武汉大学博士考试12
武汉大学考博英语真题
武汉大学2015 年博士学位研究生外语综合水平考试试题一、阅读理解Justice in society must include both a fair trial to the accused and the selection of an appropriate punishment for those proven guilty. Because justice is regarded as one form. of equality, we find in its earlier expressions the idea of a punishment equal to the crime. Recorded in the Old Testament is the expression "an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." That is, the individual who has done wrong has committed an offence against society. To make up for his offence, society must get even. This can be done only by doing an equal injury to him. This conception of retributive justice is reflected in many parts of the legal documents and procedures of modern times. It is illustrated when we demand the death penalty for a person who has committed murder. This philosophy of punishment was supported by the German idealist Hegel. He believed that society owed it to the criminal to give a punishment equal to the crime he had committed. The criminal had by his own actions denied his true self and it is necessary to do something that will counteract this denial and restore the self that has been denied. To the murderer nothing less than giving up his own will pay his debt. The demand of the death penalty is a right the state owes the criminal and it should not deny him his due.Modern jurists have tried to replace retributive justice with the notion of corrective justice. The aim of the latter is not to abandon the concept of equality but to find a more adequate way to express it. It tries to preserve the idea of equal opportunity for each individual to realize the best that is in him. The criminal is regarded as being socially ill and in need of treatment that will enable him to become a normal member of society. Before a treatment can be administered, the cause of his antisocial behavior. must be found. If the cause can be removed, provisions must be made to have this done. Only those criminals who are incurable should be permanently separated front the rest of the society. This does not mean that criminals will escape punishment or be quickly returned to take up careers of crime. It means that justice is to heal the individual, not simply to get even with him. If severe punishments is the only adequate means for accompanying this, it should be administered. However, the individual should be given every opportunity to assume a normal place in society. His conviction of crime must not deprive him of the opportunity to make his way in the society of which he is a part.1. The best title for this selection is （）A. Fitting Punishment to the CrimeB. Approaches to Just PunishmentC. Improvement in Legal JusticeD. Attaining Justice in the Courts2. The passage implies that the basic difference between retributive justice and corrective jus tice is the （）.A. type of crime that was provenB. severity for the punishmentC. reason for the sentenceD. outcome of the trial3. The punishment that would be most inconsistent with the views of corrective justice woul d be （）.A. forced brain surgeryB. whippingC. solitary confinementD. the electric chair4. The Biblical expression "an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth ”was presented in order to （）.A. prove ，that equality demands just punishmentB. justify the need for punishment as a part of lawC. give moral backing to retributive justiceD. prove that man has long been interested in justice"In every known human society the male's needs for achievement can be recognized... In a great number of human societies men's sureness of their sex role is tied up with their right, or ability, to practice some activity that women are not allowed to practice. Their maleness in fact has to be underwritten by preventing women from entering some field or performing some feat."This is the conclusion of the anthropologist Margaret Mead about the way in which the roles of men and women in society should be distinguished.If talk and print are considered it would seem that the formal emancipation of women is far fr om complete. There is a flow of publications about the continuing domestic bondage of women and about the complicated system of defences which men have thrown up around their hitherto accepted advantages, taking sometimes the obvious form of exclusion from types of occupation and sociable groupings, and sometimes the more subtle form of automatic doubt of the seriousness of women's pretensions to the level of intellect and resolution that men, it is supposed, bring to the business of running the world.There are a good many objective pieces of evidence for the erosion of men's status. In the first place, there is the widespread postwar phenomenon of the woman Prime Minister, in India, Sri Lanka and Israel.Secondly, there is the very large increase in the number of women who work, especially married women and mothers of children. More diffusely there are the increasingly numerous convergences between male and female behaviour: the approximation to identical styles in dress and coiffure, the sharing of domestic tasks, and the admission of women to all sorts ofhitherto exclusively male leisure-time activities.Everyone carries round with him a fairly definite idea of the primitive or natural conditions o fhuman life. It is acquired more by the study of humorous cartoons than of archaeology, but that does not matter since it is not significant as theory but only as an expression of inwardly felt expectations of people's sense of what is fundamentally proper in the differentiation between the roles of the two sexes. In this rudimentary natural society men go out to hunt and fish and to fight off the tribe next door while women keep the fire going. Amorous initiative is firmly reserved to the man, who sets about courtship with a club.5. The phrase "men's sureness of their sex role" in the first paragraph suggests that they （）A. are confident in their ability to charm women.B. take the initiative in courtship.C. have a clear idea of what is considered "manly".D. tend to be more immoral than women are.6. The third paragraph （）A. generally agrees with the first paragraphB. has no connection with the first paragraphC. repeats the argument of the second paragraphD. contradicts the last paragraph7. The usual idea of the cave man in the last paragraph （）A. is based on the study of archaeologyB. illustrates how people expect men to behaveC. is dismissed by the author as an irrelevant jokeD. proves that the man, not woman, should be the wooer8. The opening quotation from Margaret Mead sums up a relationship between man and wo man which the author （）A. approves ofB. argues is naturalC. completely rejectsD. expects to go on changingFarmers in the developing world hate price fluctuations. It makes it hard to plan ahead. But most of them have little choice: they sell at the price the market sets. Farmers in Europe, the U.S. and Japan are luckier: they receive massive government subsidies in the form of guaranteed prices or direct handouts. Last month U.S. President Bush signed a new farm bill that gives American farmers $190 billion over the next 10 years, or $83 billion more than they had been scheduled to get, and pushes U.S. agricultural support close to crazy European levels. Bush said the step was necessary to "promote farmer independence and preserve the farm way of life for generations". It is also designed to help the Republican Party win control of the Senate in November's mid termelections.Agricultural production in most poor countries accounts for up to 50% of GDP, compared to only 3% in rich countries. But most farmers in poor countries grow just enough for themselves and their families. Those who try exporting to the West find their goods whacked with huge tariffs or competing against cheaper subsidized goods. In 1999 the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development concluded that for each dollar developing countries receive in aid they lose up to $14 just because of trade barriers imposed on the export of their manufactured goods. It's not as if the developing world wants any favours, says Gerald Ssendwula, Uganda's Minister of Finance. "What we want is for the rich countries to let us compete."Agriculture is one of the few areas in which the Third World can compete. Land and labour are cheap, and as farming methods develop, new technologies should improve output. This is no pie in the sky speculation. The biggest success in Kenya's economy over the past decade has been the boom in exports of cut flowers and vegetables to Europe. But that may all change in 2008, when Kenya will be slightly too rich to qualify for the "least developed country" status that allows African producers to avoid paying stiff European import duties on selected agricultural products. With trade barriers in place, the horticulture industry in Kenya will shrivel as quickly as a discarded rose. And while agriculture exports remain the great hope for poor countries, reducing trade barriers in other sectors also works: Americas African Growth and Opportunity Act, which cuts duties on exports of everything from handicrafts to shoes, has proved a boon to Africa's manufacturers. The lesson: the Third World can prosper if the rich world gives it a fair go.This is what makes Bush's decision to increase farm subsidies last month all the more depressing. Poor countries have long suspected that the rich world urges trade liberalization only so it can wangle its way into new markets. Such suspicions caused the Seattle trade talks to break down three years ago. But last November members of the World Trade Organization, meeting in Doha, Qatar, finally agreed to a new round of talks designed to open up global trade in agriculture and textiles. Rich countries assured poor countries, that their concerns were finally being addressed. Bush's handout last month makes a lie of America's commitment to those talks and his personal devotion to free trade.9. By comparison, farmers （）receive more government subsidies than others.?A. in the developing worldB. in JapanC. in EuropeD. in America?10.In addition to the economic considerations, there is a （）motive behind Bush 's signing of the new farm bill.?A. partisanB. socialC. financialD. cultural?11.The message the writer attempts to convey throughout the passage is that)?A. poor countries should be given equal opportunities in trade?B. “ thl e ast?developed country ”status benefits agricultural countries?C. poor countries should remove their suspicions about trade liberalization?D. farmers in poor countries should also receive the benefit of subsidies12.The writer 'a s ttitude towards new farm subsidies in the U.S. is （）A. favourableB. ambiguousC. criticalD. reservedRoger Rosenblatt 'bosok Black Fiction, in attempting to apply literary rather than sociopolitical criteria to its subject, successfully alters the approach taken by most previous studies. As Rosenblatt notes, criticism of Black writing has often served as a pretext for expounding on Black history. Addison Gayle 'rsecent work, for example, judges the value of Black fiction by overtly political standards, rating each work according to the notions of Black identity which it propounds.Although fiction assuredly springs from political circumstances, its authors react to those circumstances in ways other than ideological, and talking about novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideology circumvents much of the fictional enterprise. Rosenblatt nalysis ' s literary a discloses affinities and connections among works of Black fiction which solely political studies have overlooked or ignored.Writing acceptable criticism of Black fiction, however, presupposes giving satisfactory answers to a number of questions. First of all, is there a sufficient reason, other than the racial identity of the authors, to group together works by Black authors? Second, how does Black fiction make itself distinct from other modern fiction with which it is largely contemporaneous? Rosenblatt shows that Black fiction constitutes a distinct body of writing that has an identifiable, coherent literary tradition. Looking at novels written by Blacks over the last eighty years, he discovers recurring concerns and designs independent of chronology. These structures are thematic, and they spring, not surprisingly, from the central fact that the Black characters in these novels exist in a predominantly White culture, whether they try to conform to that culture or rebel against it.Black Fictio n does leave some aesthetic questions open. Rosenblatt 'thesmatic analysis permits considerable objectivity; he even explicitly states that it is not his intention to judge the merit of the various works yet his reluctance seems misplaced, especially since an attempt to appraise might have led to interesting results. For instance, some of the novels appear to be structurally diffuse. Is this a defect, or are the authors working out of, or trying to forge, a different kind of aesthetic? In addition, the styl e of some Black novels, like Jean Toomer ' s Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism; does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent themethat portrays the fate against which Black heroes are pitted, a theme usually conveyed by more naturalistic modes of expression?In spite of such omissions, what Rosenblatt does include in his discussion makes for an astute and worthwhile study. Black Fiction surveys a wide variety of novels, bringing to our attention in the process some fascinating and little- known works like James Weldon Johnson ' s Autobiographyof an Ex-Colored Man. Its argument is tightly constructed, and its forthright, lucid style exemplifies levelheaded and penetrating criticism.13 The author objects to criticism of Black fiction like that by Addison Gayle because it （）.A. emphasizes purely literary aspects of such fictionB. misinterprets the ideological content of such fictionC. misunderstands the notions of Black identity contained in such fictionD. substitutes political for literary criteria in evaluating such fiction14. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with （）.A. evaluating the soundness of a work of criticismB. comparing various critical approaches to "a subjectC. discussing the limitations of a particular kind of criticismD. summarizing the major points made in a work of criticism15. The author's discussion of Black Fiction can be best described as （）.A. pedantic and contentiousB. critical but admiringC. ironic and deprecatingD. argumentative but unfocused16. It can be inferred that the author would be LEAST likely to approve of which of the follo wing （）A. An analysis of the influence of political events on the personal ideology of Black writersB. A critical study that applies sociopolitical criteria to autobiographies by Black authorsC. A literary study of Black poetry that appraises the merits of poems according to the political acc eptability of their themesD. An examination of the growth of a distinct Black literary tradition within the context of Black h istory三、汉译英得病以前，我受父母宠爱，在家中横行霸道。
武汉大学博士英语试题
武汉大学2012Part I Documental Analysis 15%Attention: Analyze the following paragraph according to the requirements of perspective, method and skill, and questions.But as the Grand Narrative of Progress came to dominate other values and views, it cast a malignant shadow. The invention of the automobile was the quintessence of progress, but it left overcrowded highways, air pollution, and deforestation in its wake. Fertilizers increased crop production but also increased the growth of algae in lakes and canals. The discovery of powerful insecticides--first greeted with enthusiasm and a Nobel Prize--was followed by the unintentional poisoning of fish, birds, and animals. Nuclear power plants increased available energy but led to storage problems, life-threatening contamination, and at least one accident with worldwide repercussions. The waste products of technological living began to choke great cities and foul once-pristine lands. Although Western housing, clothing, and religion were brought to aboriginal people, and the rate of infectious disease went down, the rate of alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, and spouse and child abuse went up.Part II Article Analysis 15%Attention:Fill the chart according to the requirements based on your understanding of the following article.1. We live in times that are harsh but exciting, where everyone agrees that we are moving to a new level of civilization. Principles, values, ways of life, will no longer be the same; but as yet we are not really ready for these changes; we are faced with inventing the future and also bringing it into operation, progressively; we make experiments and we frequently make mistakes; but we are beginning to know what we want when we talk of justice, freedom and democracy. The scientific and technological community is directly involved in the questions that arise. Following those of our generation, the demands of your generation will continue until these aims have been at least partially achieved.2. The closeness of scientific problems to political problems is such that scientific workers are not, far from it, protected from socio-economic vicissitudes. So much so that they sometimes express the same needs as all other workers and join them in this context; but they also call for specific measures. Like everyone else we need freedom but we especially need freedom of expression for our scientific and technological ideas; we need this even if it is only to put them forward for criticism. We don't ask for any particular privilege but we would like the efforts made to be evaluated at their actual worth, in the interests of society.3. If our federation is so active in working for a statement of the rights and responsibilities of scientific workers, it is because we wish to resolve this problem ina way appropriate to most countries.4. So you will certainly play an important part in society, even if this is not always readily recognized by society, because scientific and technological knowledge and expertise are the context in which future economic, social and political changes will take place. Whatever you do, you cannot ignore them and, whatever is said, society will not be able to ignore you. You will also have a decisive part to play, and perhaps an even more difficult one, in the scientific and technological community itself. The whole extension of this community and its interaction with society as a whole leads scientific workers to get involved in all political debates, crises and decisions. You will have to note the essential demands of science as such; it is not simply a matter of protecting society from unacceptable consequences; one must also protect scientific activity from political and financial meddling.5. It is vital to safeguard the basic honesty of science, the honesty that is basic to its method. Whenever, in the history of science, this honesty has been set aside, the consequences have been serious. I am not speaking merely of the suicide or disgrace of an individual but of the social and economic damage arising from such lapses. There are worse possibilities: at a time when problems are increasingly complex, with ever widening political implications, we need science to be technically dependable and socially credible. In a world of turbulence, science's saving grace is not simply material but lies in its rationality.Part III Writing 20%Attention: Write an essay on the following topic with substantial evidence and good reasoning (e.g. in a linear way) in more than 300 words.How to Write English Well as a PhD Candidate---- On My Class Experience。
武汉大学博士培养方案
企业管理专业攻读博士学位研究生培养方案一、培养目标1．要求博士生较好地掌握马列主义、毛泽东思想和邓小平理论，拥护党的基本路线，树立正确的世界观、人生观和价值观、遵纪守法，具有较强的事业心和责任感，具有良好的道德品质和学术修养、愿为人类、民族、国家和人民服务。
2．要求博士生掌握坚实宽广的基础理论和系统高深的专业知识。
具体要求具有深厚的经济学、管理学、市场营销理论、企业财务理论及熟练掌握现代管理手段和方法，了解本学科专业的前沿动态，具有独立从事科学研究工作的能力，能够从事本领域中的研究、教学和管理工作的高级专门人才。
3．要求掌握一门外语，能够熟练地运用外语阅读本专业的文献资料，并具有一定写作能力和进行国际学术交流的能力。
4．要求博士生身心健康、德、智、体全面发展。
二、研究方向本专业暂设五个方向。
1．市场营销管理研究微观营销与宏观营销理论、应用及其发展，以及探讨现代营销手段与方法。
2．企业经营管理研究企业战略管理理论和国际企业经营管理理论及其发展，以及探讨企业现代管理手段和方法。
3．企业财务管理研究企业财务管理理论及其发展，尤其研究现代企业制度下的财务理论和实践，以及探究现代财务管理手段和方法。
4．金融管理研究金融理论与金融管理理论及其发展，以及探讨现代金融管理手段和方法。
5．企业发展环境研究研究企业外部环境变化对企业发展的影响，以及企业管理决策与外部环境的适应性理论与方法。
230三、学习年限本专业全日制博士研究生的学习年限一般为三年。
非全日制博士研究生的学习年限最长不超过六年。
四、课程设置及学分分配五、综合考试一般在第四学期举行综合考试。
考试目的是检验博士生知识面是否博与精深。
考试前应组织考试委员会，该委员会由包括导师在内的五名专家组成，并报院系和学校学位评定委员会批准。
综合考试一般考二至三门课程，主要采用口试方法。
综合考试不合格不能进入论文写作阶段。
六、学位论文第三学期末以前，在导师指导下提出博士学位论文题目和撰写计划，并向博士生指导小组作开题报告，经讨论认可后方能进入专题研究和论文写作工作。
计算机博士考核试题及答案
计算机博士考核试题及答案考核试题：1. 请解释什么是计算机网络，并列举其主要组成部分。
2. 请阐述数据库管理系统的基本原理和功能。
3. 解释什么是多线程和并发，并提供适用的例子。
4. 请解释什么是数据挖掘，并列举常用的数据挖掘算法。
5. 请解释什么是人工智能，并提供应用场景。
答案：1. 计算机网络是指在不同地理位置上的计算机和设备通过通信线路连接在一起，以实现数据和资源的共享。
主要组成部分包括计算机、通信链路、网络协议、网络设备和应用软件等。
2. 数据库管理系统（DBMS）是一种用于管理和组织数据的软件系统。
其基本原理是使用结构化方式存储数据，并提供了数据的查询、插入、更新和删除等功能。
DBMS还负责控制数据的一致性和安全性，以及提供数据备份和恢复等功能。
3. 多线程是指在一个程序中同时运行多个线程，每个线程执行相对独立的任务。
并发指的是在同一时间段内，系统能够处理多个任务。
例如，一个下载器程序可以使用多线程实现同时下载多个文件，这样可以提高下载效率。
4. 数据挖掘是从大量的数据中提取有用的信息和模式的过程。
常用的数据挖掘算法包括聚类分析、分类分析、关联规则挖掘和异常检测等。
聚类分析用于将数据划分为不同的簇群；分类分析用于将数据分为不同的类别；关联规则挖掘用于发现数据之间的关联关系；异常检测用于检测和识别异常数据。
5. 人工智能是模拟人类智能的一种技术与方法，其目标是使计算机具备理解、学习和决策等能力。
人工智能在各个领域都有广泛的应用，例如自动驾驶、语音识别和机器翻译等。
武汉大学电气与自动化学院2020年博士研究生考核结果及拟录取结果-含硕博连读
报名号
1 2020420100422 2 2020420102419 3 2020420100225 4 2020420100251 5 2020420101652 6 2020420105434 7 2020420104579 8 2020420108712 9 2020420106270 10 2020420101439 11 2020420108261 12 2020420105425 13 2020420102258 14 2020420106641 15 2020420102888 16 2020420101140 17 2020420102702 18 2020420106481 19 2020420105711 20 2020420104910 21 2020420106797 22 2020420100576 23 2020420101985 24 2020420100343 25 2020420101628
武汉大学电气与自动化学院2020年博士综合考核成绩及结果公示
姓名
硕士毕业学 拟录取专 拟录取专业名
校
业代码
称
英语口语
王华请 郑州大学 80800 电气工程
87.17
何松 墨尔本大学 80800 电气工程
90.50
李根 中国科学院大学 80800 电气工程
86.50
谌立坤 武汉大学 80800 电气工程
是
/
非定向就业 全日制 硕博连读
是
/
非定向就业 全日制 硕博连读
是
/
非定向就业 全日制 硕博连读
是
54 2020420107494 王灿
武汉大学 80800 电气工程
/
/
/
武汉大学博士生招生规定
武汉大学招收攻读博士学位研究生管理规定第一章总则第一条为加强招收攻读博士学位研究生（以下简称博士生）工作的管理，保证博士生的入学质量和招生工作的顺利进行，特制定本规定。
第二条招收博士生坚持德智体全面衡量、择优录取、保证质量、宁缺毋滥和按需招生的原则。
第三条招生对象主要为应届硕士毕业生、已获硕士学位人员以及具有与硕士毕业生同等学力的人员等。
第四条博士生按培养经费来源分为国家财政拨款培养以及用人单位委托培养和自筹经费培养等，按学习方式分为全日制博士生和非全日制博士生两种。
委托培养博士生的培养经费由用人单位提供，毕业后按委托培养合同就业。
自筹经费博士生的培养经费来源于导师的科研经费，或向社会多种渠道筹措，学生毕业后按自筹经费培养合同就业。
第五条博士生试题在开考前，属机密级材料；考生答卷在成绩公布前，属秘密级材料。
第二章管理职责第六条研究生院主要职责（一）执行教育部和湖北省关于博士生招生工作的方针、政策、规定和办法，并结合本校实际情况，制订博士生招生实施细则；（二）根据国家核定的招生规模和我校培养单位上报的招生计划，制定各学科、专业的博士生招生方案和复试基本要求；（三）编制《武汉大学博士生招生专业目录》；（四）组织考生报名，审查考生报考资格；（五）组织命题、考试、评卷、登分、体检和录取工作；（六）复查新生的思想政治、业务和身体健康状况；（七）开展招生宣传、咨询和研究工作，培训招生工作人员，依法维护招生工作人员和考生的合法权益，调查处理招生工作中发生的重大问题；（八）上报录取信息库，核发“录取通知书”。
第七条培养单位主要职责（一）拟订本单位博士生招生计划和招生专业目录；（二）接收、审查考生报考材料；（三）培训涉考教师，组织专业课的命题、评卷和复试工作；（四）协助做好试卷清理、监考、政审等工作；（五）拟定初录名单；（六）接受考生申诉，负责对未录取考生做必要的解释工作；（七）开展招生宣传和咨询工作；（八）上报由主管领导签字并加盖单位公章的招生材料。
武汉大学攻读博士学位研究生入学考试英语试题
Earth?
A) The moon once smashed into the Earth too. B) The moon was battered earlier than the Earth. C) The moon, as a ciose neighbor. is easier to observ-e. l)) The moon's surface is heaviiy cratereei as the Earth's.
Eventually, in 2003, Manchester asked his friend Paul Reid to complete the trilogy. Now, nearly a decade later, Reid has published The Last Lion, the final piece of this monumental undertaking. Reid starts when Churchill was appointed prime minister in May 1940 and follows him through his death in 1965. While most of this volume is appropriately devoted to World War II, it also includes the vast expansion of the British welfare state following the war, the start of the Cold War and the enormous dangers it
武汉大学教育科学研究院2020年度博士综合考核拟录取名单
7 谢贵兰 104860190004527
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8 童大振 104860190001471
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全日制 普通招考 教育经济与管理
5 白雪 104860190004640
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全日制 普通招考 教育经济与管理
6 向松柏 104860190006825
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//Leabharlann 教育科学研究院2020年度博士生综合考核拟录取名单公示
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1 王祖林 104860190007168
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82.33 85.50 74.00
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81.10
武汉大学博士英语结课考试
大纲文章分析答案1Most mainstream scientists agree that the burning of fossil fuels(coal,natural gas,and petroleum that is known as oil or crude oil)and other industrial activities have led to a buildup of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.They also agree tha t the earth’s surface has warmed during the last century and that further warming of several degrees Celsius is likely in the next century.(background)This broad scientific consensus(广泛达成的共识)has played an important role in convincing many national governments that immediate action is necessary to limit global greenhouse gas emission.(thesis)2Developing countries,however,have portrayed themselves as victimized by the wealthier industrialized nations(topic sentence).On one hand,these countries believe they have the most to lose from continued global warming.1Because much of the developing world occupies warmer regions，where many species of crops and domesticated animals live at the upper limit of their natural temperature tolerance,higher could lead to widespread livestock declines and crop failures.Moreover,unlike the industrialized world,most developing nations lack the capital and infrastructure to develop new varieties of heat-tolerant crops and animals,build flood control systems,and deploy disaster relief when needed.3On the other hand,2global emission reduction targets also hurt developing countries because such reduction interfere with their plans for economic development through inexpensive,carbon-based energy sources.Indeed,many representatives of developing countries seeglobal warming advocates as part of a conspiracy to maintain the economic advantage of industrialized nations at the expense of poorer nations.3Thus,developing countries have argued that they be exempt from emission reduction until their economies approached the strength of those in developed nation.4Carbon-cycle calculations,however,suggest that allowing developing countries to delay by decades their participation in emission reduction agreements would commit the world to very large increases in levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.The carbon cycle refers to the natural process through which carbon dioxide injected into the atmosphere is slowly removed by photosynthesis in plants and absorption in the oceans.These processes take about a century to complete.V arious carbon-cycle models have shown that if fossil fuels are used to power industrial growth in developing countries,then their carbon dioxide emissions will soon outpace even those of the currently industrialized countries.These computer models strongly suggest that emission reductions must be achieved everywhere,presumably through a Kyoto or post-Kyoto negotiated protocol.5Global environmental collapse is not inevitable.But the developed world must work with the developing worl d to ensure that new industrialized economies do not add to the world’s environmental problems.Politicians must think of sustainable development rather than economic expansion.Conservation strategies have to become more widely accepted,and people must learn that energy use can be dramatically diminished without sacrificing comfort.In short, with the technology that currently exists,the years of global environmental mistreatment can begin to be reversed.Structure(linear pattern of thinking)Introduction:para1Argumentation；mainstream scientists’opinionThesis:scientific consensus(immediate action)Plan of development:limit gas emissionBody:para 2,3,4(response to the action)On one hand,developing countries fall victims to global warming and emission reduction targets On the other hand,the targets hinder its developmentScientific study shows both should participate inConclusion:last paraRestatement of thesis:concerted effort一致的努力Measures：politicians，government action and people’s awarenes s-sustainable development,conservation strategies and people’s knowledgeProspect:global environmental mistreatment can be reversedAspect(五个司机直身子子)from material to spiritual aspect从物质到精神from individual to social aspect从个体到社会from idea/mentality to behavior从思想到行为from technology to society=from technological to social aspect从技术到社会from direct to indirect aspect从直接到间接from physical to psychological aspect从身体到心理from nature to society=from physical environment to economic and social structure从自然到社会/从地理环境到社会经济结构Skillby statistics统计by example例证by statement阐述by quotation引用method（主时空对缘分亲吻过对手滴）topical ordertime order=chronological order时间顺序space order=spatial order空间顺序antithesis对偶、排比causeand effect=causal order原因和结果classification分类hierarchical structure（from least to most）由轻到重problem and solution问题和答案process and result 过程和结果comparison and contrast对比means and ends手段和目的progression递进logical relationship(from paragraph level)(what,why,how)logical relationship between topic sentence （what）and supporting sentences（why and how）in the form of what-why-how，what-how-why，what-why，what-how.cause and effect =why and howmeans and ends=process and result=how手段和目的，过程和结果topic idea and reason=what and whyproblem and solution=what and howexample=how美国心理学家马斯洛发表了《人类动机的理论》一书。
2015年武汉大学考博英语考试真题
2015年武汉大学考博英语考试真题一、阅读理解Justice in society must include both a fair trial to the accused and the selection of an appropriate punishment for those proven guilty. Because justice is regarded as one form. of equality, we find in its earlier expressions the idea of a punishment equal to the crime. Recorded in the Old Testament is the expression "an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." That is, the individual who has done wrong has committed an offence against society. To make up for his offence, society must get even. This can be done only by doing an equal injury to him. This conception of retributive justice is reflected in many parts of the legal documents and procedures of modern times. It is illustrated when we demand the death penalty for a person who has committed murder. This philosophy of punishment was supported by the German idealist Hegel. He believed that society owed it to the criminal to give a punishment equal to the crime he had committed. The criminal had by his own actions denied his true self and it is necessary to do something that will counteract this denial and restore the self that has been denied. To the murderer nothing less than giving up his own will pay his debt. The demand of the death penalty is a right the state owes the criminal and it should not deny him his due.Modern jurists have tried to replace retributive justice with the notion of corrective justice. The aim of the latter is not to abandon the concept of equality but to find a more adequate way to express it. It tries to preserve the idea of equal opportunity for each individual to realize the best that is in him. The criminal is regarded as being socially ill and in need of treatment that will enable him to become a normal member of society. Before a treatment can be administered, the cause of his antisocial behavior. must be found. If the cause can be removed, provisions must be made to have this done. Only those criminals who are incurable should be permanently separated front the rest of the society. This does not mean that criminals will escape punishment or be quickly returned to take up careers of crime. It means that justice is to heal the individual, not simply to get even with him. If severe punishments is the only adequate means for accompanying this, it should be administered. However, the individual should be given every opportunity to assume a normal place in society. His conviction of crime must not deprive him of the opportunity to make his way in the society of which he is a part.1. The best title for this selection is （）A. Fitting Punishment to the CrimeB. Approaches to Just PunishmentC. Improvement in Legal JusticeD. Attaining Justice in the Courts2.The passage implies that the basic difference between retributive justice and corrective justice is the （）.A. type of crime that was provenB. severity for the punishmentC. reason for the sentenceD. outcome of the trial3. The punishment that would be most inconsistent with the views of corrective justice would be（）.A. forced brain surgeryB. whippingC. solitary confinementD. the electric chair4. The Biblical expression "an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth”was presented in order to （）.A. prove，that equality demands just punishmentB. justify the need for punishment as a part of lawC. give moral backing to retributive justiceD. prove that man has long been interested in justice"In every known human society the male's needs for achievement ca n be recognized... In agreat number of human societies men's sureness of their sex role is tied up with their right, orability, to practice some activity that women are not allowed to pra ctice. Their maleness in facthas to be underwritten by preventing women from entering some field or performing some feat."This is the conclusion of the anthropologist Margaret Mead about the way in which the rolesof men and women in society should be distinguished.If talk and print are considered it would seem that the formal emancipation of women is far fromcomplete. There is a flow of publications about the continuing domest ic bondage of womenand about the complicated system of defences which men have thrown u p around theirhitherto accepted advantages, taking sometimes the obvious form of exc lusion from types ofoccupation and sociable groupings, and sometimes the more subtle formof automatic doubtof the seriousness of women's pretensions to the level of intellect and resolution that men, itis supposed, bring to the business of running the world.There are a good many objective pieces of evidence for the erosi on of men's status. In thefirst place, there is the widespread postwar phenomenon of the woman Prime Minister, in India, Sri Lanka and Israel.Secondly, there is the very large increase in the number of wome n who work, especially married women and mothers of children. More diffusely there are the increasin gly numerousconvergences between male and female behaviour: the approximation to i dentical styles indress and coiffure, the sharing of domestic tasks, and the admissionof women to all sorts ofhitherto exclusively male leisure-time activities.Everyone carries round with him a fairly definite idea of the pr imitive or natural conditions ofhuman life. It is acquired more by the study of humorous cartoons t han of archaeology, butthat does not matter since it is not significant as theory but only as an expression of inwardlyfelt expectations of people's sense of what is fundamentally proper i n the differentiationbetween the roles of the two sexes. In this rudimentary natural soci ety men go out to huntand fish and to fight off the tribe next door while women keep the fire going. Amorousinitiative is firmly reserved to the man, who sets about courtship w ith a club.5. The phrase "men's sureness of their sex role" in the first parag raph suggests that they （）A. are confident in their ability to charm women.B. take the initiative in courtship.C. have a clear idea of what is considered "manly".D. tend to be more immoral than women are.6. The third paragraph （）A. generally agrees with the first paragraphB. has no connection with the first paragraphC. repeats the argument of the second paragraphD. contradicts the last paragraph7. The usual idea of the cave man in the last paragraph（）A. is based on the study of archaeologyB. illustrates how people expect men to behaveC. is dismissed by the author as an irrelevant jokeD. proves that the man, not woman, should be the wooer8. The opening quotation from Margaret Mead sums up a relationship b etween man and woman which the author（）A. approves ofB. argues is naturalC. completely rejectsD. expects to go on changingFarmers in the developing world hate price fluctuations. It makes it hard to plan ahead. But most of them have little choice: they sell at the price the market sets. Farmers in Europe, the U.S. and Japan are luckier: they receive massive government subsidies in the form of guaranteed prices or direct handouts. Last month U.S. President Bush signed a new farm bill that gives American farmers $190 billion over the next 10 years, or $83 billion more than they had been scheduled to get, and pushes U.S. agricultural support close to crazy European levels. Bush said the step was necessary to "promote farmer independence and preserve the farm way of life for generations". It is also designed to help the Republican Party win control of the Senate in November's mid term elections.Agricultural production in most poor countries accounts for up to 50% of GDP, compared to only 3% in rich countries. But most farmers in poor countries grow just enough for themselves and their families. Those who try exporting to the West find their goods whacked with huge tariffs or competing against cheaper subsidized goods. In 1999 the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development concluded that for each dollar developing countries receive in aid they lose up to $14 just because of trade barriers imposed on the export of their manufactured goods. It's not as if the developing world wants any favours, says Gerald Ssendwula, Uganda's Minister of Finance. "What we want is for the rich countries to let us compete."Agriculture is one of the few areas in which the Third World can compete. Land and labour are cheap, and as farming methods develop, new technologies should improve output. This is no pie in the sky speculation. The biggest success in Kenya's economy over the past decade has been the boom in exports of cut flowers and vegetables to Europe. But that may all change in 2008, when Kenya will be slightly too rich toqualify for the "least developed country" status that allows African producers to avoid paying stiff European import duties on selected agricultural products. With trade barriers in place, the horticulture industry in Kenya will shrivel as quickly as a discarded rose. And while agriculture exports remain the great hope for poor countries, reducing trade barriers in other sectors also works: Americas African Growth and Opportunity Act, which cuts duties on exports of everything from handicrafts to shoes, has proved a boon to Africa's manufacturers. The lesson: the Third World can prosper if the rich world gives it a fair go.This is what makes Bush's decision to increase farm subsidies last month all the more depressing. Poor countries have long suspected that the rich world urges trade liberalization only so it can wangle its way into new markets. Such suspicions caused the Seattle trade talks to break down three years ago. But last November members of the World Trade Organization, meeting in Doha, Qatar, finally agreed to a new round of talks designed to open up global trade in agriculture and textiles. Rich countries assured poor countries, that their concerns were finally being addressed. Bush's handout last month makes a lie of America's commitment to those talks and his personal devotion to free trade.9.By comparison, farmers （）receive more government subsidies than others.?A.in the developing worldB.in JapanC.in EuropeD.in America?10.In addition to the economic considerations, there is a （）moti ve behind Bush’s signing of the new farm bill.?A.partisanB.socialC.financialD.cultural?11.The message the writer attempts to convey throughout the passage i s that （）?A.poor countries should be given equal opportunities in trade?B.“the least?developed country”status benefits agricultural countries?C.poor countries should remove their suspicions about trade liberalizat ion?D.farmers in poor countries should also receive the benefit of subsid ies12.The writer’s attitude towards new farm subsidies in the U.S. is （）?A.favourableB.ambiguousC.criticalD.reservedRoger Rosenblatt’s book Black Fiction, in attempting to apply literary rather than sociopolitical criteria to its subject, successfully alters the approach taken by most previous studies. As Rosenblatt notes, criticism of Black writing has often served as a pretext for expounding on Black history. Addison Gayle’s recent work, for example, judges the value of Black fiction by overtly political standards, rating each work according to the notions of Black identity which it propounds.Although fiction assuredly springs from political circumstances, its authors react to those circumstances in ways other than ideological, and talking about novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideology circumvents much of the fictional enterprise. Rosenblatt’s literary analysis discloses affinities and connections among works of Black fiction which solely political studies have overlooked or ignored.Writing acceptable criticism of Black fiction, however, presupposes giving satisfactory answers to a number of questions. First of all, is there a sufficient reason, other than the racial identity of the authors, to group together works by Black authors? Second, how does Black fiction make itself distinct from other modern fiction with which it is largely contemporaneous? Rosenblatt shows that Black fiction constitutes a distinct body of writing that has an identifiable, coherent literary tradition. Looking at novels written by Blacks over the last eighty years, he discovers recurring concerns and designs independent of chronology. These structures are thematic, and they spring, not surprisingly, from the central fact that the Black characters in these novels exist in a predominantly White culture, whether they try to conform to that culture or rebel against it.Black Fiction does leave some aesthetic questions open. Rosenblatt’s thematic analysis permits considerable objectivity; he even explicitly states that it is not his intention to judge the merit of the various works yet his reluctance seems misplaced, especially since an attempt to appraise might have led to interesting results. For instance, some of the novels appear to be structurally diffuse. Is this a defect, or are the authors working out of, or trying to forge, a different kind of aesthetic? In addition, the style of some Black novels, like Jean Toomer’s Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism; does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portrays the fate against which Black heroes are pitted, a theme usually conveyed by more naturalistic modes of expression?In spite of such omissions, what Rosenblatt does include in his discussion makes for an astute and worthwhile study. Black Fiction surveys a wide variety of novels,bringing to our attention in the process some fascinating and little-known works like James Weldon Johnson’s Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. Its argument is tightly constructed, and its forthright, lucid style exemplifies levelheaded and penetrating criticism.13 The author objects to criticism of Black fiction like that by Ad dison Gayle because it（）.A. emphasizes purely literary aspects of such fictionB. misinterprets the ideological content of such fictionC. misunderstands the notions of Black identity contained in such fic tionD. substitutes political for literary criteria in evaluating such fict ion14. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with （）.A. evaluating the soundness of a work of criticismB. comparing various critical approaches to "a subjectC. discussing the limitations of a particular kind of criticismD. summarizing the major points made in a work of criticism15. The author's discussion of Black Fiction can be best described a s （）.A. pedantic and contentiousB. critical but admiringC. ironic and deprecatingD. argumentative but unfocused16. It can be inferred that the author would be LEAST likely to ap prove of which of the following （）A. An analysis of the influence of political events on the personal ideology of Black writersB. A critical study that applies sociopolitical criteria to autobiogra phies by Black authorsC. A literary study of Black poetry that appraises the merits of po ems according to the political acceptability of their themesD. An examination of the growth of a distinct Black literary traditi on within the context of Black history二、汉译英得病以前，我受父母宠爱，在家中横行霸道。
武汉大学——比较文学与世界文学专题2001年博士研究生入学考试试题
武汉大学——比较文学与世界文学专题2001年博士研究生入学考试试题一。
20分。
AB任选A。
莎士比亚的《麦克白》是怎样将主人公的内在心理感受和精神状态“外化”为舞台形象的？表现主义文学（如奥尼尔的《琼斯皇》）又是如何系统的运用这类“外化”手法的？B。
以你熟悉的世界文学作品为例，谈谈你对用喜剧性情节表达悲剧性内涵这一艺术手法的见解。
（说明：不限于戏剧，也可以举小说等为例。
）二。
30分。
在你所涉猎的世界文学作品中，你对哪一部印象最深？描述你阅读它事的初始感受，然后从理论上对你的这些感受进行反思，剖析和评价。
三。
20分。
CD任选C。
结合具体的作家和作品，论述中西诗歌的区别性基本特征。
D。
从T。
S。
艾略特在《批评的功能》中所阐述的文学“总体论”出发，结合其他西方学者的相关理论，论述民族文学，总体文学与比较文学的相互关系。
四。
30分。
古希腊的柏拉图在《伊安篇》中提出了“迷狂说”。
中国宋代诗学家严羽在《沧浪诗话。
诗辨》中提出了“妙悟说”。
结合他们的具体论述，以“迷狂说与妙悟说”为题，从学说产生的时代与社会环境，诗任的创作过程，艺术心理的运动规律等层面进行比较和辨析一，选择10个。
魏晋南北朝之前的较多（《诗经》成书方式、三曹、陆机文风、西晋文风等各一个），宋人词集题一个，元杂剧一个，“前四史”一个……二，词语解释1 游仙诗2 苏门四学士3 台阁体4 南洪北孔5 西曲6 北地三才7 《录鬼簿》还有一个，却暂时记不起了。
三，简答1 《七发》在赋史的影响及地位2 《桃花扇》是否优秀历史剧？为什么？3 李煜词的艺术特点四，论述（3选2）National English Admission Test for Medical Doctoral StudentsPAPER ONEPart I ListeningSection A ºDirections: In this section of the test, you will hear 15 short conversations between two speakers.At the end of each conversation, a question will be asked about what was said. The conversations a nd questions will be read only once. You must listen carefully and choose the right answer from th e four choices marked A, B, C and D. Mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET.For Example: A B D1. A. John is good at painting.B. John’s sister’s son is good at painting.C. The woman suggest the man take up painting.D. The woman is making fun of the man.2. A. He has a fried who majored in economics.B. He hasn’t taken mo re than one economics course.C. He’s been learning a lot this year, too.D. He couldn’t make any sense out of his course.3. A. Check the price of calculators. B. Finish his statistics homework.C. Look for a job in mathematics.D. Use a smaller calculator.4. A. Because the police stopped him. B. Because the driver charged too much.C. Because he had been robbed.D. For no good reason.5. A. Take some more vegetables. B. Pass the woman the meat.C. Avoid taking any more food.D. Help to prepare the potatoes.6. A. In her office. B. In the library.C. In the laboratory.D. In the conference room.7. A. Professor Miller offered more help than he had expected.B. Professor Miller will not discuss the topic with him.C. He asked Professor Miller for some books.D. Professor Miller gave him more books than he had requested.8. A. She thinks the explanations are difficult.B. The explanations will be added in a later edition.C. She thinks the book should include more information.D. The book includes an explanation of all the answers.9. A. He probably supports nuclear power plants.B. He probably opposes nuclear power plants.C. He probably no opinion on this topic.D. He probably tries to understand both sides.10. A. Use every minute of their time wisely.B. Live there until the final time.C. Finish their assignments early if possible.D. Save the lab samples.11. A. She is dependable. B. She is hard-working.C. She is kind.D. She is helpful.12. A. It made her ill.B. She believes the refreshments could have been better.C. She feels regret about the lack of success.D. She felt that her clothes were inappropriate.13. A. She likes to get E-mails.B. She hasn’t seen her friends just lately.C. She lives in the same house with the man and woman are talking.D. She is their best friend.14. A. He doesn’t need a green pen.B. He never bought a green pen.C. He never returned the woman’s green pen to her.D. He doesn’t have a green pen with him.15. A. Bill will buy the car as soon as he gets the money.B. Bill’s friend is buying the car from him.C. Bill can’t afford to buy a new car.D. Bill has already made the down payment on the car.Section B ºDirections: In this section of the test, you will hear three talks. After each talk, there are fiv e questions. The talks and questions will be read only once. You must listen carefully and choose the right answer from the four choices marked A, B, C and D. Mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET.For Example: A B DTalk One16. A. A nutritionist. B. A professor.C. A dining hall manager.D. A doctor.17. A. A note for his doctor. B. A dining hall pass.C. A list of restaurants.D. A food chart.18. A. He’s an athlete. B. He has high blood pressure.C. He has a high cholesterol level.D. He’s overweight.19. A. In the hospital cafeteria. B. In his room.C. In restaurants.D. In the dining hall.20. A. Angry. B. Hungry.C. Relieved.D. Tired.Talk Two21. A. Fire prevention. B. Pest control.C. House construction.D. Toxic chemicals.22. A. It’s cheaper. B. It’s safer.C. It’s quicker.D. It’s readily available.23. A. To keep the heat inside.B. To prevent insects from escaping.C. To reduce the risk of fire.D. To keep the wood dry.24. A. To show that the treatment will not cause fire.B. To emphasize the dangers of the old method.C. To explain a step in the new technique.D. To illustrate a compromise between old and new systems.25. A. Above 125 degrees Centigrade. B. About 50 degrees Centigrade.C. Around 65 degrees Centigrade.D. At 80 degrees Centigrade.Talk Three26. A. Read and commented on the proposed topics.B. Had conferences with some students.C. Returned the topic papers to her students.D. Realized their research papers are due in six weeks.27. A. A recent textbook assignment. B. Requirements for the final examination.C. Choosing research topics.D. Preparing an outline for a paper.28. A. Immediately. B. The following week.C. In two weeks.D. At the end of the semester.29. A. To present final papers. B. To give a model of outline style.C. To discuss the preliminary outline.D. To discuss final grades.30. A. With a thesis statement. B. With a list of references.C. With a summary of the conference.D. With the student’s name.Part II Vocabulary (10%)Section ADirections: In this section all the sentences are incomplete. Four words or phrases, marked A, B, C and D, are given beneath each of them. You are to choose one word or phrase that best completes the sentence. Then, mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET.31.The fact is, doctor, I just can't _____ this dreadful cough.A. get out ofB. get rid ofC. get down toD. get round to32. After eight hours at the wheel of the lorry, the driver was beginning to feel the _______.A. nervousnessB. tensionC. strainD. extension33. The Chinese government is determined to ____ the established policy of developing agriculture.A. go afterB. go byC. go aheadD. go on34. The Manager has asked to see the sales _____ resulting from our recent advertising campaign.A. numbersB. figuresC. amountsD. quantities35. The local medical officer reported a serious _____ of food-poisoning.A. stateB. incidentC. outbreakD. event36. They didn’t know how to put in a central-heating system, but they managed it by trial and ___ __.A. blunderB. slipC. errorD. mistake37.I was going to say something about the matter; but _____ I gave it up.A. on second thoughtsB. on the wholeC. at the thought ofD. on second thought38. Even if it is a cold day, I think cool water looks _______.A. invitingB. distastefulC. disgustingD. repulsive39. The man’s face was _______ from his infected tooth despite his visit to the dentist.A. bulgingB. swollenC. dilatedD. expanded40. Similar ethical questions ______ as advances are made in such areas as organ transplant andfetal in utero surgery.A. appealB. ariseC. arouseD. abuseSection BDirections: Each of the following sentences has a word or phrase underlined. There are four other words or phrases beneath each sentence. Choose the one word or phrase which would best keep the me aning of the original sentence if it were substituted for the underlined part. Mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET.41. Many people came to donate blood of their own accord.A. willinglyB. for their own sakeC. of their ownD. without the help of others42. When natural gas burns, the hydrocarbon molecules break up into atoms of carbon and hydrogen.A. contractB. vaporizeC. collideD. separate43. The outlook for the patient will be further aggravated by any associated hypertensive process.A. destroyedB. worsenedC. aggrievedD. complicated44. In the system of ethics known as utilitarianism, the rightness or wrongness of an action is judged by its consequences.A. costB. necessityC. resultsD. relevance45. The pilot made one last frantic distress call before he bailed out.A. littleB. desperateC. routineD. futile46. At the magnificent banquet a new intoxicating drink was introduced which aroused great inter est among the guests.A. appetizingB. coolingC. warmingD. stimulating47. The number of hours that have intervened between the accident and operation is a crucial facto r.A. interferedB. interlacedC. interposedD. interlinked48. “Suffocation” dreams are concerned with the breathing difficulties of a heavy cold.A. suffusingB. sufferingC. cutting offD. choking49. We hope this radio will help overcome the tedium felt during your stay in the hospital.A. painB. lonelinessC. boredomD. nervousness50. He is not yet well enough to dispense wi th the doctor’s services.A. give heed toB. pay no attention toC. do away withD. do withoutPart IV Cloze (10%)Directions: For each numbered blank in the following passage there are four choices marked A, B, C, and D listed below. Choose the correct answer and mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET.In former times, doctors in Taiwan, who were considered saviors, were greatly admired. This is not only because they were able to 51 sick people of their pain and save their lives, but also b ecause they demonstrated an 52 willingness to help the sick. However, now in this industrial wor ld, people are 53 to chase material possessions. This is true 54 doctors, too. The high income of doctors is the 55 of other people. Many high school graduates are eager to get into medical colleges, and countless girls consider doctors to be their best choice of husbands. For many years the public has 56 that doctors in public hospitals demand money from inpatients. The amount of money the patients give determines the kind of 57 they receive. It has also been said that a lar ge pharmaceutical factory set up by U.S. investors declared that it would stop giving kickbacks（回扣）to doctors 58 the factory has spent too much money 59 sales over the years. This declarati on has caused quite a stir in our society. We wonder 60 the officials who have denied the dealin gs mentioned above will say about this.51.A.releaseB.relieveC.depriveD.reduce52A. admirableB.advis ableC. appreciableD. acceptable53.A.tendedB.opposedC.inclinedD.persuaded54.A.withB.forC.toD.of55.A. rmationB.treatmentC.a dviceD.interpreta- tion58.A.ifB.asC.thoughD.when59.A.promotingB.contributingC.manipulatingD.induci ng60.A.whatB.thatC.whyD.whetherPart IV. Reading Comprehension (30%)Directions: In this part of the test there are six passages. Following each passage there are fiv e questions with four choices. Choose the best answer and mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET.Passage OneCells cannot remain alive outside certain limits of temperature, and much narrower limits mark th e boundaries of effective functioning. Enzyme (酶) systems of mammals and birds are most efficient only within a narrow range around 37ºC; a depar ture of a few degrees from this value seriously im pairs their functioning. Even though cells can survive wider fluctuations, the integrated actions of bodily systems are impaired. Other animals have a wider tolerance for changes of bodily tempera ture.For centuries it has been recognized that mammals and birds differ from other animals in the way they regulate body temperatures. Ways of characterizing the difference have become more accurate a nd meaningful over time, but popular terminology still reflects the old division into “warm-blood ed’ and “cold-blooded” species; warm-blooded included mammals and birds, whereas all other creatures were considered cold-blooded. As more species were studied, it became evident that this clas sification was inadequate. A fence lizard or a desert iguana (鬣蜥)—each cold-blooded—usually ha s a body temperature only a degree or two below that of humans and so is not cold. Therefore the n ext distinction was made between animals that maintain a constant body temperature, called homothe rms（同温动物）, and those whose body temperature varies with their environment, called poikilothe rms(变温动物). But this classification also proved inadequate, because among mammals there are man y that vary their body temperatures during hibernation. Furthermore, many invertebrates(无脊椎动物) that live in the depths of the ocean never experience a change in the chill of the deep water, an d their body temperatures remain constant.The current distinction is between animals whose body temperature is regulated chiefly by interna l metabolic processes and those whose temperature is regulated by, and who get most of their heat from, the environment. The former are called endotherms (恒温动物), and the latter are called ecto therms (外温动物). Most ectotherms do regulate their body temperature, and they do so mainly by lo comoting to favorable sites or by changing their exposure to external sources of heat. Endotherms (mainly mammals and birds) also regulate their temperature by choosing favorable environments, but primarily they regulate their temperatures by making a variety of internal adjustments.61. The passage mainly discusses _______.A. body temperatures of various animalsB. the newest research on measuring temperatureC. methods of temperature reductionD. the classification of animals by temperature regulation62. Which of the following terms refers primarily to mammals and birds?A. Warm-blooded.B. Ectothermic.C. Cold-blooded.D. Poikilothermic63. In general, the temperature of endotherms is regulated _______.A. consciouslyB. internallyC. inadequatelyD. environmentally64. According to the passage, the chief way in which ectotherms regulate their temperature is by _______.A. seeking out appropriate locationsB. hibernating part of the yearC. staying in deep waterD. triggering certain metabolic processes65. According to the passage, human beings mainly regulate their body temperatures by _______.A. choosing favorable environmentsB. internal metabolic processesC. eating more foodD. doing physical exercisesPassage TwoThe narrow passage ended in a round arch fringed with ivy and creepers. The children passed throu gh the arch into a narrow ravine whose banks were of stone, moss-covered. Trees growing on the top of the bank arched across and the sunlight came through in changing patches of brightness. The pa th, which was of greeny-grey stones where heaps of leaves had drifted, sloped steeply down, and at the end of it was another round arch, quite dark inside, above which were rose rocks and grass an d bushes.“It’s like the outside of a railway tunnel,” said Jimmy.“It might be the entrance to an enchanted castle,” said Kathleen.Under the drifted damp leaves the path was firm and stony. At the dark arch they stopped.“There are steps down,” said Gerald.Very slowly and carefully they went down the steps. Gerald struck a match when the last step was found to have no edge and to be in fact the beginning of a passage turning to the left.“This,” said Jimmy, “might take us back to the road.”“Or under it,” said Gerald, “we’ve come down eleven steps.”They went on, following Gerald, who went very slowly for fear, as he explained, of steps. The pas sage was very dark.Then came a glimmer of daylight that grew and grew and presently ended in another arch that looke d out over a scene so like a picture out of a book about Italy that everyone’s breath was taken a way, and they simply walked forward silent and staring. A short avenue of cypresses led, winding a s it went, to a marble terrace that lay broad and white in the sunlight. The children, blinking, l eaned their arms on the flat balustrade (栏杆) and gazed.Immediately below them was a lake with swans and an island with willow trees, and among the trees gleamed the white figures of statues. Against a hill to the left was a round white building with pillars and to the right a waterfall came tumbling down among mossy stones to splash into the lake. Steps went from the terrace to the water and other steps to the green lawns beside it. Away acros s the grassy slopes deer were feeding and in the distance was an enormous house of grey stone, lik e nothing the children had ever seen before.“It is an enchanted castle,” said Gerald.“There aren’t any enchanted castles,” said Jimmy, “you ought to know that.”“Well, anyway, I’m going to explore,” said Gerald. “You needn’t come if you don’t want to.” The others followed. There never was such a garden—out of a picture or a fairy tale. They passed quite close to the deer, who only raised their heads to look and did not seem startled at all. Af ter a long stretch of grass, they passed under an avenue of lime trees and came into a rose garden bordered with thick hedges.“I know we shall meet a gardener in a minute and he’ll ask what we’re doing here, and then wha t shall we say?” Kathleen asked.“We’ll say we’ve lost our way, and it will be quite true,” said Gerald.66. When they came out of the last arch the children were silent because _______.A. they were out of breathB. they were amazed at what they sawC. the light hurt their eyesD. they saw an Italian picture67. From the terrace the children were able to see _______.A. a lake with trees growing in itB. some swans among the trees on an islandC. a lake just behind themD. some statues on an island in the lake68. How was it possible to reach the lake from the terrace?A. There were some steps leading down.B. There were some steps leading right.C. There was a waterfall going down to the lake.D. There were steps to some stones.69. Kathleen thought that if they met a gardener _______.A. he would think they had lost their wayB. he would know why they were thereC. they would ask him why they were thereD. he would ask them why they were there70. The story suggests that the children _______.A. had been told about the castle beforeB. had seen pictures of the castle in a bookC. had no idea what they were going to seeD. knew they were going to see something wonderfulPassage ThreeThere is a new type of small advertisement becoming increasingly common in newspapers classified columns. It is sometimes placed among “situations vacant”, although it does not offer anyone a j ob, and sometimes it appears among “situations wanted”, although it is not placed by someone loo king for a job either. What it does is to offer help in applying for a job.“Contact us before writing your application,” or “Make use of our long experience in preparing your resume or job history”, is how it is usually expressed. The growth and appa rent success of s uch a specialised service is, of course, a reflection on the current high levels of unemployment. It is also an indication of the growing importance of the resume (or job history), with the sugges tion that it may now qualify as an art form in its own right.There was a time when job seekers simply wrote letters of application. “Just put down your name, address, age and whether you have passed any exams”, was about the average level of advice offere d to young people applying for their first jobs when they left school. The letter was really just for openers, it was explained, everything else could and should be saved for the interview. And in those days of full employment the technique worked. The letter proved that you could write and we re available for work. Your eager face and intelligent replies did the rest.Later, as you moved up the ladder, something slightly more sophisticated was called for. The advi ce then was to put something in the letter which would distinguish you from the rest. It might be the aggressive approach. “Your search is over. I am the person you are looking for”, was a widel y used trick that occasionally succeeded. Or it might be some special feature specially designed f or the job in view.There is no doubt, however, that it is the increasing number of applicants with university educat ion at all points in the process of engaging staff that has led to the greater importance of the r esume.71. According to the passage, the new type of advertisements _____.A. informs job hunters of the chances availableB. promises useful advice to job-huntersC. divides available jobs into various typesD. informs employers that people are available for work72. Now a demand for this type of service has been created because _____.A. there is a lack of jobs available for artistic peopleB. there are so many top-level jobs availableC. there are so many people out of workD. the job history is considered to be a work of art73. It the past it was expected that first-job hunters would _____.A. write an initial letter giving their life historyB. pass some exams before applying for a jobC. have no qualifications other than being able to read and writeD. keep any detailed information until they obtained an interview74. When applying for more important jobs, one had better include in the letter _____.A. something attractive in one's applicationB. a personal opinion about the organisation one wanted to joinC. something that would offend its readerD. a lie that one could easily get away with telling75. The resume has become so important because _____.A. of an increase in the number of jobs advertisedB. of an increase in the number of applicants which degreesC. of much more complicatedness of jobs todayD. it is less complicated than other application processesPassage FourThe newspaper must provide for the reader the facts, unalloyed (纯粹的), unslanted (不偏不倚的), objectively selected facts. But in these days of complex news it must provide more, it must supply interpretation, the meaning of the facts. This is the most important assignment confronting Ameri can journalism—to make clear to the reader the problems of the day, to make international news as understandable as community news, to recognize that there is no longer any such thing (with the p ossible exception of such scribblings (胡乱拼凑的文章) as society and club news) as “local” news, because any event in the international area has a local reaction in manpower draft, in economic s train, in terms, indeed, of our very way of life.There is in journalism a widespread view that when you embark on interpretation, you are entering rough and dangerous waters, the swirling (令人头晕脑胀的) tides of opinion. This is nonsense. The opponents of interpretation insist that the writer and the editor shall confine himself to th e “facts”. This insistence raises two questions: What are the facts? And: Are the bare facts eno ugh?As to the first question, consider how a so-called “factual” story comes about. The reporter co llects, say, fifty facts, out of these fifty, his space allocation being necessarily restricted, h e selects the ten which he considers most important. This is Judgment No.1. Then he or his editor decides which of these ten facts shall constitute the lead of the piece. This is Judgment No.2. Th en the night editor determines whether the article shall be presented on page one, where it has a large impact, or on twenty-four where it has little. Judgment No.3.Thus, in the presentation of a so-called “factual” or “objective” story, at least three judgm ents are involved. And they are judgments not at all unlike those involved in interpretation, in w hich reporter and editor, calling upon their research resources, their general background, and the ir “news neutralism,” arrive at a concl usion as to the significance of the news.The two areas of judgment, presentation of the news and its interpretation, are both objective rather than subjective processes—as objective, that is, as any human being can be. (Note in passing: even though complete objectivity can never be achieved, nevertheless the ideal must always be the beacon on the murky news channels.) If an editor is intent on slanting the news, he can do it in other ways and more effectively than by interpretation. He can do it by the selection of those fac ts that prop up his particular plea. Or he can do it by the play he gives a story-promoting it to page one or demoting it to page thirty.76. The most appropriate title for the passage would be _______.A. Everything CountsB. Three JudgmentsC. Interpreting the NewsD. Choosing Facts77. A reporter selects ten out of fifty available facts because _______.A. his editor is prejudicedB. space is limitedC. he wants to simplify a complex storyD. the subject is not important78. It can be inferred that the author thinks, in writing a factual story, the writer _______.A. must use judgmentB. should limit himself to the factsC. should make the story interestingD. should slant (歪曲) the story79. The least effective w ay of “slanting” news is by _______.A. selectionB. ignoring itC. focusing on local newsD. interpretation80. Placement of a story on page one or page twenty-four will control its ....A. impactB. accuracyC. relative importanceD. neutralismPassage FiveUntil a few years ago most experts believed that young children couldn’t lie. The late developme ntal psychologist Jean Piaget believed that children under 7 had trouble distinguishing between fa ntasy and reality and couldn’t b e held accountable for untruths. But recent research indicates th at children as young as 4 are quite capable of telling a deliberate lie to get out of trouble. Res earchers believe the fear of a parent’s disapproval discourages a very young child from lying. Bu t by the age of 8 disapproval is not enough. A child should understand the consequences of the lie and the ways in which it destroys trust.A child who lies a lot may be asking for help. Recent research suggests that kids who are being t reated for psychological problems lie almost three times as much as well-adjusted kids. A study in England in the early 1970s showed that one third of the children identified as chronic liars by t heir parents ended up being convicted of theft later on. Other studies indicate that children who have manipulative personalities are skilled at telling lies to get what they want. Two decades ago researchers devised a morality test called a Mach scale. They found that kids who scored high in Mach characteristics-cynicism, desire for power-often lied to achieve their goals.How should honesty be taught? It seems that harsh punishment, thought by many parents to discoura ge lying, may actually increase it. “It creates a fear of punishment, rather than an internalized belief in mor al behavior,” psychologist Paul Ekman says. To help a child realize the damage lying does, a parent might use tales like “The Boy Who Cried Wolf” for younger children and draw objec t lessons from the news as the kids grow older.Just because parents learn why lies occur doesn’t mean they should accept them. Psychologists en。
武汉大学博士研究生入学考试英语真题
武汉大学2012年攻读博士学位研究生入学考试试题（满分值100分）科目名称：英语（B卷）科目代码：1011注意：所有的答题内容必须写在答题纸上，凡写在试题或草稿纸上的一律无效。
Part I Reading Comprehension (2 20＝40%)Directions: In this part of the test, there will be 5 passage for you to read. Each passage is followed by 4 questions or unfinished statements, and each question or unfinished statement is followed by four choices marked A, B, C, and D. you are to decide on the best choice by blackening the corresponding letter on the ANWER SHEET.Passage OneA hundred years ago it was assumed and scientifically “proved” by economists that the laws of society made it necessary to have a vast army of poor and jobless people in order to keep the economy going. Today, hardly anybody would dare to voice this principle. It is generally accepted that nobody should be excluded from the wealth of the nation, either by the laws of nature or by those of society. The opinions, which were current a hundred years ago, that the poor owed their conditions to their ignorance and lack of responsibility, are outdated. In all Western industrialized counties, a system of insurance has been introduced which guarantees everyone a minimum of subsistence in case of unemployment, sickness and old age. I would go one step further and argue that, even if these conditions are not present, everyone has the right to receive the means to subsist; in other words, he can claim this subsistence minimum without having to have any “reason”. I would suggest, however, that it should be limited to a definite period of time, let’s say two years, so as to avoid the encouraging of an abnormal attitude which refuses any kind of social obligation.This may sound like a fantastic proposal, but so, I think, our insurance system would have sounded to people a hundred years ago. The main objection to such a scheme would be that if each person were entitled to receive minimum support, people would not work. This assumption rests on the fallacy of the inherent laziness in human nature, actually, aside from abnormally lazy people, there would be very few who wouldnot want to earn more than the minimum, and who would prefer to do nothing rather than work.However, the suspicions against a system of guaranteed subsistence minimum are not groundless from the standpoint of those who want to use ownership of capital for the purpose of forcing others to accept the work conditions they offer. If nobody were forced to accept work in order not to starve, work would have to be sufficiently interesting and attractive to induce one to accept it. Freedom of contract is possible only if both parties are free to accept and reject it; in the present capitalist system this is not the case.But such a system would not only be the beginning of real freedom of contract between employers and employees, its principal advantage would be the improvement of freedom in interpersonal relationships in every sphere of daily life.1．People used to think that poverty and unemployment were due to .A．the slow development of the economyB．the poor and jobless people’s own faultsC．the lack of responsibility on the part of societyD．the large number of people who were not well-educated2．Now it is widely accepted that .A．the present system of social insurance should be improvedB．everybody should be granted a minimum of subsistence without any “reason”C．everybody has the right to share in the wealth of the countryD．people have to change their attitude towards the poor3．The writer argues that a system of social insurance should .A．provide benefits for the sick, old and unemployedB．encourage people to take on more social obligationsC．guarantee everyone the right to be employedD．provide everyone with the right to a minimum subsistence for a certain period 4．According to the writer, a system of guaranteed subsistence minimum .A．demands too much from societyB．makes freedom of contract impossibleC．helps people take interest in their workD．helps bring about changes in the relationship among peoplePassage TwoPublic speaking fills most people with dread. Humiliation is greatest fear; self-exposure and failing to appeal to the audience come a close second. Women hate it most, since girls are pressurized from an early age to be concerned with appearances of all kinds.Most people have plenty of insecurities, and this seems like a situation that will bring them out. If you were under pressure to be perfect, you are terrified of falling in the most public of ways.Extroverts, on the contrary, will feel less fear before the ordeal. It does not mean they will necessarily do it better. Some very shy people manage to shine. When I met the British comedian Julian Clary, he was shy and cautious, yet his TV performances are perfect.In fact, personality is not the best predictor of who does it well. Regardless of what you are like in real life, the key seems to be to act yourself.Actual acting, as in performing the scripted lines of a character other than yourself, does not do the job. While politicians may limit damage by having carefully written and rehearsed scripts to speak from, there is always a hidden awareness among the audience that the words might not be true.Likewise, the incredibly perfect speeches of many American academics are far from natural. You may end up buying their book on the way out, but soon afterwards, it is much like fast food, and you get a nameless sense that you've been cheated.But, being yourself doesn’t work either. If you spoke as if you were in your own kitchen, it would be too authentic, too unaware of the need to communicate with an audience.I remember going to see British psychiatrist R. D. Laing speak in public. He behaved like a seriously odd person, talking off the top of his head. Although he was talking about madness and he wrote on mental illness, he seemed to be exhibiting rather than explaining it.The best psychological place from which to speak in public is an unselfconscious self-consciousness, providing the illusion of being natural. Studies suggest that this state of “flow”, as psychologists call it, is very satisfying.5. Women hate public speaking most mainly because of _____.A．their upbringing very early onB．their inability to appeal to the audienceC．their sense of greater public pressureD．their sense of greater humiliation.6．Which of the following is NOT the author’s viewpoint?A．Acting like performers spoils the message in a speech.B．Perfection of scripts is necessary in making good impressions.C．Acting naturally means less dependence on the prepared script.D．There should be a balance between actual acting and acting naturally.7．What is the author’s view on personality?A．Personality is the key to success in public speaking.B．Extroverts are better public speakers.C．Introverts have to learn harder to be good speakers.D．Factors other than personality ensure better performance.8．In the last paragraph the author recommends that you ____.A．forget about your nervousnessB．feel natural and speak naturallyC．may feel nervous, but appear naturallyD．may imagine yourself to be natural.Passage ThreeI am afraid to sleep. I have been afraid to sleep for the last few weeks. I am so tired that, finally, I do sleep, but only for a few minutes. It is not a bad dream that wakes me; it is the reality I took with me into sleep. I try to think of something else.Immediately the woman in the marketplace comes into my mind.I was on my way to dinner last night when I saw her. She was selling skirts. She moved with the same ease and loveliness I often saw in the women of Laos. Her long black hair was as shiny as the black silk of the skirts she was selling. In her hair, she wore three silk ribbons, blue, green, and white. They reminded me of my childhood and how my girlfriends and I used to spend hours braiding ribbons into our hair.I don’t know the word for “ribbons”, so I put my hand to my own hair and, with three fingers against my head. I looked at her ribbons and said “Beautiful.” She lowered her eyes and said nothing. I wasn’t sure if she understood me (I don’t speak Laotian very well).I looked back down at the skirts. They added designs in them: squares and triangles and circles of pink and green silk. They were very pretty. I decided to buy one of those skirts, and I began to bargain with her over the price. It is the custom to bargain in Asia. In Laos bargaining is done in soft voices and easy moves with the sort of quiet peacefulness.She smiled, more with her eyes than with her lips. She was pleased by the few words I was able to say in her language, although they were mostly numbers, and she saw that I understood something about the soft playfulness of bargaining. We shook our heads in disagreement over the price; then, immediately, we made another offer and then another shake of the head. She was so pleased that unexpectedly, she accepted the last offer I made. But it was too soon. The price was too low. She was being too generous and wouldn’t make enough money. I moved quickly and picked up two more skirts and paid for all three at the price set; that way I was able to pay her three times as much before she had a chance to lower the price for the larger purchase. She smiled openly then, and, for the first time in months, my spirit lifted. I almost felt happy.The feeling stayed with me while she wrapped the skirts in a newspaper and handed them to me. When I left, though, the feeling left, too. It was as though it stayed behind in marketplace. I left tears in my throat. I wanted to cry. I didn’t, of course.I have learned to defend myself against what is hard; without knowing it, I have also learned to defend myself against what is soft and what should be easy.I get up, light a candle and want to look at the skirts. They are still in the newspaper that the woman wrapped them in. I remove the paper, and raise the skirts up to look at them again before I pack them. Something falls to floor. I reach down and feel something cool in my hand. I move close to the candlelight to see what I have. There are five long silk ribbons in my hand, all different colours. The woman in the marketplace! She has given these ribbons to me!There is no defense against a generous spirit, and this time I cry, and very hard, asif I could make up for all the months that I didn’t cry.9．Which of the following in NOT correct?A．The writer was not used to bargaining.B．People in Asia always bargain when buying things.C．Bargaining in Laos was quiet and peaceful.D．The writer was ready to bargain with the woman.10．The writer assumed that the woman accepted the last offer mainly because woman .A．thought that the last offer was reasonableB．thought she could still make much moneyC．was glad that the writer knew their way of bargainingD．was tired of bargaining with the writer any more11．Why did the writer finally decide to buy three skirts?A．The skirts were cheap and pretty.B．She liked the patterns on the skirts.C．She wanted to do something as compensation.D．She was fed up with further bargaining with the woman.12．Why did the writer cry eventually when she looked at the skirts again?A．She suddenly felt very sad.B．She liked the ribbons so much.C．She was overcome by emotion.D．She felt sorry for the woman.Passage FourDefinition of “culture” are multiple, broad, and notably ambiguous. While there is no agreed-upon definition of culture, the classic definition by E. B. Tylor in 1871 is widely cited: “culture…is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”Most definitions of culture emphasize that it is complex and dynamic, comprised of the shared solutions to problems faced by the group. These solutions include technologies, beliefs, and behaviors.Culture does not determine behavior, but affords group members a repertoire of ideas and possible actions, providing the framework through which they understand themselves, their environment, and their experiences. Culture is a complex set of relationships, responses, and interpretations that must be understood, not as a body of discrete traits, but as an integrated system of orientations and practices generated within a specific socioeconomic context. Culture is ever changing and always being revised within the dynamic context of its enactment.Culture is neither a blueprint nor an identity; individuals choose between various cultural options, and in our multicultural society, many times choose widely between the options offered by a variety of cultural traditions. It is not possible to predict the beliefsand behaviors of individuals based on their race, ethnicity, or national origin. Individuals' group membership cannot be assumed to indicate their culture because those who share a group label may variously enact culture.In its zeal to encourage respect for cultural difference, the cultural competency movement has sometimes lost sight of these important features of the concept of culture. Instead it has too often represented culture as a decontextualized set of traits providing a template for the perceptions and behaviors of group members. A burgeoning literature on cultural diversity presents the reader with veritable laundry lists of traditional beliefs and practices ostensibly characteristic of particular ethnic groups. 49) This approach encourages the questionable notion that immigrants and certain ethnic and racial minorities are particularly driven by traditionalism. The emphasis in this genre is on difference, pitting the exotic and esoteric against mainstream or conventional beliefs that remain unnamed and unexplored.The misconception, common in clinical settings, that culture can be understood as a set of discrete traits, has led some mistakenly to treat culture as an explanatory variable, subject to prediction and control. In such applications, specific ethnic cultures are represented as a codified body of characteristics that can be identified and then either modified or manipulated to facilitate clinical goals.Paradoxically, in such approaches, what originated in a desire to promote respect for individual differences may instead promote stereotyping and essential zing. This process of reifying presumed difference may have the unintended consequence of bolstering a sense of group boundaries.50) It may also reinforce the belief that culture can be diagnosed and treated, that exotic or unfamiliar beliefs and behaviors of members of already disempowered subgroups should be controlled and adjusted to resemble norms of the dominant group.13．Which statement is NOT true according to this passage?A．Definitions of culture are usually difficult, varied and ambiguous.B．There is no agreed-upon definition of culture so far.C．There is no common ground in different definitions of culture.D．Most definitions of culture emphasize that it is complex and dynamic.14．Culture is not an identity because culture .A．does determine behaviorB．does not provide possible actionsC．can predict the beliefs and behaviors of individualsD．is optional and ever changing within the dynamic context15．Emphasizing cultural differences too much would .A．help grasp the most important features of concept of cultureB．treat culture as a contextualized set of traitsC．respect the traditions of immigrants and certain ethnic and racial minoritiesD．lead to regard the exotic and esoteric against mainstream or conventional beliefs 16．Which of the following is the author’s viewpoint?A．Culture can be understood not as a set of discrete traits but as an integrated system of orientations and practices generated within a specific socioeconomic context.B．Culture can be treated as an explanatory variable, subject to prediction and control.C．Culture can be represented as a codified body of characteristics that can be identified and then either modified or manipulated.D．Culture can be diagnosed and treated and the exotic or unfamiliar beliefs and behaviors should be controlled and adjusted to resemble norms of the dominant group. Passage FiveThe other problem that arises from the employment of women is that of the working wife. It has two aspects: that of the wife who is more of a success than her husband and that of the wife who must rely heavily on her husband for help with domestic tasks. There are various ways in which the impact of the first difficulty can be reduced. Provided that husband and wife are not in the same or directly comparable lines of work, the harsh monetary measure of achievement as intolerably crude. Where there are rank, it is best if the couple work in different fields so that the husband can find some special reason for superiority of the lowest figure in his to the most elevated in his wife’s.A problem that affects a much larger number of working wives is the need to re-allocate domestic tasks if there are children. In The Road to Wigan Pier George Orwell wrote of the unemployed of the Lancashire coalfields: “Practically never ... in a working-class home, will you see the man doing a stroke of the housework. Unemployment has not changed this convention, which on the face of it seems a little unfair. The man is idle from morning to night but the woman is as busy as ever - more so, indeed, because she has to manage with less money. Yet so far as my experience goes the women do not protest. They feel that a man would lose his manhood if, merely because he was out of work, he developed in a ‘Mary Ann’.”It is over the care of young children that this re-allocation of duties becomes really significant. For this, unlike the cooking of fish fingers or the making of beds, is an inescapably time-consuming occupation, and time is what the fully employed wife has no more to spare of than her husband.The male initiative in courtship is a pretty indiscriminate affair, something that is tried on with any remotely plausible woman who comes within range and, of course, with all degrees of tentativeness. What decides the issue of whether a genuine courtship is going to get under way is the woman’s response. If she shows interest the engines of persuasion are set in movement. The truth is that in courtship society gives women the real power while pretending to give it to men.What does seem clear is that the more men and women are together, at work and away from it, the more the comprehensive amorousness of men towards women will have to go, despite all its past evolutionary services. For it is this that makes inferiority at work abrasive and, more indirectly, makes domestic work seem unmanly, if there is to be an equalizing redistribution of economic and domestic tasks between men andwomen there must be a compensating redistribution of the erotic initiative. If women will no longer let us beat them they must allow us to join them as the blushing recipients of flowers and chocolates.17．The first paragraph advises the working wife who is more successful than her husband to .A．work in the same sort of job as her husband.B．play down her success, making it sound unimportant.C．stress how much the family gains from her high salary.D．introduce more labour-saving machinery into the home.18．Orwell’s picture of relations between man and wife in Wigan Pier describes a relationship which the author of the passage .A．thinks is the natural oneB．wishes to see preservedC．believes is fairD．is sure must change19．The last paragraph stresses that if women are to hold important jobs, then they must .A．sometimes make the first advances in loveB．allow men to flirt with many womenC．stop accepting presents of flowers and chocolatesD．avoid making their husbands look like “Mary Anns”20．Which of the following statements is INCORRECT about the present form of courtship?A．The woman’s reaction decides the fate of courtship.B．Each man “makes passes” at many women.C．Men are equally serious about courtship.D．The man leaves himself the opportunity to give up the chase quickly.Part II English-Chinese Translation (5 4＝20%)Directions: Reading the following passage, and the translate the underlined parts, numbered from (1) to (4), from English into Chinese. Please write your short essay on the ANWER SHEET.My topic today is “The Car and Air Pollution.”In particular, I want firstly to discuss the ways in which the car causes air pollution; and secondly, how we can control or reduce air pollution from the car.First, then, how does the car cause air pollution? (1)What happens is that the car’s internal combustion engine is a kind of chemical factory on a small scale. It uses a mixture of petrol and air, and this mixture explodesand burns, to produce the energy which propels the car. (2)But while this is happening, many complicated chemical reactions are taking place. In particular, part of the petrol-air mixture is not completely burned up, and so the exhaust gases from the engine contain some very dangerous chemicals, such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, lead and hydrocarbons.This is the situation, then, and it’s going to get much worse, unless we do something about it. So, let’s focus our attention now on ways of controlling or reducing the amount of air pollution caused by the car.First, we can discourage the use of cars. For example, we can put higher taxes on petrol and on cars themselves - especially the larger ones that use a lot of petrol.(3)Second, we can encourage alternative methods of transport both between and within urban areas. For instance, we can make train and bus services cheaper and more convenient. And we can build a mass transit system in large cities, particularly an underground railway system such as those in London, New York, Moscow and Tokyo.Next, we can use a different and cleaner fuel for the internal combustion engine with other designs.Fourth, we can replace the present internal combustion engine with other designs. There are several possibilities being researched at present, such as electric, gas turbine, and “steam” engines. However, each of these engine designs has its own disadvantages.(4)Last but not the least, we are trying to control the emissions from the internal combustion engine much more strictly. This, for example, is a catalytic converter, which converts the most dangerous ingredients of the car exhaust into water and harmless gases.As I’m sure you can see, there are problems with each of these ways; but at least they’re a step in the right direction. Probable the best answer is a synthesis of all five. Part III Chinese-English Translation (20%)Directions: Translate the following paragraph for the Chinese into English. Please write your short essay on the ANWER SHEET.各国文明的多样性，是人类社会的基本特征，也是推动世界文明进步的重要动力。
武汉大学博士课程考试英语段落分析
Our second major discovery was that the Information Marketplace will dramatically affect people and organizations on a wide scale. Besides its many uses in commerce, office work, and manufacturing,it will also improve health care, provide new ways to shop, enable professional and social encounters across the globe, and generally permeate the thousands of things we do in the course of our daily lives. It will help us pursue old and new pleasures ,and it will encourage new art forms, which may be criticized but will move art forward, as new tools have always done. It will also improve education and training, first in specific and established ways and later through breakthroughs that are confidently awaited. Human organizations from tiny companies to entire national governments will benefit too, because so much of the work they do is information work. Topic :The affection of the Information Marketplace Perspective: people--organization Aspect(s):material-spiritual, individual-society Method: classificationSkill:examplesUnit1 para12The wise eye will also see that the information Marketplace is much more influential than its parts –the interfaces, middleware and pipes that make up the three-story building on which we stand. Once they are integrated, they present a much greater power — the power to prevent an asthmatic from dying in a remote town in Alaska, to enable an unemployed bank loan officer to find and succeed at a new form of work, to allow a husband and wife to revel in the accomplishments of a distant daughter while also providing emotional and financial support. These powers are far greater than the ability to send an e-mail message, or to have five hundred TV channels.Topic :The influence of information marketplace Perspective: powerAspect(s):material-spiritual Method: hierarchical structure 层次结构（life-work-pleasure）Skill:examplesUnit8 para1Countless cultures around the world have disappeared,along with their mythologies. In Mesoamerica,dozens of ornate Mayan temples lie mute, as do an untold number of Incan monuments in Peru,Celtic cairns in Wales,Khmer statues in Cambodia, and magnificent ziggurat-like structures in central Africa.Topic : The disappearance of culture Perspective: worldAspect(s):culture【material】Method: space orderSkill:examplesEaster island, celebrated for the giant statues left by its vanished civilization, is unique in archaeology because of its isolation from its neighbors. current archaeological evidence indicates that some 1,600 years ago the island's first settlers, explorers from Polynesian, found themselves in a pristine paradise with subtropical forests, dozens of wild bird species, and no predators. they multiplied and prospered, distributing resources in a manner that suggests a sophisticated economy and complex political system. rival clans erected ever-larger statues platforms, emulating the stone carvings of their Polynesian forebears, trying to surpass each other with displays of power and wealth.Topic : The civilization of easter island Perspective: island/civilizationAspect(s):enviroment-society Method: progression-classificationSkill:statement-example Questions: wha t→howUnit8 para4It is likely that changes in the forest occurred over decades and would have been difficult to detect immediately. An islander might easily have missed the long-term trend, thinking: “This year we cleared those woods over there, but trees are starting to grow back again over here.” Furthermore, any islander who issued a warning against the oncoming disaster would have been silenced by the ruling class. Chiefs, priests, and stone carvers all depended on the status quo to retain their positions and privileges.Topic : The detection of change Perspective: islander- Method: classification progressionUnit8 para6Humanity may not act in time to prevent the decimation of the rain forests, fossil fuels, arable land, and fisheries. In only 40 years, Ethiopia’s fo rest cover shrank from 30% to 1%. During the same time period, the rest of the world lost half of its rain forests. Powerful decision-making groups ignore those who sound an alarm; their political, economic, and religious agendas fail to address the problem of disappearing natural resources.Topic : The prevention of the decimation Perspective: humanityAspect(s): decimation 消亡(material-spiritual ) - Method: causal order 因果顺序Skill: statistics - statementIf we are going to avoid the fate of the Easter Islanders, we must change the myths that are leading us toward extinction an find inspiring visions of a plausible and appealing future. The old myths have collapsed, but no new ones have emerged to fill the vacuum. For transformation to occur ,human beings must actively shape the future , an enterprise that goes to the heart of mythmaking. If we are each a cell in what Peter Russell calls “The Global Brain,” then this is an individual as well a collective venture.Topic : The change of the myths Perspective: mythmakingAspect(s): myths—idea：understanding Method: problem-solution orderSkill: statement-statementUnit8 para12But as the Grand Narrative of Progress came to dominate other values and views, it cast a malignant shadow. The invention of the automobile was the quintessence of progress, but it left overcrowded highways, air pollution, and deforestation in its wake. Fertilizers in creased crop production but also increased the growth of algae in lakes and canals. The discovery of powerful insecticides —first greeted with enthusiasm and a Nobel Prize —was followed by the unintentional poisoning of fish, birds, and animals. Nuclear power plants increased available energy but led to storage problems, life-threatening contamination, and at least one accident with worldwide repercussions. The waste products of technological living began to choke great cities and foul once-pristine lands. Although Western housing, clothing, and religion were brought to abotiginal people, and the rate of infectious disease went down, the rate of alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, and spouse and child abuse went up.topic :The shadow of GNP Perspectivs: science-societyAspect(s): shadow (material) Method: classificationSkill: examplesUnit8 para25The third principle is to identify real-life situations in which antagonists can find common ground. With a recognition of the limitations of linguistic exchange, postmodernists urge that groups “press beyond dialogue.” For example, athletes and musicians from all walks of life can generate smooth and effective teams or musical groups. Business executives and scientists from conflicting backgrounds are often able to work together to generate multinational corporations and cooperative research undertakings.topic :The principle of common ground Perspectivs: situation（common ground）Aspect(s): press beyond dialogue Method: antithesis对比(homogeneity-heterogeneity)同质异质Skill: examples词汇：Rational 理性的、合理的Illustrate 说明——Illustration 例证Linear thinkingLinear way of thinking pattern 线性思维方式Discourse 论述Material——spiritual 物质——精神Point of view ——perspective 角度Micro 微观Macro 宏观Advantage disadvantageNowadays, it becomes more and more important for Chinese PhD candidates to write English well, not only for studying abroad, but also for writing English research papers. Actually, a number of papers written in English by most PhD candidates seem to be far from English, though many of them can write high quality papers in Chinese. Thus how to improve the writing ability of English has become a problem that needs to be considered.The reason why we Chinese students cannot write an accurate “English” paper is that our mother language, especially the thinking patterns, influences us. The features of a discourse have close relation with those of culture. What is reflected on the writing discourse is the sentence and passage organization form. There are different ways of expression with different thinking patterns. For example, When a Chinese student writes an English paper, he is used to using our Chinese thinking patterns to construct the discourse and organize the sentences. Well we may consider it a good writing, but an English–speaker may dislike it. So we should know about these differences between Chinese and English and be able to converse our thinking patterns to English.Generally, it is vital to know how to use words suitably, how to write sentences correctly, and how to organize paragraphs logically.Firstly, at the sentence level, the basic grammar such as word spell and sentence structure must be all right. When it comes to the written form of the sentence, the thinking pattern must be taken into account. For example, Chinese people are used to using personal and active voice just like“we did this experi ment” , contrast to the Chinese, English people always use impersonal and passive voice just like“this experiment was done by us”.Secondly, writing a paper is just like building a house. To finish the house is far away from our aim. And there are buildings with different styles in different countries. Every sentence and every paragraph has a close relation with its neighbors. Only spelled out some sentences could not make a good writing. So it is necessary to analyze discourse from logic construction, deductive reasoning, and so on. To the paragraph writing, we should adopt the “Triple style” which divides the paragraph structure into three parts: topic sentence, body/development and conclusion. In every passage, materials must be prepared around the topic. These materials are organized by some skills and methods from the special perspective and aspects which used to develop the topic.In a word, all these elements are influenced greatly by culture and thinking patterns. From sentence to paragraph and then to passage, we need not only to develop the writing skill, but also the linear way of thinking.。
2004年武汉大学博士研究生入学考试英语阅读理解试题
2004年武汉大学博士研究生入学考试英语阅读理解试题阅读理解Opponents of affirmative action say the battle over the use of race in college admissions is hardly over, despite the Supreme Court's ruling Monday upholding the goal of a diverse student body. Higher education leaders overwhelmingly hailed the decision, saying it reaffirmed policies used by most selective colleges and universities. But some critics raised the possibility of more lawsuits, and promised to continue pressuring the Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights to investigate questionable policies.“We're talking about admissions programs, scholarships, any program...only for minorities or in which the standards used to judge admissions are substantiall y different,” says Linda Chavez, founder and president of the Center for Equal Opportunity, a conservative non-Others say they'll take their case to voters. “We have to seriously contest all this at the ballot box,” says University of Calif ornia regent Ward Cannerly, who helpedwin voter approval of California's Proposition 209, which prohibits considering race or gender in public education, hiring and contracting. Because of that law,Monday's ruling had no practical impact in the state. “It may be time for us to...let the (Michigan) voters decide if they want to use race as a factor in admissions,”Meanwhile, U. S. Education Secretary Rod Paige, consistent with PresidentBush's stance opposing affirmative action, said the Department of Education will “continue examining and highlighting e ffective race-neutral approaches to ensure broad access to and diversity within our public institutions”. Even Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O' Connor, in one of the opinions, recommended that states look for lessons in race-neutral programs being tried in California and elsewhere. Whilethe ruling said admissions officials may consider race in the selection process, colleges and universities are not obligated to do so. “Ultimately in the debate, diversity is a choice, not a legal mandate,” says Arthur C oleman, a former Department of Education official who now helps colleges and universities ensureThe public, too, remains conflicted, largely along racial lines. According to a january poll by the non-profit research organization Public Agenda, 79% of Americans said it is important for colleges to have a racially diverse student body, while just 54% said affirmative action programs should continue. In a Gallup poll conducted days before the ruling, 49% of adults said they favor affirmative action and 43% did not, with blacks and Hispanics far more likely to favor the practice than whites. And some educators doubt that with Monday's ruling, those opposingFor now, admissions officials and university lawyers are poring over the ruling to determine how or whether to adjust policies. While most tend to be closed-mouthed2. What the critics said in the first paragraph amounts to the idea that ________.D. selective colleges and universities should be punished for their discriminatorypolicies.3. Connerly insists that the Court's ruling should ________.B. be contested by the Michigan voters with aD. produce the intended practical effect before it is widely accepted4. What is the attitude of the Department of Education towards affirmative action?D. Indifference5. Which of the following is True about affirmative action according to the text?C. The minority students6. It can be inferred from the text that one of the major objectives of affirmative action is to ________.A. ensure race-neutral programs are set up7. Questions 11 to 15 are basedWhenever two or more unusual traits or situations are found in the same place, it istempting to look for more than a coincidental relationship between them. The high Himalayas and the Tibetan plateau certainly have extraordinary physical characteristics and the cultures which are found there are also unusual, though not unique. However there is no intention of adopting Montesquieu's view of climate and soil as cultural determinants. The ecology of a region merely poses some of the problems faced by the inhabitants of the region, and while the problems facing a The appearance of the Himalayas during the late Tertiary Period and the accompanying further raising of the previously established rages had a marked effecton the climate of the region. Primarily, of course, it blocked the Indian monsoon (季风) from reaching Central Asia at all. Secondarily, air and moisture from otherPrior to the raising of the Himalayas, the land now forming the Tibetan uplandshad a dry, continental climate with vegetation and animal life similar to that of much of the rest of the region on the same parallel, but somewhat differen than that of the areas farther north, which were already drier. With the coming of the Himalayas and the relatively sudden drying out of the region, there was a severe thinning out of the animal and plant population. The ensuing incomplete Pleistocene glaciations (冰蚀) had a further thinning effect, but significantly did not wipe out life in the area. Thus after the end of the glaciation there were only a few varieties of life extant from the original continental species. Isolated by the Kunlun range from the Tarim basin and Turfan depression, species which had already adapted to the dry steppe climate, and would otherwise have been expected to flourish in Tibetan, the remaining native fauna and flora (动植物)multiplied. Armand describes the Tibetan fauna as not having g reat variety, but being “striking” in the abundance of the particular species that are present. The plant life is similarly limited in variety, with some observers finding no more than seventy varieties of plants in even the relatively fertile Eastern Tibe tan valleys. with fewer than ten food crops. Tibetan “tea” is a major staple,The difficulties of living in an environment at once dry and cold. and populated with species more usually found in more hospitable climates, are great. These difficulties may well have influenced the unusual polyandrous (一妻多夫制) societies typical of the region. Lattimore sees the maintenance of multiple-husband households as being preserved from earlier forms by the harsh conditions of the Tibetan uplands, which permitted no experimentation and “froze” the cultures which came there. Kawakita, on the other hand, sees the polyandry as a way of easily permitting the best householder to become the head husband regardless of age. His detailed studies of the Bhotea village of Tsumje do seem to support this idea of polyandry as a method of talent mobility is a situation where even the best talent is barely enought for survival.In sum, though arguments can be made that a pre-existing polyandrous system was strengthened and preserved (insofar as it has been) by the rigors of the land, it would certainly be an overstatement to lay causative factors of any stronger nature to the ecological influences in this case.C. Social and familial organizD. All of the above.9. The purpose of the passage is to ________.C. describe10. The author 's knowledge of Tibet is probably ________.D. limited to geological history11. According to the passage, which of the following would probably be the most agreeable to Montesquieu?B. some regions with similar climates will have simD. The plants of a country, by being the food of its people, cause the people to have12. The species of fauna and flora remaining in Tibet after the Pleistocene glaciation can properly be called continental because they ________.C. have been found in oAuctions are public sales of goods, conducted by an officially approved auctioneer. He asks the crowd assembled in the auction-room to make offers, or “bids”, for the various items on sale. He encourages buyers to bid higher figures, and finally names the highest bidder as the buyer of the goods. This is called “knocking down” the goods, for the bidding ends when the auctioneer bangs a small hammer on a table at ancient Romans probably invented sales by auction, and the English word comes from the Latin auctio, meaning “increase”. The Romans usually sold in this way the spoils taken in war; these sales were called sub basra, meaning “under the spear”, a spear being stuck in the ground as a signal for a crowd to gather. In England in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries goods were often sold “by the candle”: a short Practically all goods whose qualities vary are sold by auction. Among these are coffee, hides, skins, wool, tea, cocoa, furs, spices, fruit and vegetables and wines. Auction sales are also usual for land and property, antique furniture, pictures, rare books, old china and similar works of art. The auction rooms at Christie's and Sotheby's in London and New York are world famous.An auction is usually advertised beforehand with full particulars of the articles to be sold and where and when they can be viewed by prospective buyers. If the advertisement cannot give full details, catalogues are printed, and each group of goods to be sold together, called a “lot”, is usually given a number. The auctioneer need not begin with Lot 1 and continue in numerical order; he may wait until he registers the fact that certain dealers are in the room and then produce the lots they are likely to be interested in. The auctioneer's services are paid for in the form of a percentage of the price tha goods are sold for. The auctioneer therefore has a direct The auctioneer must know fairly accurately the current market values of the goodshe is selling, and he should be acquainted with regular buyers of such goods. He will not waste time by starting the bidding too low. He will also play on the rivalries among his buyers and succeed in getting a hight price by encouraging two business competitors to bid against each other. It is largely on his advice that a seller will fix a“reserve” price, that is ,a price below which the goods cannot be sold. Even the best auctioneers, however, find it difficult to stop a “knock out”, whereby dealers illegally arrange beforehand not to bid against each other, but nominate one of themselves as the only bidder, in the hope of buying goods at extremely low prices. If such a “knock-out” comes off ,the real auction sale takes place privately afterwards among t14. A candle used to burn at auction sales ________.15. An auction catalogue gives prospective buyers ________.16. The auctioneer may decide to sell the “lots” out of ord er because ________.17. An auctioneer likes to get high prices for the goods he sells because________.C. the auction-18. A “knock out” is arranged ________.A. to k19. Directions: There are 4 reading passages in this part. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choicesmarked A, B, C, and D. You should decide on the best choice and mark your answer Questions 1 to 5 are based oAll types of stress study, whether under laboratory or real-life situations, studyThe brain blood flow studies show that reciting the days of the week and months ofthe year increases blood flow in appropriate areas, whereas problem solving which demands intense concentration of a reasoning type produces much larger changes in Between these basic studies of brain function and real life situations there is still a considerable gap, but reasonable deduction seems possible to try and understand what happens to the brain. Life consists of a series of events which may be related to work or to our so-called leisure time. Work may be relatively automatic—as with typing, for instance, it requires intense concentration and repetition during the learning phase to establish a pattern in the brain. Then the typist's fingers automatically move to hit the appropriate keys as she reads the words on the copy.overcomethis she has to raise her level of arousal and concentration but beyond a certain point the automatic is lost and thinking about hitting the keys leads to moreOther jobs involve intense concentration such as holding bottles of wine up to a strong light and turning them upside down to look for particles of dirt falling down. This sounds quite easy but experience teaches that workers can do this for only about thirty minutes before they start making a mistake. This is partly because the number of occasions with dirt in the bottle is low and the arousal level, therefore, fails. Scientists have shown that devices to raise arousal level will increase the accuracy of looking for relatively rare events. A recent study of the effect of loss of sleep in young doctors showed that in tests involving a challenge to theirmedical judgment when short of sleep they raised their arousal level and became bet20. According to the brain blood flow studies, problem solving ________.C. demands intense21. The author believes that ________.A. the results obtained in the laboratory exactly reflects the real-B. the gap between the laboratory studies and real-life situations is too large to fillC. the gap between the laboratory studies and real-life situations can be closed byD. the difference between the laboratory studies and real-life situations will be22. When a typist gets tired, ________.23. Examining bottles of wine is hard work because ________.24. According to the author, a key factor in the ability to reason is ________.A. t英译汉1. Directions: Read the following passage carefully and then translate the underlinedComputers are permeating almost every aspect of our lives, including many areas previously untouched by technology. 1. But unlike such other pervasive technologies as electricity, television and the motor car, computers are on the whole less reliable and less predictable in their behavior. This is because they are discrete state digital electronic devices that are prone to total and catastrophic failure. Computer systems, when they are “down,” are completely down, unlike electromechanical devices, which may be only partially down and are thus partially usable.Computers enable enormous quantities of information to be stored, retrieved, and transmitted at great speed on a scale not possible before. 2. This is all very well, but it has serious implications for data security and personal privacy because computers are inherently insecure. The recent activities of hackers and data thieves in the United States, Germany, and Britain have shown how all-too-easy it still is to break into even the most-sophisticated financial and military systems. The list of scares perpetrated by the new breed of hi-tech criminals, ranging from fraud in airline-ticket reservations to the reprogramming of the chips inside mobile phones, is growing daily.Computer systems are often incredibly complex-so complex, in fact, that they are not always understood even by their creators (although few are willing to admit it). This often makes them completely unmanageable. Unmanageable complexity, can result in massive foul-ups or spectacular budget “runaways.” For example, Jeffrey Rothfeder in Business Week reports that Bank of America in 1988 had to abandon a $ 20-million computer system after spending five years and a further $ 60 million trying to make it work. Allstate Insurance saw the cost of its new system rise from $ 8 million to a staggering $ 100 million and estimated completion was delayed from 1987 to 1903. Moreover, the problem seems to be getting worse: in 1988 the American Arbitration. Association took on 190 computer disputes, most of which involved defective systems. The claims totaled —3. Complexity can also result in disaster: no computer is 100 percent guaranteed because it is virtually impossible to anticipate all sorts of critical applications, such as saving lives, flying air craft, running nuclear power stations, transferring vast sums of money, and controlling missile systems—sometimes with tragic consequences. For example, between 1982 and 1987, some twenty-two servicemen died in five separate crashes of the United States Air Force's sophisticated Blackhawk helicopter before the problem was traced to its computer-based “fly-by-wire” system. At least two people diedafter receiving overdoses of radiation emitted by the computerized. There are 25 X-ray machines, and there are many other examples of fatal computer-based foul-Popular areas for less life-threatening computer malfunctions include telephone billing and telephone switching software, bank statements and bank-teller machines, electronic funds-transfer systems, and motor-vehicle license data bases. Although computers have often taken the “blame” on these occasions, the ultimate cause of failure in most cases is, in faEvery new technology creates new problems—as well as new benefits--for society, and computers are no exception. 4. But digital computers have rendered society especially vulnerable to hardware and software malfunctions. Sometimes industrial robots go crazy, while heart pacemakers and automatic garage door openers are rendered useless by electromagnetic radiation or “electronic smog” emitted from point-of-sale terminals, personal computers, and video games. Automated teller machines (ATMs) and pumps atThe cost of all this downtime is huge. 5. For example, it has been reported that British businesses suffer around thirty major mishaps a year. revolving losses running into millions of pounds. These are caused by machine or human error and do not include human misuse in the form of fraud and sabotage. The cost of failures in domestically produced software in the United Kingdom alone is conservatively estimated at $ 900 million per year. In 1989, a British Computer Society committee, reported that much software was now so complex that current skills in safety assessment were inadequate and that therefore the safety of people could not be guaranteed.2. ____________________.3. __________________.4. ___________________.5. _______________________.6. ____________________.汉译英1. Directions: Translate the following short paragraph into English and write your2. 一位负责扶贫工作的官员说，到２００４年底，尽管大多数贫困人口将解决温饱问题，还将有一些生活极端贫困的人们，他们还需要政府的资助。
武汉大学法学院各专业博士生入学考试部分参考书
武汉大学法学院各专业博士生入学考试部分参考书宪法学《宪法》周叶中主编，高等教育出版社2000年版。
《宪法基础理论》李龙著，武汉大学出版社1999年版。
《宪法变迁论》武汉大学出版社2002年版。
《西方宪法思想》李龙主编，高等教育出版社2003年版。
《代议制度的比较研究》周叶中著，武汉大学出版社1995年版。
法理学《法理学》，李龙主编，汪习根执行主编，人民法院出版社、中国社会科学出版社2003年版。
《良法论》李龙主编，武汉大学出版社版。
《依法治国方略实施问题研究》，李龙主编，武汉大学出版社版。
《法治社会的基本人权》汪习根著，中国公安大学出版社。
《二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究》，张文显主编，法律出版社。
中国近现代立宪与宪政思潮《宪政文化与近代中国》，王人博著，法律出版社1997年版。
《中国宪政史》，徐祥民等著，青岛海洋大学出版社2002年版。
行政法学《行政法原论》周佑勇著，中国方正出版社2002年修订版。
《行政法学》叶必丰著，武汉大学出版社2003年版。
《行政法学》杨解君著，中国方正出版社2002年版。
《行政行为效力研究》叶必丰著，中国人民公安大学出版社2002年版。
《行政许可法理论与实务论》周佑勇主编，武汉大学出版社2004年版。
行政诉讼法学林莉红：《行政诉讼法学》，武汉大学出版社2001年版。
林莉红：《中国行政救济理论与实务》，武汉大学出版社2000年6月版。
姜明安主编：《行政法与行政诉讼法》，北京大学出版社、高等教育出版社1999年版。
吴庚：《行政争讼法论》，（台）三民书局1999年版。
中国刑法学《犯罪通论》马克昌主编，武汉大学出版社1999年版。
《刑罚通论》马克昌主编，武汉大学出版社1999年版。
《刑法各论》建议用王作富教授主编的上、下教材外国刑法学《外国刑法纲要》张明楷著，清华大学出版社1999年版。
《西方刑法学说史略》马克昌主编，中国检察出版社2003年版。
国际私法《国际私法学》韩德培、肖永平著，人民法院出版社、中国社会科学出版社2004年版。
武汉大学博士英语期末考试-文章分析练习10篇-练习和答案
Passage 1 Kyoto Protocol: The Unfinished Agenda1.Most mainstream scientists agree that the burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and petroleum that is known as oil or crude oil) and other industrial activities have led to a buildup of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. They also agr ee that the earth’s surface has warmed during the last century and that further warming of several degrees Celsius is likely in the next century.This broad scientific consensus has played an important role in convincing many national governments that immediate action is necessary to limit global greenhouse gas emissions.2.Developing countries, however, have portrayed themselves as victimized by the wealthier industrialized nations.On one hand, these countries believe they have the most to lose from continued global warming. Because much of the developing world occupies warmer regions, where many species of crops and domesticated animals live at the upper limit of their natural temperature tolerance, higher temperatures could lead to widespread livestock declines and crop failures.Moreover, unlike the industrialized world, most developing nations lack the capital and infrastructure to develop new varieties of heat-tolerant crops and animals, build flood control systems, and deploy disaster relief when needed.3.On the other hand, global emission reduction targets also hurt developing countries because such reduction interferes with their plans for economic development through inexpensive, carbon-based energy sources. Indeed, many representatives of developing countries see global warming advocates as part of a conspiracy to maintain the economic advantage of industrialized nations at the expense of poorer nations. Thus, developing countries have argued that they be exempt from emission reduction until their economies approached the strength of those in developed nation.4.Carbon-cycle calculations, however, suggest that allowing developing countries to delay by decades their participation in emission reduction agreements would commit the world to very large increases in levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.The carbon cycle refers to the natural process through which carbon dioxide injected into the atmosphere is slowly removed byphotosynthesis in plants and absorption in thecomplete. Various carbon-cycle models have shown that if fossil fuels are used to power industrialreductions must be achieved everywhere, presumably through a Kyoto or post-Kyoto negotiated protocol.5.Global environmental collapse is not inevitable.But the developed world must work with the developing world to ensure that new industrialized economies do not add to the world’s environmental problems.Politicians must think of sustainable development rather than economic expansion. Conservation strategies have to become more widely accepted, and people must learn that energy use can be dramatically diminished without sacrificing comfort.In short, with the technology that currently exists, the years of global environmental mistreatment can begin to be reversed. (476 words)ARTICLE ANALYSISPassage 21.Some people argue that diversity in the material environment is insignificant so long as we are racing toward cultural or spiritual homogeneity. This view gravely underestimates the importance of material goods as symbolic expressions of human personality differences, and it foolishly denies a connection between the inner and outer environment. Those who fear the standardization of human beings should warmly welcome the destandardization of goods. For by increasing the diversity of goods available to man, we increase the mathematical probability of differences in the way men actually live.2.More important, however, is the very premise that we are racing towards cultural homogeneity, since a close look at this also suggests that just the opposite is true. It is unpopular to say this, but we are moving swiftly towards fragmentation and diversity not only in material production, but in art and education as well.3.One highly revealing test of cultural diversity in any literate society has to do with the number of different books published per million of population. The more standardized the tastes of the public, the fewer titles will be published per million; the more diverse these tastes, the greater the number of titles. The increase or decrease of this figure over time is a significant clue to the direction of cultural change in the society. This was the reasoning behind a study of world book trends published by UNESCO. Conducted by Robert Escarpit, director of the Center for the Sociology of Literature at the University of Bordeaux, it provided dramatic evidence of a powerful international shift towards cultural destandardization.4.The same push towards pluralism is evident in painting, too, where we find an almost incredibly wide spectrum of production. Representationalism, expressionism, surrealism, abstract expressionism, hard-edge, pop, kinetic, and a hundred other styles are pumped into the society at the same time. One or another may dominate the galleries temporarily, but there are no universal standards or styles. It is a pluralistic market place.5.Similarly, a wave of revolt for diversity in education has begun to sweep the college campus. New technology makes destandardization possible. Computers, for example, make it easier for a large school to schedule more flexibly. They make it easier for the school cope with independent study, with a wide range of course offerings and more varied extra-curricular activities. More important, computer-assisted education and other such techniques, despite popular misconceptions, radically enhance the possibility of diversity in the classroom. They permit each student to advance at his own purely personal pace. They permit him to follow an individual-cut path towards knowledge, rather than a rigid syllabus as in the traditional industrial era classroom.6.In education, therefore, as in the production of material goods, the society is shifting irresistibly away from, rather than towards, standardization. It is not simply a matter of more varied automobiles, detergents and cigarettes. The thrust towards diversity and increased individual choice affects our mental, as well as our material surroundings. (488 words)ARTICLE ANALYSISPassage 3Leisure and Leadership(不在老师给出的题目里面)1.Observations and research findings indicate that people in advanced industrial societies are increasingly concerned with opportunities for leisure and what they can do in their leisure time. The importance people attach to paid holidays and the rapid development of services for mass entertainment and recreation are signs of this increasing concern.2.As activity carried out as one thinks fit during one’s spare time, leisure has the following functions: relaxation, recreation and entertainment, and personal development. The importance of these varies according to the nature of one’s job and one’s life-style. Thus, people who need to exert much energy in their work will find relaxation most desirable in leisure. Those with a better education and in professional occupations may tend more to seek recreation and personal development (e.g., cultivation of skills and hobbies) in leisure.3.The specific use of leisure varies from individual to individual. Even the same leisure activity may be used differently by different individuals. Thus, the following are possible uses of television watching, a popular leisure activity: a change of experience to provide “escape” from the stress and strain of work; to learn more about what is happening in one’s environment; to p rovide an opportunity for understanding oneself by comparing other people’s life experiences as portrayed in the programs. In an urban society in which highly structured, fast-paced and stressful work looms large in life, experiences of a different nature, be it television watching or bird-watching, can lead to a self-renewal and a more “balanced” way of life.4.Since leisure is basically self-determined, one is able to take to one’s interests and preferences and get involved in an activity in ways that will bring enjoyment and satisfaction. Our likes and dislikes, tastes and preferences that underlie our choices of such activities as reading books, going to the cinema, camping, or certain cultural pursuits, are all related to social contexts and learning experiences. We acquire interests in a variety of things and subjects from our families, schools, jobs, and the mass media. Basically, such attitudes amount to a recognition that leisure is an important area of life and a belief that leisure can and should be put to good use.5.Parents, teachers in schools, work associates and communicators in or using the mass media are all capable of arousing our potential interests. For example, the degree to which and the ways in which a school encourages participation in games, sports and cultural pursuits are likely to contribute to the shaping of leisure attitudes on the part of the students. Schools usually set as their educational objective the attainment of a balanced development of the person. The more seriously this is sought, the more likely positive attitudes towards leisure as well as academic work will be encouraged.(462 words)ARTICLE ANALYSISPassage 41.Recent stories in the newspapers and magazines suggest that teaching and research contradict each other, that research plays too prominent a part in academic promotions, and that teaching is badly underemphasized. There is an element of truth in these statements, but they also ignore deeper and more important relationships.2.Research experience is an essential element of hiring and promotion at the research university because it is the emphasis on research that distinguishes such a university from an arts college. Some professors, however, neglect teaching for research, and that presents a problem.3.Most research universities reward outstanding teaching, but the greatest recognition is usually given for achievements in research. Part of the reason is the difficulty of judging teaching. A highly responsible and tough professor is usually appreciated by top students who want to be challenged, but disliked by those whose records are less impressive. The mild professor gets overall ratings that are usually high, but there is a sense of disappointment on the part of the best students, exactly those for whom the system should present the greatest challenges. Thus, a university trying to promote professors primarily on the basis of teaching qualities would have to confront this confusion.4.As modern science moves faster, two forces are exerted on professors: one is the time needed to keep up with the profession; the other is the time needed to teach. The training of new scientists requires outstanding teaching at the research university as well as the arts college. Although scientists are usually “made” in the elementary schools, scientists can be “lost” by poor teaching at the college and graduate school levels. Thesolution is not to separate teaching and research but to recognize that the combination is difficult but vital. The title of professor should be given only to those who profess, and it is perhaps time for universities to reserve it for those willing to be an earnest part of the community of scholars. Professors unwilling to teach can be called “distinguished research investigators, or something else”.5.The pace of modern science makes increasingly difficult to be a great researcher and great teacher. Yet many are described in just those terms. Those who say we can separate teaching and research simply do not understand the system, but those who say the problem will disappear are not fulfilling their responsibiliti es.(394 words)ARTICLE ANALYSISPassage 5Post-car Society1.KimiyukiSuda should be a perfect customer for Japan's carmakers. He's a young (34), successful executive at an Internet-services company in Tokyo and has plenty of disposable income. He used to own Toyota's Hilux Surf, a sport utility vehicle. But now he uses mostly subways and trains. Suda reflects a worrisome trend in Japan; the automobile is losing its emotional appeal, particularly among the young, who prefer to spend their money on the latest electronic gadgets. While minicars and luxury foreign brands are still popular, everything in between is slipping. Since 1990, yearly new-car sales have fallen from 7.8 million to 5.4 million units in 2007.2.Alarmed by this state of decay, the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association launched a comprehensive study of the market in 2006. It found a widening wealth gap, demographic changes—fewer households with children, a growing urban population—and general lack of interest in cars led Japanese to hold their vehicles longer, replace their cars with smaller ones or give up car ownership altogether. "Japan's automobile society stands at a crossroads," says Ryuichi Kitamura, a transport expert and professor at Kyoto University. He says he does not expect the trend to be reversed, as studies show that the younger Japanese consumers are, the less interested they are in having a car. JAMA predicts a further sales decline of 1.2 percent in 2008.3. But in Japan, the "demotorization" process, is also driven by cost factors. Owning and driving a car can cost up to $500 per month in Japan, including parking fees, car insurance, toll roads and various taxes. Taxes on a $17,000 car in Japan are4.1 times higher than in the United States, 1.7 times higher than in Germany and 1.25 times higher than in the U.K., according to JAMA. "Automobiles used to represent a symbol of our status, a Western, modern lifestyle that we aspired for," says Kitamura. For today's young people, he argues, "such thinking is completely gone."4.Cars are increasingly just a mobile utility; the real consumer time and effort goes into picking the coolest mobile phones and personal computers, not the hippest hatchback. The rental-car industry has grown by more than 30 percent in the past eight years, as urbanites book weekend wheels over the Internet. Meanwhile, government surveys show that spending on cars per household per year fell by 14 percent, to $600, between 2000 and 2005, while spending on Net and mobile-phone subscriptions rose by 39 percent, to $1,500, during the same period.5.For Japanese car companies, the implications are enormous. “Japan is the world’s second largest market, with a 17 to 18 percent share of our global sales. It’s important,” says Takao Katagiri, corporate vice president at Nissan Motor Co. The domestic market is where Japanese carmakers develop technology and build their know-how, and if it falters, it could gut an industry that employs 7.8 percent of the Japanese work force. While surging exports, particularly to emerging markets, have more than offset the decline in domestic sales so far, companies are looking for ways to turn the tide. Nissan, for example, is trying to appeal to the digital generation with promotio nal blogs and even a videogame. A racing game for Sony’s PlayStation, for example, offers players the chance to virtually drive the company’s latest sporty model, the GT-R—a new marketing approach to create buzz and tempt them into buying cars. Toyota Motors has opened an auto mall as part of a suburban shopping complex near Tokyo, hoping to attract the kinds of shoppers who have long since stopped thinking about dropping by a car dealership. It’s a bit akin to the Apple strategy of moving electronics out of the soulless superstore, and into more appealing and well-trafficked retail spaces. It worked for Apple, but then Apple is so 21st century. (638 words)Passage 6 Women Are Crazy for Fashion1.Whenever you see an old film, even one made as little as ten years ago, you cannot help being struck by the appearance of the women taking part. Their hair-styles and make-up look dated; their skirts look either too long or too short; their general appearance is, in fact, slightly ludicrous. The men taking part in the film, on the other hand, are clearly recognizable. There is nothing about their appearance to suggest that they belong to an entirely different age.2.This illusion is created by changing fashions. Over the years, the great majority of men have successfully resisted all attempts to make them change their style of dress. The same cannot be said for women. Each year a few so-called ‘top designers’ in Paris or London lay down the law and women the whole world over rush to obey. The decrees of the designers are unpredictable and dictatorial. This year, they decide in their arbitrary fashion, skirts will be short and waists will be high; zips are in and buttons are out. Next year the law is reversed and far from taking exception, no one is even mildly surprised.3.If women are mercilessly exploited year after year, they have only themselves to blame. Because they shudder at the thought of being seen in public in clothes that are out of fashion, they are annually blackmailed by the designers and the big stores. Clothes which have been worn only a few times have to be discarded because of the dictates of fashion. When you come to think of it, only a woman is capable of standing in front of a wardrobe packed full of clothes and announcing sadly that she has nothing to wear.4.Changing fashions are nothing more than the deliberate creation of waste. Many women squander vast sums of money each year to replace clothes that have hardly been worn. Women who cannot afford to discard clothing in this way, waste hours of their time altering the dresses they have. Hem-lines are taken up or let down; waist-lines are taken in or let out; neck-lines are lowered or raised, and so on.5.No one can claim that the fashion industry contributes anything really important to society. Fashion designers are rarely concerned with vital things like warmth, comfort and durability. They are only interested in outward appearance and they take advantage of the fact that women will put up with any amount of discomfort, providing they look right. There can hardly be a man who hasn’t at some time in his life smiled at the sight of a woman shivering in a flimsy dress on a wintry day, or delicately picking her way through deep snow in dainty shoes.When comparing men and women in the matter of fashion, the conclusions to be drawn are obvious. Do the constantly changing fashions of women’s clothes, one wonders, reflect basic qualities of fickleness and instability? Men are too sensible to let themselves be bullied by fashion designers. Do their unchanging styles of dress reflect basic qualities of stability and reliability? That is for you to decide.(515words)ARTICLE ANALYSIS 6Passage 7The Beauty of Mathematics1.The British philosopher and logician Bertrand Russell once wrote: “Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty — a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture.” Sculpture is widely admired in our societies —there is hardly a public space in our cities that does not boast a sculpture of some sort. But mathematical beauty is barely recognized beyond the confines of academia, and it is never celebrated.2.This seems curious, since it is clear that artists have long found inspiration in mathematics. Greek architects appear to have used a number known as the golden ratio when designing the Parthenon, and Leonardo D a Vinci’s Vitruvian Man, which depicts an outstretched figure encompassed by a square and a circle, is an attempt to link human beauty with geometry. And in the 20th century, artists have been exposed even more to mathematical ideas, initially because Victorian mathematicians found ways of visualizing mathematical formulae and functions in physical form. Now computers have made it possible to visualize even more complex functions as fractal patterns, and hence mathematical objects like Mandelbrot set have become household images.3.But mathematicians are not usually thinking of images, models and sculptures when they talk about beauty. Mathematical beauty is not a visual quality, Judging a piece of mathematics by the way it looks when modeled in clay, carved in stone or printed on paper is like judging a book by its typeface –it’s an absurd notion.4.What, then, constitutes beautiful mathematics? This is rarely debated among mathematicians, but there are some generally accepted tests that a piece of work must pass to be deemed beautiful —it must employ a minimal number of assumptions, for example, or give some original and important insight, or throw other work into new perspective. Elegance is perhaps a better term for it. There is a flip side, of course: a piece of mathematics laden with unnecessary assumptions and offering no new insight is deemed ugly. The most famous example of a function that meets all the requirements of beauty is Euler’s formula (e iπ+1=0), which links some of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics and draws together two entirely separate branches of the science –geometry, the study of space, and algebra, the study of structure and quantity.5.So why has mathematical beauty failed to make a cultural impact? One reason could be that this spectrum of aesthetics, with beauty at one end and ugliness at the other, sounds horribly one dimensional. And having rules for mathematical beauty feels, as Russell put in, cold and austere: this is a beauty devoid of emotion, profoundly different to that which we experience and admire in a physical world. The beauty of mathematics can be cold and austere, when viewed in a particular way. But viewed in another, it can be rich and warm, funny and sad, romantic and profound. Just like sculpture —he was right about it.(486words)ARTICLE ANALYSIS 7Passage 81. It’s possible to admire Oprah Winfrey and still wish Harvard hadn’t awarded her an honorary doctor of law degree and the commencement speaker spot at yesterday’s graduation. There’s no question Oprah’s achievements place her in the temple of American success stories. Talent, charm, and an exceptional work ethic have rarely hurled anyone as far as they have this former abused teenage mother from rural Mississippi who became one of world’s most successful entertainment icons and the first African-American female billionaire.2. Honorary degrees are often conferred on non-academic leaders in the arts, business, and politics. Harvard’s list in recent years has included Kofi Annan, Bill Gates, Meryl Streep, and David Souter. But Oprah’s particular brand of celebrity is not a good fit for the values of a university whose motto, Veritas, means truth. Oprah’s passionate advocacy extends, unfortunately, to a hearty embrace of fake science. Most notoriously, Oprah’s validation of Jenny McCarthy’s claim that vaccines cause autism has no doubt contributed to much harm through the foolish avoidance of vaccines.3. Famous people are entitled to a few failings, like the rest of us, and the choice of commencement speakers often reflects a balance of institutional priorities and aspirations. Judging from our conversations with many students, Oprah was a widely popular choice. But this vote of confidence in Oprah sends a troubling message at precisely the time when American universities need to do more to advance the cause of reason. As former Dean of Harvard College, Harry Lewis, noted in a blog post about his objections, “It seems very odd for Harvard to h onor such a high profile popularizer of the irrational…at a time when political and religious nonsense so jeopardize the rule of reason in this allegedly enlightened democracy and around the world.”4. As America’s oldest and most visible university, Harv ard has a special opportunity to convey its respect for science not only through its research and teaching programs but also in its public affirmation of evidence-based inquiry. Unfortunately, many American universities seem awfully busy protecting their brand name and not nearly busy enough protecting the pursuit of knowledge. A recent article in The Harvard Crimson noted the shocking growth of Harvard’s public relations arm in the last five years and it questioned whether a focus on risk management and avoiding controversy was really the best outward-looking face of this great institution.5. As American research universities begin to resemble profile centers and entertainment complexes, it’s easy to lose sight of their primary mission: to produce and spread knowledge. This mission depends on traditions of rational discourse and vigorous defense of the scientific method. Oprah Winfrey’s honorary doctorate was a step in the wrong direction.(445 words)ARTICLE ANALYSIS - Passage 8Passage 91. When Harvard student Mark Zuckerberg launched the in Feb. 2004, even he could not imagine the forces it would let loose. His intent was to connect college students. Facebook, which is what this website rapidly evolved into, ended up connecting the world.2. To the children of this connected era, the world is one giant social network. They are not bound — as were previous generations of humans — by what they were taught. They are only limited by their curiosity and ambition. During my childhood, all knowledge was local. You learned everything you knew from your parents, teachers, preachers, and friends. With the high-quality and timely information at their fingertips, today’s children are rising above the fears and biases of their parents. Adults are also participating in this revolution. India’s normally tame middle class is speaking up against social ills. Silicon Valley executives are being shamed into adding women to their boards. Political leaders are marshalling the energy of millions for elections and political causes. All of this is being done with social media technologies that Facebook and its competitors set free.3. As does every advancing technology,social media has created many new problems. It is commonly addictive and creates risks for younger users. Social media is used by extremists in the Middle East and elsewhere to seek and brainwash recruits. And it exposes us and our friends to disagreeable spying. We may leave our lights on in the house when we are on vacation, but through social media we tell criminals exactly where we are, when we plan to return home, and how to blackmail us.4. Governments don’t need informers any more.Social media allows government agencies to spy on their own citizens.We record our thoughts, emotions, likes and dislikes on Facebook; we share our political views, social preferences, and plans. We post intimate photographs of ourselves. No spy agency or criminal organization could actively gather the type of data that we voluntarily post for them. The marketers are also seeing big opportunities.Amazon is trying to predict what we will order. Google is trying to judge our needs and wants based on our social-media profiles. We need to be aware of the risks and keep working to alleviate the dangers.5. Regardless of what social media people use, one thing is certain: we are in a period of accelerating change.The next decade will be even more amazing and unpredictable than the last. Just as no one could predict what would happen with social media in the last decade, no one can accurately predict where this technology will take us. I am optimistic, however, that a connected humanity will find a way to uplift itself. (450 words)ARTICLE ANALYSIS – Passage 9Passage 10.The Use of Antibiotics in Modern US Agriculture1. One of the most striking patterns in modern US agriculture is the increasing use of antibiotics asa regular supplement in the feed and water consumed by cows, pigs and especially poultry. Most of these drugs are administered in small doses to farm animals not to cure sickness but to promote more growth on less feed and to prevent the infections that come with crowding in feedlots and confinement systems. The practice began in the late 1940s and has accelerated rapidly. Nobody knows precisely what volume of antibiotics is used today. But new estimates released by a public interest group suggest that the amount of antibiotics used nontherapeutically in American livestock has grown to 11.2 million kilograms per year, a number that may be as much as 50% higher than it was in 1985.2.These figures appear in a new report on agricultural antibiotics by the Union of Concerned Scientists, a nonprofit organization based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The numbers are alarming for two reasons. First, 11.2 million kilograms far exceeds previous estimates. Second, it was a very hard number to arrive at because the data for antibiotic production and use, in humans or animals, are, as the report states, “shockingly incomplete”. A trade group for the makers of veterinary medicines has estimated, for example, that far more antibiotics are used in treating human illness than are administered to animals. But the new estimates find just the opposite—that for the nontherapeutic purposes, cows, pigs and poultry receive overall more than eight times the amount of antibiotics that humans receive in the treatment of actual illness.3. The public has a vital interest in this issue because the number of microbes that are resistant to antibiotic treatments is increasing, and much of the problem stems from the overuse of antibiotics, which kill off susceptible microbes but leave the resistant ones to proliferate. Giving large numbers of animals small doses of antibiotics creates the perfect conditions for the development of resistant strains of microbes, which cause disease in humans. There is already widespread concern in the medical community about the prescription of unnecessary antibiotics for human use, but the problem is exacerbated by the indiscriminate use of antibiotics in agriculture. Moreover, the practice of giving animals antibiosis largely unnecessary, as farmers in Sweden, where giving important human antibiotics to farm animals is illegal, have proved.4. The public also has an interest in the quality of the information concerning antibiotic usage. It is difficult to craft a meaningful policy without accurate numbers. As this report convincingly argues, “even the most basic information on anti-microbial usage is not available”—not from either government sources or industry. Indeed, government health officials have complained about the lack of reliable data on antibiotic use.5. The way to ensure that antibiotics rain their efficacy against disease is to know exactly how and in what quantities they are being administered and to eliminate unnecessary usage. But there seems little doubt that antibiotic use will need to be cut back sharply before it produces even more microbes that are resistant to modern medicines. (512 words)。
武汉大学博士研究生申请-考核制选拔实施办法-武汉大学生命科学学院【范本模板】
关于印发《武汉大学博士研究生“申请—考核”制选拔实施办法》的通知全校各部门、单位:为深化研究生考试招生制度改革，提高博士研究生选拔质量,经学校研究生招生工作领导小组讨论通过，现将《武汉大学博士研究生“申请—考核”制选拔实施办法》印发给你们，请遵照执行。
特此通知武汉大学2015年10月10日武汉大学博士研究生“申请-考核”制选拔实施办法第一章总则第一条为贯彻落实《国务院关于深化考试招生制度改革的实施意见》（国发〔2014〕35号)、《教育部、国家发展改革委、财政部关于深化研究生教育改革的意见》（教研〔2013〕1号）、《武汉大学研究生教育质量工程建设方案（2014—2018）》（武大研字〔2014〕11号）、《武汉大学关于深化博士研究生考试招生制度改革的意见》等文件精神，深化研究生考试招生制度改革，提高博士研究生选拔质量，拓展优质生源，特制定本实施办法。
第二条优化招考选拔机制,建立与培养目标相适应、有利于拔尖创新人才和高层次应用型人才脱颖而出的研究生考试招生制度.强化招生单位质量保障的主体作用，充分发挥专家组审核作用，充分发挥和规范导师作用，形成特色鲜明、客观公正的考核办法，清晰透明、公平有效的选拔机制.注重对学生学术道德、专业素养、研究能力和创新潜质的综合考核评价，确保招生工作科学、规范、公平和安全，激发培养单位的内生动力和活力,提高研究生培养质量和学位点建设水平。
第二章招生导师及专家组第三条培养单位根据本单位年度博士研究生招生计划与学位点建设规划等实际情况，自主确定进入当年博士招生专业目录的学科专业及导师。
第四条培养单位按一级或二级学科组织考核专家组。
考核专家组由不少于5名本学科专业（或相近学科专业）的博士生指导教师组成，组长由培养单位研究生招生工作领导小组确定。
第三章申请条件第五条申请考核的考生须具备报考博生研究生基本条件，详见当年博士研究生招生简章.第四章考核程序第六条博士研究生“申请-考核”制的考核程序包括:网上报名、提交材料、资格审查、外语水平考试、确定候选人、现场确认、综合考核与录取。
武汉大学博士招生目录- 618卫星导航定位技术研究中心(2018年度)
刘晖
①1101英语
67 (全日制)雷达干涉测量与遥感
80 (全日制)GNSS遥感学
1601
李陶
74 (全日制)卫星导航数据处理理论和方法研究
75 (全日制)卫星导航差分增强系统
2085
唐卫明
①1101英语
78 (全日制)实时精密定轨定位方法
79 (全日制)地基GNSS实时高分辨率大气模型与应用
耿江辉
否
是
jgeng@
2310
李敏
否
否
limin@
62 (全日制)多源融合室内定位
82 (全日制)惯性导航（INS，Inertial Navigation Systems）
83 (全日制)组合导航（包括GNSS、INS、视觉定位）
1598
牛小骥
①1101英语
69 (全日制)高精度卫星定位理论与技术方法
70 (全日制)连续运行参考站网络理论与技术
71 (全日制)网络空间信息安全
导师
代码
导师
姓名
是否招收同等学力
是否招收
跨学科
联系电话
电子信箱
刘经南
否
是
jnliu@
姜卫平
否
否
wpjiang@
1291
江金光
否
是
jinguang@
1466
叶世榕
否
否
srye@
1467
赵齐乐
否
否
zhaoql@
0936
姜卫平
①1101英语
63 (全日制)卫星精密定位技术与应用85 (Biblioteka 日制)GNSS气象学1466
叶世榕
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数理方程共2页第1页
四、（20分，每小题10分）
1、求上半平面的格林函数；
2、用格林函数法求解
五、（
2、求广义函数 的傅里叶变换。
数理方程共2页第2页
武汉大学
2012年攻读博士学位研究生入学考试试题
科目名称：数理方程（A卷）科目代码：2117
注意：所有的答题内容必须答在答题纸上，凡答在试题或草稿纸上的无效。
一、（20分）
推导波动方程初值问题
解的达朗贝尔公式，当初始条件满足怎样的条件时其解仅由右传播波组成？
二、（20分）利用积分变换法解定解问题
三、（20分）