．else everything19、He’s so careless that he always _______ his school things at home. [单选题] *A. forgetsB. leaves(正确答案)C. putsD. buys20、I couldn’t find Peter,_____did I know where he had gone. [单选题] *A.nor(正确答案)B.eitherC.neverD.as21、____ of my parents has been to my school, so they know _____ of my classmates. [单选题] *A. Neither, none(正确答案)B. No one, noneC. None, no oneD. Neither, no one22、_________ along the old Silk Road is an interesting and rewarding experience. [单选题]*A. TravelB. Traveling(正确答案)C. Having traveledD. Traveled23、He was?very tired，so he stopped?_____ a rest. [单选题] *A. to have(正确答案)B. havingC. haveD. had24、If the trousers are too long, ask the clerk to bring you a shorter _____. [单选题] *A. suitB.setC.oneD.pair(正确答案)25、You can borrow my book, _____ you promise to give it back to me by the end of this month. [单选题] *A.even ifB. as long as(正确答案)C. in caseD. even though26、It usually takes him about 15 minutes _______ his bike to school. [单选题] *A. ridesB. ridingC. rideD. to ride(正确答案)27、The reason I didn't attend the lecture was simply _____ I got a bad cold that day. [单选题] *A. becauseB. asC. that(正确答案)D. for28、The market economy is quickly changing people’s idea on_____is accepted. [单选题] *A.what(正确答案)B.whichC.howD.that29、I repeated my question several times. [单选题] *A. 到达B. 惊奇C. 重复(正确答案)D. 返回30、Stephanie _______ going shopping to staying at home. [单选题] *A. prefers(正确答案)B. likesC. preferD. instead。
《专业英语》课程标准(冶金技术)
《专业英语》课程标准课程概述一、课程的性质和作用《专业英语》是冶金技术专业的一门必修的专业基础课。
本课程总学时为24学时，主要以钢铁冶金的英文科技文章为教学对象，内容主要包括三个方面：炼铁、炼钢、连铸。
通过对这三方面英文资料的学习，全面掌握冶金工程的基本专业英语词汇，具有现场操作的英文翻译能力，能够阅读冶金及相关行业的英文文献，及时掌握国外相关领域的发展动态和新技术。
提高翻译技巧和分析难句的能力，正确、通顺、快速地把冶金专业的英文资料译成中文，初步掌握把汉语专业文章译成英文的能力和英语听说能力。
本课程构建于《大学英语》、《钢铁冶金概论》、《炼铁生产与操作》、《转炉炼钢生产》、《连续铸钢生产》等专业课程的基础上。
课程具有很强的实践性，同时使学生更加广泛地了解钢铁企业的生产和管理情况，对学生毕业后工作以及可持续性发展具有重要的作用。
二、课程基本理念本课程从高等职业教育的性质、特点、任务出发，以培养学生职业能力为重点，以企业对学生掌握冶金专业外语程度要求为立足点，确立课程的主要目标是拓展学生的专业词汇知识，培养学生的专业英文阅读和翻译能力。
本课程在课程设计、建设和教学实施过程中，始终贯彻以下教育理念：校企合作的课程开发观：课程是学校与钢铁公司的实践专家合作开发的，共同开发学生工作岗位、典型工作任务；利用学校和企业两种教育资源，创设学习项目和课程实施条件，合作建设教学文件、教材等教学资源，共同制订学生工作和学习成果考核评价办法；校企互相兼职，共建共管课程教学专兼职队伍。
过程导向的课程观：本课程开发的关键是从钢铁企业冶金专业生产工作出发选择课程内容及安排教学顺序。
课程回归社会职业，建设以岗位典型工作过程逻辑为中心的行动体系课程，按照从实践到理论的顺序组织每一个知识点，学生通过完成工作任务的过程来学习相关知识。
行动导向的教学观：行动导向的教学遵循“资讯、计划、决策、实施、检查、评估”这一完整的“行动”过程序列；在基于职业情境的学习项目中，通过师生及学生之间的互动合作，学生在自己“做”的实践中，掌握职业技能和实践知识，主动建构真正属于自己的经验和知识体系（包括理论知识）。
能源与动力工程学院各专业第一应修课程表
MATH200207
高等数学H
6
MATH200607
线性代数与解析几何II
3.5
PHYS200209
大学物理11
4
MILI100254
军事训练
1
PHYS200809
大学物理实验W
0.75
CHEM211309
无机与分析化学
3
CHEM231109
有机化学
4
CHEM211409
无机与分析化学实验
1
CHEM231209
体育
0.5
PHED100150
体育
0.5
C0MP202953
大学计算机基础
MLMD100214
中国近现代史纲要
2
ENP0300803
能源与动力工程科学技术导论
PHYS200209
大学物理11
4
MILI100154
国防教育
1
PHYS280309
大学物理实验In
0.75
MlLI100254
军训
1
ENP0300103
学分
课程编码
课程名称
学分
MATH200207
高等数学π
6
MATH200207
高等数学π
6
MATH200607
线性代数与解析几何1【
3.5
MACH300201
GL100312
ENGL100112
大学英语(II)大学英语(In)大学英语(IV)
2
ENGL100412
ENGL100312
ENGL100212
大学英语(II)大学英语(IH)通用学术英语
2
CHEM200109
化学工程与工艺专业英语课后习题答案
• 1. complete the summary of the text • (1) the Industrial Revolution • (2) organic chemical • (3) contact process • (4) Haber process • (5) synthetic polymers • (6) intermediates
• 4. 镓元素的英文名称是什么？有什么含义？ • 答案：镓元素的英文名称为gallium，是由法国
人根据他祖国的拉丁语名（Gallia）命名。
Exercises for Unit 3: Typical Activities of Chemical Engineers
• 1. Complete the notes below • (1) mechanical • (2) electrical • (3) civil • (4) scale up • (5) commercial scale • (6) reactors
• (6) non-renewable resources • (7) renewable resources • (8) energy sources • (9) fermentation • (10) selective • (11) raw material • (12) separation and purification • (13) food industry • viz = videlicet (read namely)
• silica（ 硅石）
ammonium（铵离子）
• polyester（聚酯）
• the lion's share（大份额）
电子信息工程专业英语教程_第5版 题库
《电子信息工程专业英语教程(第5版)》题库Section A 术语互译 (1)Section B 段落翻译 (5)Section C阅读理解素材 (12)C.1 History of Tablets (12)C.2 A Brief History of satellite communication (13)C.3 Smartphones (14)C.4 Analog, Digital and HDTV (14)C.5 SoC (15)Section A 术语互译Section B 段落翻译Section C阅读理解素材C.1 History of TabletsThe idea of the tablet computer isn't new. Back in 1968, a computer scientist named Alan Kay proposed that with advances in flat-panel display technology, user interfaces, miniaturization of computer components and some experimental work in WiFi technology, you could develop an all-in-one computing device. He developed the idea further, suggesting that such a device would be perfect as an educational tool for schoolchildren. In 1972, he published a paper about the device and called it the Dynabook.The sketches of the Dynabook show a device very similar to the tablet computers we have today, with a couple of exceptions. The Dynabook had both a screen and a keyboard all on the same plane. But Key's vision went even further. He predicted that with the right touch-screen technology, you could do away with the physical keyboard and display a virtual keyboard in any configuration on the screen itself.Key was ahead of his time. It would take nearly four decades before a tablet similar to the one he imagined took the public by storm. But that doesn't mean there were no tablet computers on the market between the Dynabook concept and Apple's famed iPad.One early tablet was the GRiDPad. First produced in 1989, the GRiDPad included a monochromatic capacitance touch screen and a wired stylus. It weighed just under 5 pounds (2.26 kilograms). Compared to today's tablets, the GRiDPad was bulky and heavy, with a short battery life of only three hours. The man behind the GRiDPad was Jeff Hawkins, who later founded Palm.Other pen-based tablet computers followed but none received much support from the public. Apple first entered the tablet battlefield with the Newton, a device that's received equal amounts of love and ridicule over the years. Much of the criticism for the Newton focuses on its handwriting-recognition software.It really wasn't until Steve Jobs revealed the first iPad to an eager crowd that tablet computers became a viable consumer product. Today, companies like Apple, Google, Microsoft and HP are trying to predict consumer needs while designing the next generation of tablet devices.C.2 A Brief History of satellite communicationIn an article in Wireless World in 1945, Arthur C. Clarke proposed the idea of placing satellites in geostationary orbit around Earth such that three equally spaced satellites could provide worldwide coverage. However, it was not until 1957 that the Soviet Union launched the first satellite Sputnik 1, which was followed in early 1958 by the U.S. Army’s Explorer 1. Both Sputnik and Explorer transmitted telemetry information.The first communications satellite, the Signal Communicating Orbit Repeater Experiment (SCORE), was launched in 1958 by the U.S. Air Force. SCORE was a delayed-repeater satellite, which received signals from Earth at 150 MHz and stored them on tape for later retransmission. A further experimental communication satellite, Echo 1, was launched on August 12, 1960 and placed into inclined orbit at about 1500 km above Earth. Echo 1 was an aluminized plastic balloon with a diameter of 30 m and a weight of 75.3 kg. Echo 1 successfully demonstrated the first two-way voice communications by satellite.On October 4, 1960, the U.S. Department of Defense launched Courier into an elliptical orbit between 956 and 1240 km, with a period of 107 min. Although Courier lasted only 17 days, it was used for real-time voice, data, and facsimile transmission. The satellite also had five tape recorders onboard; four were used for delayed repetition of digital information, and the other for delayed repetition of analog messages.Direct-repeated satellite transmission began with the launch of Telstar I on July 10, 1962. Telstar I was an 87-cm, 80-kg sphere placed in low-Earth orbit between 960 and 6140 km, with an orbital period of 158 min. Telstar I was the first satellite to be able to transmit and receive simultaneously and was used for experimental telephone, image, and television transmission. However, on February 21, 1963, Telstar I suffered damage caused by the newly discovered Van Allen belts.Telstar II was made more radiation resistant and was launched on May 7, 1963. Telstar II was a straight repeater with a 6.5-GHz uplink and a 4.1-GHz downlink. The satellite power amplifier used a specially developed 2-W traveling wave tube. Along with its other capabilities, the broadband amplifier was able to relay color TV transmissions. The first successful trans-Atlantic transmission of video was accomplished with Telstar II , which also incorporated radiation measurements and experiments that exposed semiconductor components to space radiation.The first satellites placed in geostationary orbit were the synchronous communication (SYNCOM ) satellites launched by NASA in 1963. SYNCOM I failed on injection into orbit. However, SYNCOM II was successfully launched on July 26, 1964 and provided telephone, teletype, and facsimile transmission. SYNCOM III was launched on August 19, 1964 and transmitted TV pictures from the Tokyo Olympics. The International Telecommunications by Satellite (INTELSAT) consortium was founded in July 1964 with the charter to design, construct, establish, and maintain the operation of a global commercial communications system on a nondiscriminatory basis. The INTELSAT network started with the launch on April 6, 1965, of INTELSAT I, also called Early Bird. On June 28, 1965, INTELSAT I began providing 240 commercial international telephone channels as well as TV transmission between the United States and Europe.In 1979, INMARSAT established a third global system. In 1995, the INMARSAT name was changed to the International Mobile Satellite Organization to reflect the fact that the organization had evolved to become the only provider of global mobile satellite communications at sea, in the air, and on the land.Early telecommunication satellites were mainly used for long-distance continental and intercontinental broadband, narrowband, and TV transmission. With the advent of broadband optical fiber transmission, satellite services shifted focus to TV distribution, and to point-to-multipoint and very small aperture terminal (VSAT) applications. Satellite transmission is currently undergoing further significant growth with the introduction of mobile satellite systems for personal communications and fixed satellite systems for broadband data transmission.C.3 SmartphonesThink of a daily task, any daily task, and it's likely there's a specialized, pocket-sized device designed to help you accomplish it. You can get a separate, tiny and powerful machine to make phone calls, keep your calendar and address book, entertain you, play your music, give directions, take pictures, check your e-mail, and do countless other things. But how many pockets do you have? Handheld devices become as clunky as a room-sized supercomputer when you have to carry four of them around with you every day.A smartphone is one device that can take care of all of your handheld computing and communication needs in a single, small package. It's not so much a distinct class of products as it is a different set of standards for cell phones to live up to.Unlike many traditional cell phones, smartphones allow individual users to install, configure and run applications of their choosing. A smartphone offers the ability to conform the device to your particular way of doing things. Most standard cell-phone software offers only limited choices for re-configuration, forcing you to adapt to the way it's set up. On a standard phone, whether or not you like the built-in calendar application, you are stuck with it except for a few minor tweaks. If that phone were a smartphone, you could install any compatible calendar application you like.Here's a list of some of the things smartphones can do:•Send and receive mobile phone calls•Personal Information Management (PIM) including notes, calendar and to-do list•Communication with laptop or desktop computers•Data synchronization with applications like Microsoft Outlook•E-mail•Instant messaging•Applications such as word processing programs or video games•Play audio and video files in some standard formatsC.4 Analog, Digital and HDTVFor years, watching TV has involved analog signals and cathode ray tube (CRT) sets. The signal is made of continually varying radio waves that the TV translates into a picture and sound. An analog signal can reach a person's TV over the air, through a cable or via satellite. Digital signals, like the ones from DVD players, are converted to analog when played on traditional TVs.This system has worked pretty well for a long time, but it has some limitations:•Conventional CRT sets display around 480 visible lines of pixels. Broadcasters have been sending signals that work well with this resolution for years, and they can't fit enough resolution to fill a huge television into the analog signal.•Analog pictures are interlaced - a CRT's electron gun paints only half the lines for each pass down the screen. On some TVs, interlacing makes the picture flicker.•Converting video to analog format lowers its quality.United States broadcasting is currently changing to digital television (DTV). A digital signal transmits the information for video and sound as ones and zeros instead of as a wave. For over-the-air broadcasting, DTV will generally use the UHF portion of the radio spectrum with a 6 MHz bandwidth, just like analog TV signals do.DTV has several advantages:•The picture, even when displayed on a small TV, is better quality.• A digital signal can support a higher resolution, so the picture will still look good when shown on a larger TV screen.•The video can be progressive rather than interlaced - the screen shows the entire picture for every frame instead of every other line of pixels.•TV stations can broadcast several signals using the same bandwidth. This is called multicasting.•If broadcasters choose to, they can include interactive content or additional information with the DTV signal.•It can support high-definition (HDTV) broadcasts.DTV also has one really big disadvantage: Analog TVs can't decode and display digital signals. When analog broadcasting ends, you'll only be able to watch TV on your trusty old set if you have cable or satellite service transmitting analog signals or if you have a set-top digital converter.C.5 SoCThe semiconductor industry has continued to make impressive improvements in the achievable density of very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuits. In order to keep pace with the levels of integration available, design engineers have developed new methodologies and techniques to manage the increased complexity inherent in these large chips. One such emerging methodology is system-on-chip (SoC) design, wherein predesigned and pre-verified blocks often called intellectual property (IP) blocks, IP cores, or virtual components are obtained from internal sources, or third parties, and combined on a single chip.These reusable IP cores may include embedded processors, memory blocks, interface blocks, analog blocks, and components that handle application specific processing functions. Corresponding software components are also provided in a reusable form and may include real-time operating systems and kernels, library functions, and device drivers.Large productivity gains can be achieved using this SoC/IP approach. In fact, rather than implementing each of these components separately, the role of the SoC designer is to integrate them onto a chip to implement complex functions in a relatively short amount of time.The integration process involves connecting the IP blocks to the communication network, implementing design-for-test (DFT) techniques and using methodologies to verify and validate the overall system-level design. Even larger productivity gains are possible if the system is architected as a platform in such as way that derivative designs can be generated quickly.In the past, the concept of SoC simply implied higher and higher levels of integration. That is, it was viewed as migrating a multichip system-on-board (SoB) to a single chip containing digital logic, memory, analog/mixed signal, and RF blocks. The primary drivers for this direction were the reduction of power, smaller form factor, and lower overall cost. It is important to recognize that integrating more and more functionality on a chip has always existed as a trend by virtue of Moore’s Law, which predicts that the number of transistors on a chip will double every 18-24 months. The challenge is to increase designer productivity to keep pace with Moore’s Law. Therefore, today’s notion of SoC is defined in terms of overall productivity gains through reusable design and integration of components.。
工程造价专业英语课后习题答案
工程造价专业英语课后习题答案一、句子翻译1.in its specifics ,each structure is tailed to suit its environment ,arranged to perform its own particular function ,and designed to reflect personal tastes and preferences . 具体来说，每一个建筑物都要适应它周围的环境，发挥它特有的功能，反映设计者的品味和喜好。
2.To some degree ,each construction project is unique ,and no two jobs are ever quite alike .从某种程度上来说，每一个建筑项目都是独一无二的，并且没有两个相同的项目。
3.It is unlikely ,that field construction will ever be able to adapt itself completely to the standardized methods and product uniformity of assembly-line production .建筑不可能完全适应标准化的方法和装配线生产的产品。
4.The objective of this approach is to treat project planning ,design ,and construction as integrated tasks within a construction system.该团队的目标是使工程规划、设计、建设成为工程项目系统之内的整合性的工作。
5.Adherence to construction schedules and budget constraints is the CM’s prime responsibility .确保在进度和成本约束下完成工程是项目经理的主要责任。
测绘工程专业英语课文翻译6~12
Unit 6 Methods of Elevation Determination（高程测量方法）An elevation is a vertical distance above or below a reference datum.（高程是高于或低于一个参考基准的一个垂直距离。
） Although vertical distance can be referenced to any datum, in surveying, the reference datum that is universally employed is that of mean sea level (MSL).（虽然垂直距离可以参考任何一个基准，但是在测量上，这个参考基准一般使用的是平均海平面（MSL）） MSL is assigned a vertical value (elevation) of 0.000 ft or 0.000m.（MSL 被赋予一个 0.000 英尺或 0.000 米的高程） All other points on the earth can be described by the elevations above or below zero.（地球上所有其它点可以用高于或低于0 的高程来描述） Permanent points whose elevations have been precisely determined (benchmarks) are available in most areas for survey use.（高程精确测出的永久点（水准点）被用于大多数区域的测量工作） In China, 7 years of observations at tidal stations in Qingdao from 1950 to 1956 were reduced and adjusted to provide the Huanghai vertical datum of 1956.（在中国，利用青岛验潮站从 1950 年到 1956 年 7 年的观测数据处理和平差，建立了 56 黄海高程系统） In the 1987, this datum was further refined to reflect long periodical ocean tide change to provide a new national vertical datum of 1985, according to the observations at tidal stations from 1952 to 1979.（1987 年，在依照了验潮站 1952 到 1979 年的观测资料后，这个基准被进一步精确——反映长时期海潮变化的 85 国家高程基准建立起来。
6 环境工程专业英语unit 6
2. Names of Anions（阴离子的命名）
元素名称的词干 + -ide + ion 例：F-：fluoride ion（F：fluorine）；
Cl-：chloride ion（Cl：chlorine）； Br-：bromide ion（Br：bromine）；
I-：iodide ion（I：iodine） OH-：hydroxide ion
group 7A “Halogens”
(F, Cl, Br, I，At)
❖ 9. Fluorine ['fluəri:n] (F), 氟 ❖ 17. Chlorine ['kləuri:n] (Cl),氯 ❖ 35. Bromine ['brəumi:n] (Br), 溴 ❖ 53. Iodine ['aiədain, -di:n] (I), 碘
low reactivities
❖ Boron family
Boron ['bɔ:rɔn]硼 B Aluminum [əlju:'minəm]铝 Al Aluminium [ælju:'minjəm]美语
❖ Nitrogen family
Nitrogen ['naitrədʒən]氮 N Phosphorus/Phosphorous ['fɔsfərəs] 磷 P
group 1A. “Alkali metals”
(Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs，Fr) ❖ 3. Lithium ['liθi:əm] 锂 ❖ 11. Sodium ['səudi:əm] 钠 Natrium ['neitriəm] ❖ 19. Potassium [pə'tæsiəm] 钾 kalium ['keiliəm] ❖ 37. Rubidium [ru:'bidiəm] 铷（Rb） ❖ 55. Caesium ['si:zjəm] 铯(Cs) ❖ 87. Francium ['frænsiəm] (放射性元素)钫(符Fr)
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
第六课：船级社6.1前言对船舶设计、建造和安全有重大影响的两个组织是船级社和政府管理机构。
前者具有相当长的历史，已经通过规范建立了建造标准，这些规范在保证船舶安全方面做了大量的工作，并没有强迫船东去按照某一船级社的规范去建造他自己的船舶，但可以发现，大多数船都是这样的，船级定义为“按价值高低而划分的等级”。
这在转播分级的早期确实是这样的。
他代表了船东、货主和保险商的利益，以便某船合理的保险金。
船级的起源与名为劳埃德船级社的公司有关，它是最早的船级社。
政府管理机构关心船舶的安全，以及在船上工作的所有人的利益。
在英国，关注此事的当局是贸易部（以前是贸易厅）。
只要船东关心的事情，它们都制订强制性规则以保证。
如果一艘船不满足当局颁布的标准，那么将被禁止航行。
船级社和政府管理机构的工作在一定程度上是重叠的。
前者的地位通常是政府授予给他们的，例如，船级社非常关注船舶机构强度，因此，如果船舶是按照船级社规范建造的，那么政府机构就认可船舶强度是足够的。
6.2劳埃德船级社劳埃德最初采用的分级系院是以A、E、I、O、U作为记号来表示船体质量，又以G、M、B（好、中、差）来表示船舶设备状况（如锚、缆索等），随着时间的推移，人们就想建立一套统一的建造标准。
这就是100A1，其中“100A”表示船舶体是按照船级社规范的最高标准建造的，“1”表示设备，此外，还可以发现在100A1前有一个十字符号，因而船级变为+100A1.十字符号表示船舶是在船级社验船师监督下建造的。
劳埃德船级社是在船舶机械推进方式之前就进入船舶领域了。
现在，与船体检验一样，机械检验也是常规的项目，所以符号LMC（劳埃德机械证书）在入级时可以看到。
因为劳氏规范覆盖了多种船舶类型，所以在入级符号后面要指示其船舶类型。
那些船级如100A1油船、1001液化气船、100A1矿砂船等，在入级证书中可以见到。
回顾早期船舶分级情况，实践中依据船龄和建造地来分级。
在北英格兰建造的与在南部的只给较低的入级。
船东对此做法很不满意。
在19世纪早期，他们颁布自己的登记规则（绿皮书），实际上与劳埃德船级社在竞争。
然而，最终很明显，这两个组织不能独立地生存（所以在1834年合并）。
从那时起，劳埃德船级社，正像今天所知道的，真正地开始。
该船级社不受政府控制，由一委员会运行。
委员会由船运业的成员组成，代表行业的利益。
船级社每年出版一次船名录，记录了总吨位在100吨及以上的船舶的参数，不管该船是否入劳氏船级。
此外还按季节出版冠以全世界造船业务的统计结果。
6.3劳氏船级社业务船舶的发展，船级社处理其他事务变得很必要。
已经包括机器的检验。
船级社处理的其他问题包括特种船例如油船、液化气船、挖泥船、自卸驳船等。
泵、管路、防火、探火、和灭火设备、锅炉和其他压力容器，电气设备，货物冷藏装置，以及建造材料。
随着时间的推移和船舶技术的发展，船级社出版的规范，最初非常简单，而现在变得越来越复杂，甚至在近些年产生了重大进展。
例如1939年以前，船体构件尺可以通过船体的主尺度L、B和D来确定。
这些尺寸取决于2个数据L×(B+D)和L×D，到了1945年以后，这种方法就不足了，并且也不详细，可以说，那时已经出现很多修正，并对结构强度问题给予了更多的重要关注。
最初建立的规范很大程度上是凭借经验的。
结构尺寸实践中证明是足够的，这种确定尺寸的方法可以说目前仍然存在劳氏船级社搜集船舶意外事故数据，通过对这些数据分析二给出那些地方需要修改的建议。
这个经验过程当然也由船级社的研究工作所支持，还有就是与其它研究结构合作。
为了确得根据规范建造的船舶能满足最高标准要求，检验工作伴随着船的一生都在进行。
首先，钢船大约一年（间隔期）检验1次。
这些年度检验处理相对先得项目。
这些项目要求年度检验，也要求验证船两舷的干舷标志。
更深入的检验称为特别检验，在船舶生命周期内没4年检验1次，这些检验包括年度检验的项目是结构尺寸，因为腐蚀越来越严重。
例如，由于此原因而导致的板材厚度减小的地方，需要更换。
在这里不可能详细的列举这些特别检验的要求，它所在劳氏船级社钢质船入级与建造规范中有详细说明。
这里对劳氏船级社的起源于发展作了一个简要的概述，更详细的资料早Archer的论文中可以找到，推荐读者去研究规范和船名录，以增加在此讨论的读者内容。
劳氏船级社是最古老的船级社。
现在世界上其他的船级社的发展基本上也是类似的形式，这些船级社有BV（法国）DNV(挪威)、ABS(美国)、GR(德国劳氏)、RIV（意大利）和NKK(日本)。
这些船级社现在相互协商，在入级和发展、改进的结构标准方面的共同利益取得一致。
国际船级社协会（IACS）开展咨询活动。
尽管船级社的主要功能还是船级社，但是他们现在做的要比这些更多。
在特殊的结构布置方面给船东和建造者一些忠告，并且总是准备审查任何新的建议，最近一些年中他们还在改进结构设计于新的方面上发挥作用，在这些行动中，在致力于安全船舶设计改进船体结构中履行重要职责。
船级社业务以拓展到其它海上结构如钻井设备，有些船级社还在陆地结构中做了大量工作。
6.4 政府机构关于船舶安全的立法是船舶登记国政府的责任。
在英国这项工作最初由同业公会来执行，而现在由贸易部来做。
该部被授权制造一系列商船运输法，这些法规有100多年的历史。
贸易部雇佣一些检验员检查船舶，以核实这些船是根据其规范建造的，该部关注的事项有：载重线；吨位；船长及船员生活区；客船的水密分隔；就生设备；散粮运输；危险货物。
这些专题的一部分现在是国际规范所涵盖的内容，例如，载重线，吨位及客船相关的规范。
其中一部分将在后面详细讨论。
6.5 载重线将船舶装载限制在一定吃水下的问题到现在已经讨论了100年了。
在19世纪，劳氏船级社有一些简单的规范来限制吃水，但是还没有政府关注的强制规定。
劳氏规则要求船舶每英尺货舱深度允许有3英寸的干舷。
直到19世纪后1/4时期，这个通过了议会立法的问题才重视起来。
载重线限制于赛谬尔·普林索尔这个名字有关。
她是议会成员，提出了一项议案，对船舶装载吃水做出限制。
现在熟悉的在船上勘绘的标志称为普林索尔载重线，它的官方名称是“载重线标志”。
这里不去考虑载重线发展历史，但是很清楚水线以上的船舶体积应该有个最小值，主要分三个原因，从后面的章节中将变得明显。
这里声明，首先，最小干舷是当船舶在波浪中航行时能提供储备浮力，所以船舶在波浪中能浮起，它还得保护船舶在大量上浪时的浮力要求，于是为干货船制定。
第二，正如后将看到的，船舶在水面以上的部分越大，船的稳性范围也越大。
第三点是，船舶要求有储备浮力，因而在发生破损事故时能保持浮性，至少有足够的时间让船上人员撤离船舶。
尽管最小干舷问题实际上是个水动力问题，但规范中干舷计算还算是主要依据静水力考虑。
可能在将来随着规范的发展，在干弦考虑中会计入船舶在海中的水动力影响。
干舷从一个称为干舷甲板的甲板往下量取。
干舷甲板定义为暴露在空气中和海水中的最上层完整甲板，甲板上具有永久性的关闭措施，在甲板之下的舷侧安装有永久性水密的开口。
另外，比它位置低的甲板也可以认为是干舷甲板，只要它是永久性甲板且在首位方向和横向均为连续的。
目前载重线公约里基本干舷以两个表的形式给出，一是A类船，另一位是B类船，这些最小干弦取决于船长。
A类船是用于装载散装液货的船舶，并且货船之具有小的装有密封垫的开口。
对于这类船的进一步要求是船长超过150m的和设计有空舱的船舶，必须具备当这些空舱中的任何一个进水后能浮起；B类船是指非A类船。
这两类船的干舷在表6.1可以看到。
6.6吨位丈量近况关于吨位丈量在近年又有进一步的发展。
1969年，有国际政府间海事咨询组关于船舶吨位丈量的国际会议在伦敦召开。
会议结果由Wilson出版了一份报告。
该报告旨在简化已有的吨位规范，并将总吨位和净吨位计算量减小到公式计算，公式如下：（略）上述公式中的体积计算到板架的内表面，并包括附体体积与海水连通的体积不包括在内。
在新的吨位丈量系统中，以前版本的吨位标志废除了，尽管公式中含有吃水表明吨位随船舶所设计的吃水而变化，在新的吨位丈量规范中，包含了上述计算船舶吨位的规则。
在规范出版时（1973年），该规范还没有取代原有的规范。
但是，当有足够的成员在公约上签字时，各国政府就着手准备国内的规范（在英国是通过贸易部）。
新的丈量规范大大地简化了以前采用了很长时间的复杂规则。
然后也留下了争议；在这个过程中隐藏在吨位评估之后的基本概念却丢失了，至少不在明显了。
6.7其他吨位根据本章所述的规范而计算的船舶吨位现在已被国际航行船舶所接受，船舶吨位登记在吨位证书上。
然而，还有一些特殊的吨位，计算方法有点不同，登记在一个单独的证书上。
它们是船舶通过苏伊士运河和巴拿马运河的吨位证书。
前者现在没有什么用处，因为苏伊士运河已经关闭了若干年了，但是在过去通过苏伊士运河的费用是基于苏伊士运河吨位。
类似地，使用巴拿马运河的费用根据巴拿马运河吨位计算。
6.8客船用于运输旅客的船舶须满足非常严格的安全规范要求。
出于这个目的，客船定义载客超过12人的船舶，并颁发满足规范要求的客船证书。
现在，客船规范是在本世纪各种国际会议总结出的成果和说明。
尽管世界各海运因在1912年之前就有客船规范，但直到那年泰坦尼克号沉没世界上才对客船安全问题引起重视。
泰坦尼克号首航时撞上冰山使多个船舱破损最终沉没而损失很多生命。
在这次灾难之后，因为客船破损后的浮性问题成分立法者脑中的魔影，所以英国同业公会成立了一个“舱壁委员会”来核查客船的强度和舱壁的位置。
破损后进水的技术问题将在后讨论。
考虑到客船安全是国际范围上研究的主题，所以在泰坦尼克号海难之后，于1914年召开了一次国际会议。
但由于第一次世界大战的爆发而未能进一步讨论，尽管那次会议的成果在战争期间有出版，然而知道1929年，召开了另一次国际会议。
到了1932年一些主要海运国家在“国际海上人命安全公约”上签字。
因为公约已经声明与载重体和吨位相关联，所以由签约国履行，其内容体现在各国制定的法律中。
1932年的公约在1948年和1960年的会议上讨论，并根据实践经验做了一定的修订。
另一次会议大概将在1976年举行，预期在整个安全评价方面作出重大修改。
SOLAS公约不仅关心客船的水密分隔及破损条件下的相关安全问题，而且还关注其他安全方面问题，例如，探火、灭火和防火机器与电气装置，救生设备如救生艇及施放方法，无线电报和无线电换，航行安全，谷物与危险货物运输，以及与核动力船舶相关规则。