Syntax

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4.syntax

(1928-)
The traditional approach (传统学派)
❖ The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of … of words.
exocentric constructions 离心结构 on the shelf
The generative approach (生成学派)
❖ This approach originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen several stages of development.
词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).
(主要/次要词汇范畴)
2. What are major/minor lexical categories?
① Major lexical categories are often assumed 3.toWbehtahte ahreeadtsh(e中心cr语it/e中r心ia成t分o )daertoeurnmdinwehiach
branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.

Syntax语言学之句法学

句法学通过分析句子中的词语顺序、词类、句型等元素，以及它们之间的相互关系和作用，来揭示语言的内在结构和逻辑。
句法学的重要性
句法学是语言学研究的重要组成部分，它对于理解语言的本质、演变和功能具有重要意义。
句法学的研究成果有助于我们深入了解语言的表达方式和意义生成机制，对于语言教学、翻译、自然语言处理等领域也有着重要的应用价值。
03
短语结构规则是句法学中的基础规则，是构建句子和理解句子的关键。
转换规则
转换规则是指将一种句子结构转换为另一种句子结构的规则。
转换规则包括被动转换、主动转换、疑问转换等，通过转换规则可以将一个句子转换为另一个等义的句子。
转换规则在语言学中具有重要的意义，可以帮助我们理解不同句子之间的结构和语义关系。
syntax语言学之句法学
目录 Contents
• 句法学概述 • 句法结构 • 句法规则与理论 • 句法现象与问题 • 句法应用与实践
01
句法学概述
句法学定义
句法学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究句子结构的规律和规则。它致力于揭示不同语言中句子的构造特点和组织原则，并探究句子成分之间的关系和变化。
01
康复训练
基于句法学的康复训练方法能够针对性地帮助患者纠正语言障碍，提高其语言表达能力。
02
03
语言康复评估
通过评估患者的句法结构，能够对其语言康复效果进行客观的评估和反馈。
社会语言学与方言研究
社会方言
不同社会群体的语言使用习惯和句法结构存在差异，社会语言学和方言研究关注这些差异及其社会文化背景。
2
生成语法理论认为，人类语言具有一种天生的语法能力，能够根据一系列的规则和参数生成合乎语法的句子。

普通语言学 6-Syntax解析

?
Syntax
pedago gy
• Syntax 来自古希腊语：sý ntaxis • 布局、陈列（“arrangement” or “setting out together”）
符号学中的 Syntax
• Morris (1938):符号学（semiotics）的三个分支
1. Syntactics: 符号之间的关系
NP
N’ 是介于名词 N 和名词短语NP的中间层次
X-语杠
• X-语杠是大于中心语，小于短语（XP）的中间成分。 • X-语杠理论意味着每个短语都有中心语，即每个短语都是一个向心结构（endocentric structure）。 • 这有别于传统结构语言学区分向心结构和离心结构（ exocentric structure）的做法。
• 句子是理论/抽象单位,由语法界定。正确/不正确 • 语段是物理单位，属于言语表达或运用的范畴。合适/不合适
如何解决？？？
• 句子功能的区分：
1. 2. 3. 4. 陈述句（statement）疑问句（question）命令句（command）感叹句（exclamation）
如何解决？？？
???
• 现代句法学的句子定义不再使用“思想” 这一抽象的概念。 • 例如：an apple 表达思想,但不是句子； He came late, because he overslept. 一个句子，两个思想。
Bloomfield
• 现代语言学的句子定义深受美国结构主义语言学影响。 • 语法中最大的语言单位 / 适用于句法规则的最大结构单位。 • 一个独立的语言形式，不被任何语法结构包含在更大的语言形式中（Bloomfield, 1933）。 • An independent linguistic form, not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.

语言学 4 Syntax(课堂PPT)

• naughty
boys and girls
naughty boys and girls
•
boys and girls naughty boys
• Practice: Analyze the sentence “ They are flying planes.”
12
IC Analysis
• Practice: Please analyze the following three sentences by means of IC Analysis:
• The hierarchical structure of sentences can be analyzed by means of IC Analysis.
10
• e.g.
IC Analysis
He is from France
•
He is from France
•
is from France
16
•
very /Adv sweet /Adj
Labeled IC Analysis
•
3. His brother stayed at home /S
•
His brother /NP stayed at home / VP
•
His /Det brother /N stayed / V at home /PP
•
very fast
very sweet
•
3. His brother stayed at home
•
His brother stayed at home
•
His brother stayed at home

简明语言学教程第4章Syntax解析

In linguistics, Syntax (句法学) is a branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.
degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).
2. What are the criteria to determine a word’s categories? ① meaning; ② inflection; ③distribution. Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 3. What are major/minor lexical categories?

3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派). American linguists A. N. Chomsky (1928-)

Category (P42) refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

Syntax

For example, descriptivists might allow students to use either “slow” or “slowly” to modify a verb, the word “slow” should be used as an adverb because people often use the words interchangeably . However, prescriptivists would say "slowly" is the only.
relations of substitution are often called paradigmatic relations. It refers to the relations between words or phrases that can be substituted for each other in the same grammatical position. I( ) Tom the book. passed handed threw gave The ( ) smiles. strong man old professor pretty girl tall boy
• Descriptive usages are generally understood and don't need to be taught, especially to native speakers. Because descriptivists more easily accept change due to syntax modifications and cultural influences, they believe language is learned or understood, rather than taught.

戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第5章课件 _Syntax

4.2 Categories范畴
4.2.1 Word-level categories Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language e.g. a sentence a noun phrase a verb
4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structure短语范畴及结构

Definition: Phrases refer to the syntactic units which are built around a certain word category. 围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, called parts of speech) .
Here, word-level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.
Noam Chomsky [ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski] (1928--)
---- He is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician,political commentator and activist, the most influential linguist of the 20th century,and was voted the "world's top public intellectual"(世界顶级公共知识分子) in a 2005 poll. Chomsky has spent most of his career at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he is currently Professor Emeritus.

4.Syntax

e.g.
A story about a sentimental girl
4.3 Phrase structure rule

Grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase
A bird in the hand
2) Inflection
Words of different categories take different inflections. e.g. nouns – plural affix –s verbs – past tense affix –ed progressive affix –ing adjectives – -er, -est very helpful but does not always suffice e.g. moisture, fog; take, break; frequent, intelligent, dead;
Table 4-1 P43
Criteria in determining a word’s category

Word categories are not clear-cut e.g. love and push Use returnable plates. Not disposables. Three criteria :
It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straight forward from its meaning.
e.g. dilemma, friendship (concrete entities?); love, hate (also nouns); (be) aware of, know about (similar meaning)

语言学导论-第4章Syntax

Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy 观察充分性 Descriptive adequacy 描述充分性 Explanatory adequacy 解释充分性 The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
A Sentence: The boy kicked the ball. A Noun Phrase: strong man, tallest boy A Verb: kick, run, go
Words: Syntactic categories 句法范畴 can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.
Determiner (Det) 限定词: the, a, this, those Degree (Deg) 程度词: quite, very, more, so Qualifier (Qual) 修饰词: often, always, seldom, almost Auxiliary (Aux) 助词: must, should, can, might Conjunction (Con): and, but, or

no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.

英语语言学Syntax

Lexical categories 词汇范畴
The name given to classes into which lexical items are grouped. --There are traditionally 8 classes: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective , adverb,preposition,conjunction --Modern linguistic theories have more, -- They are also known as parts of speech and word classes
• (1)Structural analysis-study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language . • Syntagmatic relation:is a relation between one item and others in a sequence , or between the elements which are all present (horizonal relation). • Paradigmatic relation:is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a atructure or between one element present and the others absent (verdical relation ,substitution relation)
The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son

英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax

❖ IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets: ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)). It may also be more easily shown with a tree diagram: Poor John ran away.
❖ Concord: also known as agreement, may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
1. The traditional approach
The classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. 1) Number, gender and case 2) Tense and aspect 3) Concord and government
Chapter 4
Syntax
Syntax
Syntax: The study of the rules governing the
ways words and phrases are combined to form sentences. 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach

syntax新

From word to text 从语词到篇章 (syntax句法)
• 4.1 syntactic relations 句法关系 • Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: positional relations位置关系, relations of substitutability 替代关系and relations of cooccurrence同现关系. • 4.4.1positional relations位置关系 • Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.位置关系或词序指一门语言中词语的排列顺序 If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an uttereance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.
From word to text 从语词到篇章 (syntax句法)
• 4.2 Grammatical construction and its co2.1 grammatical construction • Grammatical construction or construct can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.语法结构或建构用来指语言中被赋予一种或多种功能的任何句法建构,包括在语言学上该建构所拥有的常规意义和用法.

syntax句法学

nominative (subject form) accusative 直接受格(direct object form)

dative 间接受格(indirect object form)
genetive属格 (possessive form)

pronouns nominative (I, he, she) genitive(my, his, her) accusative (me, him, her) nouns general (John, boys) genitive ( John's, boys')
According
to the relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve certain syntactic function in a clause.
Subject,
verb, object, complement, and
Present: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive Past: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive Future: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive Past Future: simple/future progressive/perfect/perfect progressive
FromGreek: Both
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Syntax as opposed to Morphology.
The traditional apporach.

syntax组句

syntax组句一、“syntax”的中文翻译及英语解释1. 中文翻译- “syntax”的中文是“句法；语法结构；语句结构”。

2. 英语解释- Syntax refers to the rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences in a language. It determines how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, and ultimately complete sentences. For example, in English, the basic word order in a simple declarative sentence is usually subject - verb - object (SVO). So, a correct sentence like “I love apples” follows this syntax, where “I” is the subject, “love” is the verb, and “apples” is the object.二、运用“syntax”组句的情况及10个例子1. 描写客观事实或陈述观点时- Example 1: She reads books every day. (Subject - Verb - Object structure. Here “She” is the subject who performs the action of “reads”, and “books” is the object of the action. This simple sentence structure is used to state a habitual action.)- Example 2: They like music. (Subject - Verb - Object. “They” is the subject, “like” is the verb expressing preference, and “music” is the object of that preference.)2. 描述动作的发生顺序时- Example 3: First, he wakes up, then he brushes his teeth. (Here, we use a sequence of simple sentences following the subject - verb - object syntax. “He” is the subject in both sentences, and “wakes up” and “brushes” are the verbs respectively. This shows the order of actions.) - Example 4: After she finishes her work, she goes home. (The main clauses “she goes home” follows the SVO syntax. The sub - clause “After she finishes her work” also has a proper syntax with “she” as the subject, “finishes” as the verb, and “her work” as the ob ject. This is used to show the time sequence of events.)3. 进行人物或事物的特征描述时- Example 5: The dog is big and friendly. (Subject - Verb - Complement. “The dog” is the subject, “is” is the verb, and “big and friendly” is the complement, which describes the c haracteristics of the dog. This syntax is used to give details about the subject.)- Example 6: My sister is smart. (Subject - Verb - Complement. “My sister” is the subject, “is” is the linking verb, and “smart” is the complement that describes the quality of the sister.)4. 表达存在关系时- Example 7: There are many flowers in the garden. (The “there be” structure is a special syntax in English to express existence. “There” is the dummy subject, “are” is the verb, and “many flowers” is the real subject. “In the garden” is the prepositional phrase indicating the location.)- Example 8: There is a book on the table. (Similar to the above, “There” is the dummy subject, “is” is the verb, “a book” is the real subject, and “on the table” is the prepositional phrase showing the loc ation.)5. 构建复合句时（以状语从句为例）- Example 9: When it rains, the ground gets wet. (The “When it rains” is an adverbial clause of time, following the subject - verb syntax with “it” as the subject and “rains” as the verb. The main clause “the ground gets wet” also fol lows the subject - verb - complement syntax. This is used to show the causal relationship between the two events.)- Example 10: Because he is ill, he doesn't go to school. (The “Because he is ill” is an adverbial clause of reason, with “he” as the subj ect, “is” as the verb, and “ill” as the complement. The main clause “he doesn't go to school” follows the subject - verb - object - adverbial structure. This is used to explain the reason for the action in the main clause.)三、个人观点Syntax is of fundamental importance in language learning and communication. A correct understanding and application of syntax rules allow us to form clear, accurate, and effective sentences. It serves as the backbone of language construction, enabling speakers and writers to convey their intended meanings precisely. Moreover, different languages may have different syntactic structures, and learning the syntax of a foreign language can help us gain deeper insights into the way that languagefunctions and the cultural background it reflects. However, while syntax provides the framework, it should not be overly rigidly adhered to in creative writing or in some forms of informal communication, where a certain degree of flexibility can add expressiveness and uniqueness to the language use.。

简明语言学教程第4章Syntax

specifier + head + complement
标志语中心语补足语
4.4.1.
specifiers 4.4.2. complements 4.4.3. modifiers
标志语

1. Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.

The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories. (traditionally, parts of speech)
1. How many word classes do you know about? ① traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun…. ② non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词),
XP rule
X head XP → (specifier) X (complement) a. XP (specifier) X b. X X (complement) XP phrase level X X (head)
specifier
X theory
(X标杆理论)
intermediate level
phrase structure rule: the grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.

SYNTAX

• 例如：在索绪尔对其在音位上的应用。 • 在单词bit中，/b/与/i/、/t/之间是组合关系。 • /b/与/p/、/s/、/h/之间是聚合关系。
Relation of co-occurrence
Words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus in English words of the class man, horse, etc. may be followed by words of the class of eat, live, etc. in short sentences, and usually are so followed, though it is a fallacy to say that all proper sentences must be of this type.
(a) The teacher saw the students. (b) The students saw the teacher.
Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and classifications) to classify languages in the world. SVO VSO Six possible types SOV of language OVS OSV VOS
Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.

syntax

syntaxSyntaxIntroduction:Syntax refers to the set of rules that govern the structure and arrangement of words and phrases to form meaningful sentences in a language. It plays a crucial role in communication and helps us understand and convey information accurately. This document aims to provide an overview of syntax and its importance across various languages.1. Basic Syntax Rules:1.1 Word Order:Word order refers to the arrangement of words in a sentence. Different languages have different word orders, such as subject-verb-object (SVO) in English or subject-object-verb (SOV) in Japanese. Understanding the correct word order is essential for conveying the intended meaning in a sentence.1.2 Sentence Structure:A sentence typically consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject refers to the noun or pronoun that performs the action, and the predicate includes the verb and other elements that provide information about the subject. The structure and arrangement of these elements may vary depending on the language.1.3 Parts of Speech:Words in a sentence can be classified into different parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Each part of speech functions differently and has its own syntactic characteristics.2. Syntax in Different Languages:2.1 English Syntax:English syntax follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) word order. However, there are exceptions and variations to this rule, such as questions (where subject and verb order is inverted) or imperatives (where the subject is often omitted).2.2 Chinese Syntax:Chinese syntax follows a subject-predicate-object (SPO) or subject-object-verb (SOV) word order. The use of particles,measure words, and the absence of tense markers are some unique syntactic features of the Chinese language.2.3 German Syntax:German syntax follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) word order like English. However, the position of the verb in a sentence can change depending on various factors such as tense, mood, and sentence structure.3. Importance of Syntax:3.1 Clarity and Understanding:Syntax ensures that sentences are structured in a way that allows for clear and unambiguous communication. By following the syntax rules of a language, we can effectively convey our thoughts and ideas.3.2 Grammatical Correctness:Syntax helps us maintain grammatical correctness in our language usage. Adhering to the correct word order and sentence structure ensures that our communication is not only clear but also grammatically accurate.3.3 Stylistic Considerations:Different sentence structures and word arrangements can give a certain flow and rhythm to our writing or speech. Following the syntax rules allows us to create stylistically pleasing and impactful sentences.4. Common Syntax Errors:4.1 Incorrect Word Order:In languages with fixed word orders, placing words in the wrong position can change the meaning of a sentence or render it grammatically incorrect.4.2 Sentence Fragments:A sentence fragment occurs when a group of words is punctuated as a sentence but lacks a subject or a verb. This error can be fixed by revising the sentence to include all necessary components.4.3 Run-on Sentences:A run-on sentence occurs when two independent clauses are joined together without proper punctuation. This error can be corrected by using appropriate punctuation or breaking the sentence into multiple shorter sentences.5. Conclusion:Syntax is an essential aspect of language that helps us understand and communicate effectively. By following the rules of syntax, we can ensure clarity, grammatical correctness, and stylistic excellence in our writing and speech. Understanding the syntax of different languages allows us to appreciate the diversity and richness of human communication.。