THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF TRANSLATORS
国际结算(英文版)清华大学出版社-答案
KEY OF INTERNATIONAL SETTLEMENTChapter 11.Put the following phrases into English2.Put the following sentences into English(1)国际结算涉及有形贸易和无形贸易，外国投资，从其他国家借贷资金，等等。
The international settlement involves tangible trades, intangible trades, foreign investments, funds borrowed from or lent to other countries and so on.(2)许多银行注重发展国际结算和贸易融资的业务。
Many banks have focused on their business of international settlement and trade finance.(3)大多数国际间的支付来自于世界贸易。
Most of the international payments originate from transactions in the world trade.(4)一般来说，国际结算的方式分为三类：汇款、托收和信用证。
Usually the international settlement is divided into three broad categories: remittance, collection and letter of credit.3. True or False1)International payments and settlements are financial activities conducted inthe domestic country. (F)2)Fund transfers are processed and settled through certain clearing systems.(T)3)Using the SWIFT network, banks can communicate with both customers andcolleagues in a structured, secure, and timely manner.(T)4)SWIFT can achieve same day transfer.(T)4.Multiple Choice1)SWIFT is __B__A.in the united statesB. a kind of communications belonging to TT system for interbank’s fundtransferC.an institution of the United NationsD. a governmental organization2)SWIFT is an organization based in __A___A.BrusselsB.New YorkC.LondonD.Hong Kong3) A facility in fund arrangement for buyers or sellers is referred to __A___A.trade financeB.sale contractC.letter of creditD.bill of exchange4)Fund transfers are processed and settled through __C___A.banksB.SWIFTC.clearing systemD.telecommunication systems5)__C__is the reason why international trade first began.A.Uneven distribution of resourcesB.Patterns of demandC.Economic benefitsparative advantages5. Answer the following questions1)Where are the medium of exchange originated from?Tracing back the history of international settlement, the medium of exchange originated from coins to notes.2)What will inevitably lead to under the international political, economic andcultural exchanges?The international political, economic and cultural exchange inevitably leads to credits and debts owed by one country to another.3)Why do banks focus on the development of the businesses of internationalsettlement?Banks focus more and more on the development of the businesses because it isa major resource of profits.4)What will banks do to meet the higher and higher demand of the internationalmarket?Banks need to develop innovative products and deliver the best services possible in whatever way they can.Chapter 21.Put the following phrases into English2.Put the following sentences into English(1)用于国际结算的货币是可兑换的货币。
国际组织简写
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 亚太经合组织ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations 东南亚国家联盟（东盟）AU African Union 非洲联盟BFA Boao Forum for Asia 博鳌亚洲论坛G8 Summit 八国集团会议非洲联盟（African Union -- AU，简称“非盟”）IMF International Monetary Fund 国际货币基金组织IMO International Marine Organization 国际海事组织ISO International Standardization Organization 国际标准化组织OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 石油输出国组织OAPEC Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries 阿拉伯石油输出国组织WB World Bank 世界银行南方中心（South Centre）。
OECD Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development 经济合作与发展组织SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization 上海合作组织SWIFT Society for Worldwide Inter-bank Financial Telecommunication 环球金融电讯网络阿盟阿拉伯国家联盟League of Arab States -- LAS东南亚国家联盟（简称东盟，Association of Southeast Asian Nations -- ASEAN北大西洋公约组织（North Atlantic Treaty Organization -- NATO ），简称北约英联邦(The Commonwealth) 不结盟运动（Non-Aligned Movement -- NAM）独联体是独立国家联合体(Commonwealth of Independent States -- CIS)阿拉伯各国议会联盟(Arab Inter-Parliamentary Union -- AIPU)西欧联盟(Western European Union -- WEU。
国际学术交流英语课文翻译
their inheritance or from taking up jobs, limiting the
range of tasks they may perform, defining child care as
译文：不正确的性别观念也被嵌入到大多数的公共政策 中。政府转让土地几乎只给男性，对于那样的观念有太 多的（东西）需要去改变，而不是仅仅是男尊女卑的普 遍现实。男性通常被看作是原始的物质胜利者，而女性 只是最好的助手。
词汇：embed in 使牢牢嵌入
The same is often true of many social security schemes. In India, for instance, typically widows even if destitute are not entitled to a pension if they have an adult son, and sometimes even an adult male relative. In practice, assumptions about male altruism are often proved wrong.
deserve. That is the inequality about gender-biased
social perceptions and social norms.
译文：这个会议讨论的（内容）很广泛。我将专注于
性别歧视的一个方面（的议题），它集中影响着数以 百万计的女性工人，但也许未能得到应有的重视。这 个性别的歧视是由社会观念和社会准则的偏见所造成 的。
翻译期刊
3.国内外重要翻译类学术期刊(1)《中国翻译》，中国翻译工作者协会会刊(2)《中国科技翻译》，中国科学院科技翻译工作者协会(3)《上海科技翻译》，上海市科技翻译学会会刊(4)《翻译学报》，香港中文大学翻译系学术期刊(5)Target International Journal of Translation Studies. John Benjamins, PO Box 27519, Philadelphia, PA 19118-0519(6)Babel John Benjamins Publishing Company. PO Box 27519, Philadelphia, PA 19118-0519(7) Translation Review ALTA(American Literary Translators Association), The University of Texas, PO Box 830688, Richardson, TX 75083. Quarterly(8) ATA Chronicle(American Translators Association)(The best periodical publication for translators in the U.S. Monthly, with one issue for November-December), 225 Reinekers Lane, Suite 590, Alexandria, VA 22314(9)META (Translat ors’ Journal) Presses de l’Université de Montreal, C.P. 6128/ Succursale cen tre ville, Montréal, Quebec, Canada, H3c 3J7 Quarterly4.国际及部分国家翻译组织机构简介(1) 国际翻译工作者协会（International Federation of Translators //Federation Internationale des Traducteurs） (简称FIT) 地址：P.O. Box 21, Dr. Heinrich Maierstrasse 9, A-1184, Vienna, Austria Phone: +(43) 1-440 36 07 Fax: (43) 1-440 37 56 Web site:（其成员有53个国家和地区共个74成员协会）(2) 中国科技翻译工作者协会（Science and Technology Translators’ Association of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (STTACAS)（国际译协会员）, 中国北京市三里河路52号，邮政编码：100864 电话：+86 10 836 14 53 Fax: +86 10 851 10 95(3) 中国翻译工作者协会（Translators’ Association of China）（国际译协会员）, 中国北京市百万庄路24号外文楼，邮政编码：10037 电话/电报：+86 10 68 32 66 81(4) 爱尔兰翻译工作者协会(Irish Translators’ Association), Irish Writers’ Centre, 19 Parnell Square, Dublin 1, Ireland Tel: +353 1 872 13 02 Fax: +353 1 872 62 82 Web site: homepage.tinet.ie/~translation(5)新西兰笔译及口译工作者协会（New Zealand Society of Translators and Interpreters (Inc.) ）, c/o Dr. Sabine Fenton, Director, Center for Translation & Interpreting Studies/ Auckland Institute of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1020. New Zealand Tel: +64 4 761 216 Fax: +64 4 360 16 41(6)英国翻译工作者协会（The Translators’ Association）, 84 Drayton Gardens, LondonSW109SB, England Tel: +44 171 373 66 42(7)美国翻译工作者协会（American Translators’ Associat ion）(简称ATA), 225 Reineckers Lane, Suite 590, Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: +1 703 683 6100 Fax: +1 703 683-6122 Web site: 。
国际会议级别
Asian Control Conference (ASCC)
European Association for Signal Processing 18.
(EURASIP)
European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO)
19. European Graphics Society
The Optoelectronics and Communications Conference (OECC)光電與通訊工程國際研討會
International Symposlum on Growth of
19. Association for "Optoelectronics Frontier by Nitride Ⅲ-Nitrides(ISGN)三族氮基半導體生長國際研討
23. European Union Control Association (EUCA)
European Control Conference (ECC)
Innovative Computing, Information and Control 24.
(ICIC)
International Symposium on Intelligent Informatics (ISII)
6. Society (WSEAS)
八)
Administered by UCMSS Universal Conference The International Conference on e-Learning,
7. Management Systems & Support/The University of e-Business, Enterprise Information Systems, and
国际雪联
FEDERATION INTERNATIONALE DE SKI INTERNATIONAL SKI FEDERATIONINTERNATIONALER SKIVERBANDFIS SNOWBOARDJUDGES MANUAL2003/2004INTERNATIONAL SKI FEDERATIONFEDERATION INTERNATIONALE DE SKIINTERNATIONALER SKI VERBANDBlochstrasse 2, CH-3653 Oberhofen / Thunersee, SwitzerlandTelephone:+41 (33) 244 61 61Fax: +41 (33) 244 61 71Website:+ (ftp://ftp.fisski.ch)Oberhofen, June 2003Page 2 of 411.Selection of Headjudge and Judges for FIS events: Halfpipe and Big Air (4)2.Rights and Duties of FIS Snowboard Judges (5)3Judging Regulations (6)4Qualifications – License (Halfpipe and Big Air) (8)5Judges Training (9)6Halfpipe Judging Criteria for FIS World Cup (10)7List of Materials (13)8Checklist for Headjudge (14)9 Snowboarding basic trick dictionary (16)10Trick Steno System (27)11Memoryboards (28)12FIS Snowboard Judges Stand Requirements (29)13Competition Format for FIS World Cup in Halfpipe (30)14Construction of Competition Sites (33)15Halfpipe Site (36)16.Big Air (37)17Competitors Equipment (38)18Public Address System (38)19Judges Stand for Big Air (38)20Big Air Judging (38)21Big Air Judging criteria (39)22Tie Breaking for Big Air (40)23Big Air Site (41)ORGANIZATIONThe Judges Manual includes official rules from the ICR, FIS-Points-Rules, COC-Rules and WC-Rules. It is a highly recommended guide, but not an official rule book.1. Selection of Headjudge and Judges for FIS events: Halfpipe and Big Air1.2 Selection CriteriaAll Headjudges and Judges for the upcoming World Cup season will be selected during the fall meetings of the FIS Snowboard Coordination Board at the latest. The Judges for CoC- and FIS-Events will be selected when the final calendar planning is completed.1.3 Nations NominationsThe Nations propose the judges to the Judges Working Group*. The Snowboard Committee approves the FIS SJWG proposal. In case of OWG, WSC or WJC, the proposals of the FIS SJWG and the Snowboard Committee are subject to the final approval from the council.There are no maximum WC events for judges but rotation is strongly recommended.*) In case the SJWG proposes a judge, the respective National Association has to approve the nomination in advance. The SJWG chairman to be responsible for the Nations` confirmation.OWG:Nations proposals to be made in the fall meeting approximately 18 months prior to the games.WSC/WJC:Nations proposals to be made in the spring meeting approximately 12 months prior to the event.WC:Nations proposals to be made in the fall meeting of the respective season.At level 2, 3 and 4 events several judges from the host nation will be allowed.Lower level events can be used as test events for new formats (please see WG minutes).1.4 FIS SJWG meetingsAnnual spring meetings of the FIS SJWG to be established and continued. In any case, the FIS SJWG should meet during the finals or one of the last World Cup events.2. Rights and Duties of FIS Snowboard Judges2.1 A snowboard judge has the right to:•Receive rule books and other materials to train as a judge•To have access to the judges stand during competition•Be reimbursed for their expenses (see item 5)•Receive daily compensation (see item 5)•Receive lift tickets during all training and competition days•Attend all official events and functions•Check results and judges memory boards•Attend all official trainings2.2Duties of a snowboard judge:•To have a thorough and complete knowledge of the FIS Snowboard rules.• A FIS snowboard judge must attend a minimum of one international judges clinic. each second year and also attend the national judges cliniceach second year to maintain the judging license.•Have a valid license and be qualified to judge at the competition concerned.•Contributes to all judging decisions.•Be bound by all the guidelines and rules set forth in the FIS snowboard rule book.•Follow the FIS Snowboard judging criteria.•Maintain their judging standard qualification.•Judge each rider without bias regardless of their person or nationality.•Be at the judges stand 15 minutes before the start of the competition or at the time announced by the Headjudge.•Wait on the judges stand 15 minutes after the competition or longer if the Headjudge requests.•If necessary, check and help with the calculation of results.•Be at the team leaders meeting before the competition day.•Inspect the competition site in due time.•Watch the official training.•If a Snowboard judge does not follow these regulations in all points, the license is subject to review by the FIS Snowboard Judges Working Group.2.3 Rights and Duties of the Headjudge•Is appointed by the FIS SJWG•Shall have a valid judging license to Headjudge at the competition concerned•Shall have a complete knowledge of the FIS judging procedure and follow the rules and guidelines set forth therein.•Is responsible for the coordination of judges before and during competition.•Is responsible to coordinate accommodation and transportation for all judges at the competition in question.•Is a member of the jury with voting rights.•Shall participate at all jury and team captain meetings whenever possible, the HJ should present the panel of judges at the last meeting beforecompetition.•Is responsible to see that all judges follow the FIS Snowboard judges criteria. If a judge does not follow the criteria, is not acting in a professionalmanner or is unfit to judge, the Headjudge may replace the judge inquestion. If there are no other judge available, the Headjudge can scorethe event.•If six judges are present, the Headjudge does not give scores.•Check results and judging memory boards with the other judges and confirm to the TD as soon as they are official.•Shall complete the Headjudge report within 1 day after the last competition day. Copies to be sent to the Chairperson of the FIS SJWG and the FISoffice. These documents are confidential.•Inspect the location of the judges stand and construction at least one day before the first competition day, any revisions required to the judges standto be presented to the TD prior to the last training day.•Ensure that the standard of the accommodations and transportation are fulfilled:-All the rooms should be booked in the same hotel.-Hotels should be as close to the venues as possible.-The Headjudge should have a single room.-Scoring judges should also have single rooms. If single rooms are not possible, no more than 2 judges are allowed per room.-Organizers to supply contacts, names and phone numbers of hotel.-Transportation from the hotel to the team captains meeting and to the competition site has to be provided.•Is responsible to collect the money for expenses and daily compensations for all judges from the Organizing Committee before the first day ofcompetition.•Is responsible for coordinating all judging requirements at site with the event organizers and the TD.3 Judging Regulations3.1 Judging Procedure•The judges use the FIS Snowboard criteria at each FIS competition•The judges shall work independently, unless the Headjudge calls a meeting.•Each judge shall make a permanent written record of his/her scores at all times.•In the event of a protest, the Headjudge and judges involved shall review the permanent written record and, if necessary, consult with other scoringjudges and use any other means available to the Headjudge to review theprotest. The Headjudge shall have the final say in determining the scorethat will be used.•No scores shall be released as official until verified and approved by the Headjudge.•For open scoring the marks are shown to the public immediately after the headjudges approval.3.2 Number of judges•At World Championships and Olympic Winter Games there will be 8 judges, this includes an assistant headjudge and a score verifier. Specialprovision may be added for a reserve judge. It is mandatory that all scoringjudges be from different countries.•There are 6 judges (including the Headjudge) at each FIS World Cup and at FIS Junior World Championships.•At FIS CoC and FIS level events, it is recommended to use 6 judges.3.3 Travel Expenses•The least expensive routes shall be used to calculate travel expenses.Approval from the FIS Representative is required if higher expenses are tobe incurred.•Expenses shall be reimbursed as follows: airfare to be lowest class: ground transportation shall be paid; the mileage rate is: 0.5CHF per km. The ratefor additional passengers is: 0.1 CHF. Travel arrangements to beapproved by the FIS Representative.•The daily allowance for judges is determined by FIS.3.4Organizing Committee CostsWorld CupsTo be described in the respective books of duties between FIS and the Organizer.Continental Cups (EC, NAC, SAC)•At all Continental Cups the cost of travel and compensation must be paid to the Judges by the organizer.•The FIS SJWG can decide to use only five judges at these competitions.•Lunch for judges on training and competition days.•Accommodation and meals (see above for World Cups)•Travel expenses to events. Car travel km charge is set at 0.5 CHF per km.Air travel is to be booked at the lowest rates.•The Judges compensation is to be paid for judging days and two travel days only, (e.g. 2 days - Qualification and Final day) ie: day’s judged. Thecompensation is 50 EUR per day.•In the event of a cancellation, the judges will receive compensation for days judged only. In the case of a competition being canceled the day ofthe competition, if the judges are on the stand, they will get thecompensation for that day. The judges will get reimbursed for out of pocketexpenses incurred as a result of a cancellation, this includes advanced airticket.4 Qualifications – License (Halfpipe and Big Air)FIS Snowboard JudgesA, A-prov, B, B-prov can be issued by the FIS SJWG only. Nationalassociations can issue up to a C level license.4.1 A-LicenseA-License Judges may judge at all levels of FIS Snowboard competitions.Be Head Judge at all FIS competitions including Olympic Winter Games and World Championships.4.2 A-ProvA-Prov Judges may judge at all FIS snowboard competition lower then OWG, but notOlympic Winter Games.Be Head Judge at FIS World Cups, Continentals and lower.4.3B-LicenseB-License Judges may judge FIS World Cups, Continentals and lower.Be Head Judge at FIS Continentals and lower.4.4B-ProvB-Prov Judges may judge FIS World Cups, FIS Continentals and lower.Be Head Judge at FIS Continentals and lower.4.5C-LicenseC-License Judges may judge FIS Continentals and lower.A maximum of 2 C-License judges per Continental event is allowed.Be Head Judge at all National events.Licenses OWG WSC WC CoC FIS NCA-Judges X X X X X XA-Head-Judges X X X X X XA-Prov Judges X X X X XA-Prov Head-Judges X X X XB-Judges X X X XB-Head-Judges X X X XB-Prov Judges X X X XB-Prov Head-Judges X X XC-Judges X*X XC-Head-Judges X*X X*) Only a maximum of 2 (two) C-licensed judges per FIS Continental Cup competition4.6Prerequisite for a A-License-Have judged a minimum of five (5) FIS World Cups in the last three years.-Approved by the FIS Snowboard Judges Working Group.-Have attended a minimum of one International FIS Judges seminars in the last two years.-Have been judging for a minimum of four (4) years.4.7Prerequisite for a B-License-Have judged a minimum of three (3) FIS Continental Cups.-Have judged a minimum of 1 FIS Snowboard World Cup in the last two years.-Approved by the FIS Snowboard Working Group.-Have attended minimum of one International FIS Judges Seminar.-Have been judging for a minimum of two (2) years.4.8Prerequisite for a C-License-Have judged a minimum of five (5) competitions in their nations.-Approved by the NGB Judges Working Group.-Have attended at least one National Judges clinic.4.9In General- A Nation can only issue a C-License. In order to get a higher license, the judges need to attend an International FIS judge’s clinic and be approved by the FIS Snowboard Judges Working Group.Snowboard judges selection criteria for Olympic Winter Games- A judge must have a FIS Snowboard A-License- A judge has to be nominated by the FIS Snowboard Judges Working Group- A judge must have been a judge at a minimum of eight FIS World Cups (including FIS World Championships) two years prior to OWG.- A judge should have a good command of the English language- Judges should be from different areas, Asia, Southern Hemisphere, Europe, Scandinavia and North America.- A Headjudge should have been a judge (not a Headjudge) at the previous Olympics.- All National Associations can propose judges to the FIS SJWG, if they meet all the criteria.5Judges Training5.1 Sanctioning of International judges clinicsAll International Judges clinics/seminars are sanctioned by the FIS SJWG.5.2Selection of proctors/instructors•It is mandatory that all proctors/instructors for international judges clinics have attended clinics and have been approved by the FIS SJWG.•The proctor/instructor for international clinics shall be a FIS A license judge.•Anyone qualified to teach at international judges clinic must submit their name in writing to FIS SJWG chair, three weeks before the spring FISmeeting.•Selection of the proctor/instructor will be based on a number of factors: -Capacity to prepare the course material.-Attitude-Ability & Experience-Knowledge of the sport-Experienced Headjudge at FIS World Cups.6Halfpipe Judging Criteria for FIS World Cup6.1 Five judges shall evaluate each halfpipe run using the follow criteria:1 Judge Standard Airs1 Judge Rotations1 Judge Overall Impression1 Judge Overall Impression1 Judge Overall Impression6.2Standard Airs – 1 JudgeThis is all maneuvers with less than 360 degrees of rotation. This includes aerials with and without grabs, tricks on or near the lip, and handplants.Emphasis for judging will be on execution, difficulty, and variety. Riders need to perform no more than 50% of available hits in the halfpipe to maximize their potential score for Standard Airs.Criteria ConsiderationsStandard Airs are all “straight airs”, and include any trick with less than 360 degrees of rotation. These maneuvers may be grouped into several “sub-groups” such as: straight airs, airs to fakie, fakie to forward, alley oops, switchstance airs, handplants and liptricks. To score a high variety, a rider should include a maneuver from as many sub groups as possible. For example, performing different backside airs with grabs can show good variety, but including a switchstance air, an alley oop, and an air to fakie, shows much greater variety… as well as increasing the difficulty. More amplitude will also increase the difficulty. For good execution the grab should be solid, the body maneuvered into the appropriate position, and then the grab released… all in one smooth motion.6.3Rotations – 1 JudgeThis is all maneuvers with 360 degrees or more of rotation. This includes spins (horizontal rotations), flips (vertical rotations), hybrids (combination of horizontal and vertical rotations), as well as handplants and liptricks over 360 degrees. Emphasis for judging will be on execution, difficulty, and variety.Riders need to perform no more than 50% of available hits in the halfpipe to maximize their potential score for Rotations.Criteria ConsiderationsRotations can be separated into sub-groups including horizontal rotations, vertical rotations and hybrids. A key point: a grabbed 540 is certainly better than a 540 without grab. Again, variety plays a major role; poor variety may mean doing 3 frontside 540´s all with different grabs - technically these are “different”, but it doesn’t show high variety. More variety means doing maneuvers that are more dissimilar, such as a 540, a 720, a McTwist, and a backside 360. Good execution for rotations means being smooth, precise, and under control during the trick. Difficulty increases with amplitude, and may also be increased by including stalling and/or off-axis combinations.6.4Overall Impression - 3 JudgesThese judges will score the run by evaluating overall precision, including the execution of the run and the routine attempted. The OI judge evaluates the precise nature of the run in relation to maneuvers attempted, both individually and as a sequence. The overall composition of the run is most important as the OI judge evaluates the sequences of tricks, the amount of risk in the routine, and how the rider uses the pipe. The OI judges take falls into consideration and can deduct up to 25 % of the points of the run/judge for each fall.Criteria ConsiderationsThe OI judge looks at the overall routine of how the run progresses and flows, taking everything into consideration. This means the amplitude, difficulty, variety, pipe-use and execution of all tricks. Amplitude means the height of the tricks preformed. Difficulty refers to not only the tricks performed but also the placement of the tricks and the combinations used. Variety refers to a good mix of Standard Airs and Rotations, performed on both walls of the pipe.Execution refers to the stability, fluidity and control of maneuvers performed.The OI judge is looking how rider puts together the run to show a variety of tricks that are well executed and difficult. The OI judge looks at falls as not only affecting the trick attempted, but also on the next few hits since the rider may have lost momentum. The OI judges also consider the rider’s intensity, smoothness and pipe-use. Thus high amplitude and higher risk taking will increase a riders score, as will attempting a difficult maneuver at the beginning of a run. Also sequences of tricks are important, for example, back to back 720´s may be more difficult than splitting them up in the run.6.5Deductions for falls will be as follows:0.1 – 0.4Unstable body, flat landings, missed airs, speed checks, flailingand sketchets.0.5 – 0.9Using hand for stability, hand drags.1.0 – 1.9Minor falls, body contact with snow.2.0 – 2.5Major falls and complete stops.6.6Finish LineThe finish line indicates the final point of take off that will be considered by the judges. If a rider takes off and performs a trick on or before the line, the trick (and any fall) will count.6.7Split Scoring System: Considerations of the Judging CriteriaIn the current system, the judges criteria is divided into three categories: Standard Airs, Rotation, and Overall Impression (x 3). Each of the 5 judges may give 0.0 – 10.0 points for a potential total of 50.0 points per run.The split scoring system works as an integration of checks and balances. For example, a rider can’t get a high score by impressing only the Rotations judge.In order to get a good score the rider needs to impress all judges by making sure to do well in each criteria. A good halfpipe run is not based on any one thing, but it is based on everything as a whole. The key concept is balance…this is what makes a good halfpipe run.The main problem for the judge panel is to determine what’s the ideal and what is not. To help judges in assessing a halfpipe run, three key concepts are considered:First we have the concept of “variety”. If the athlete can do a large number of different tricks, he shows a high mastery of the sport and is thus better than someone who can only do a limited number of maneuvers. A second concept is “difficulty”. A good rider must be able to perform tricks that are difficult.Third, each trick must be performed with ideal “execution”. This is where discrepancies in judging are often being challenged…. What is ideal execution? The answer - it’s up to the discretion of the judge, such is the nature of a judged competition. For example: one who performs a method air by barely bending his knees and just touching his board has not performed the trick in a difficult and well executed manner compared to someone who grabs his board, pulls it over his head, holds it, and straightens his legs. It’s up to the judge to make this discretion.Obviously, experience and observation are the keys when it comes to judging execution, and difficulty. Therefore we must stress the importance of judge training. The best snowboarder in the world may also be the best or the worst judge. If a judge isn’t properly trained, his scores will reflect it in their inaccuracy and inconsistency.6.8Tie-BrakeIn the event that two or more competitors obtain the same score, the highest overall impression total score in the tied run shall determine the winner. If the overall impression scores are tied, the next step is to compare the individual scores by judging criteria. The rider with the greatest number of higher scores shall be declared the winner. If all of the above tie-break rules are the same, then the rider with the highest standard air score shall be declared the winner. 7List of MaterialsJudging SuppliesThe Headjudge needs to receive from the organiser a variety of materials and staff to run the Halfpipe event. This includes:Supplies:- Access to a copy machine- 10 copies of the official starting list- Copies of Memory boards40 of Overall Impression30 of Standard and Rotation- Box of pencils- Pencil sharpeners- Stapler and extra staples- 1 hand calculator (as big as possible, fresh batteries)- 2 large erasers- Manila envelops (8 Total) for the score cards- Score board for results close to Judge Stand and up on start- Hot & cold drinks and a variety of snacksFurniture:- Tables for seven people- Chairs for six people with backrestsStaff:- Official scoring secretary and three assistants to be used to run scores, record runs on score board (only if used)- Starter and co-starter8Checklist for HeadjudgeName of competition:Before competitiono Judges have been selected for competitiono Judge Ao Judge Bo Judge Co Judge Do Judge EContact person from Organising CommitteeName of Contact personPhone numbero Transport has been organised by Organisations committeeo Accommodation have been organised by Organisations committeeo All the judges know the judge contact personArrivalo Ski passes to all the judgeso Food couponso See if judges have arrivedo Check if the judges have good accommodationo Check if there is something special going on ex :beer tickets to Party Check Halfpipe with Chief of Competition and TDo Inclinationo Lengtho Widtho Fenceso Start areao Finish areaGet input about Halfpipe from the coaches/ ridersCheck judge stand with Chief of Competition and TDo View over Halfpipeo Enough heighto Large enougho Stableo In the centreCompetition Committee MeetingsFirst meetingo Discuss competition programo Discuss the material you need (list of supplies)o Meet chief of scoringSecond meetingo Discuss condition of Halfpipeo Time schedule for programOK fromo TDo Chief of compo Chief of scoringo Speakero Startero All assistantsMaterial for Judges Stando Radioso Blanketso Food and drinks (coffee, soft drinks, water)o Judge cards, pencils, staples, memory boards, start lists etc. Team captains meetings day before competitiono Introduce judgeso Report from TD and chief of competitiono Competition format and judging criteriao Present Halfpipe programJudge meeting night before competitiono Discuss the days official training in the pipeo Discuss condition of Halfpipeo Discuss judge stando Set the time for presence at the judge stando Assign judging criteria’s to judgeso Transportation issues if necessary to HalfpipeCompetitiono Make sure that you have the FIS rule bookArrive early to check:o Judge stando Fencingo Start areao Finish areao Discuss the order of seatingo Distribute starting lists and judge material to judgeso Practice scoringo Radio check with TD and startero Placement of finish line ( last point of take off )o Check judge scores between qualification and finalsPost competitiono Wait 15 min for protest timeo Check result with chief of scoringo Fill in Headjudge report and send it to FIS judges sub committeeo Participation at the award ceremonyo Thank members of Organising Committeeo All the judges have been paido All the judges have transportation arrangedo Closure with TD9 Snowboarding basic trick dictionaryCentre of balance and axisCentre of Balance: Is located at the level of the navel, where the three axis intersect.Longitudinal axis: Runs across the width of the body, through the balance point.Vertical axis: Runs from the head to the feet, through the balance point.Lateral axis: Runs from front to back, through the balance point.POSITION OF THE FEET ON THE BOARDRegular: Left foot front.Goofy: Right foot front.It is very important to know if a rider is Regular or Goofy. (R or G)It will be mandatory in the inscriptions of an event that the riders write in if they are Regular or Goofy also the Judges must observe and inspect each rider during the trainings.It is a very important fact for the judges, because they must know when a rider goes with his basic or switch stance.Normal/Forward: The rider goes forward in his basic stance.Fakie: The rider goes backwards in his basic stance. The turn is around the tail (the nose takes off before the tail).Switchstance: The rider goes backwards with his stance switched, mirror vice. A regular rider now goes like a goofy rider, and vice versa. The turn is around the nose (the tail takes off before the nose).A REGULAR:Stance NORMAL/FORWARD – Left front foot.Stance SWITCHSTANCE – Right front foot.A GOOFY:Stance NORMAL – Right front foot.Stance SWITCHSTANCE – Left front foot.The tricks performed in Switchstance are more difficult, so it must be accounted for in the scores.Frontside / Backside: Two turns directions can be determined. In Pipe the reference is the lip/wall, when the chest is in front of the lip/wall (F rontside) and if the back is against the lip/wall (Backside).Alley Oop: Trick Uphill, in opposite direction of the hill. A frontside trick is on the backside wall and vice versa. All the tricks can be done with Alley Oop. PARTS OF THE BOARDNOSE = TOE SIDE TAIL = HEEL SIDEPARTS OF THE PIPELIP: Top of the pipe.TRANSITION: Radius of the pipe. FRONTSIDE WALL: Front wall.BACKSIDE WALL: Back wall. Frontside wall Backside wallA Regular:Riders Right Riders LeftA Goofy:Riders Left Riders RightTRICKSAIRS: Tricks over the lip of the pipe.HANDPLANTS: Tricks in which the rider leans one or two hands on the lip. LIPTRICKS: Tricks on the lip, not included in the other two classifications. AIRSRotation under 360° (Around vertical Axis):Grab Backside wall Frontside wallFront Hand toe side Mute SlobFront Hand heel side BS Air Lien AirBack Hand toe side Indy FS AirFS StalefishBack Hand heel side BSStalefish/FreshfishBack Hand tail side BS Tailgrab FS TailgrabBS = Backside, FS = Frontside。
世界各大组织的英文缩写
世界各大组织的英文缩写UN the United Nations 联合国FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 联合国粮食及农业组织UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 联合国教科文组织UNCF United Nations Children's Fund,其前身是United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund 联合国儿童基金会UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization联合国工业发展组织UNDP United Nations Development Programme联合国开发计划署UNEP United Nations Environment Programme联合国环境署UNCDFUnited Nations Capital Development Fund联合国资本开发基金会UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 联合国贸易与发展会议WHO World Health Organization 世界卫生组织WMO World Meteorological Organization 世界气象组织WTO World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 关税及贸易组织WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization世界知识产权组织WPC World Peace Council 世界和平理事会ILO International Labour Organization 国际劳工组织IMF International Monetary Fund 国际货币基金组织IOC International Olympic Committee 国际奥林匹克委员会UPU Universal Postal Union 万国邮政联盟ITU International Telecommunication Union 国际电信联盟IFCInternational Finance Corporation 国际金融公司IMO International Maritime Organization 国际海事组织ISO International Standard Organization 国际标准化组织ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization 国际民用航空组织IDA International Development Association 国际开发协会IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development 国际农业发展基金会IOJ International Organization of Journalists 国际新闻工作者协会ICCInternational Chamber of Commerce国际商会UEAUniversal Esperanto Association国际世界语协会INTELSAT International telecommunications Satellitic国际通信卫星机构IRTO International Radio and Television Organization国际广播电视组织IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency 国际原子能机构NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization北大西洋公约组织OPECOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries石油输出国组织ACP Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific Region Countries 非洲、加勒比和太平洋国家集团ADB Asian Development Bank 亚洲开发银行ADB African Development Bank 非洲开发银行APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 亚太经济合作组织ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations 东南亚国家联盟公约AU African Union 非洲联盟BFA Boao Forum for Asia 博鳌亚洲论坛BIE Bureau of International Expositions 国际展览局BIS Bank for International Settlements 国际清算银行CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission 食品法典委员会CDB Caribbean Development Bank 加勒比开发银行CFC Common Fund for Commodities 商品共同基金CSD Commission on Sustainable Development 联合国可持续发展委员会EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 欧洲复兴发展银行ECLAC UN Economic Commission for Latin America and Caribbean 联合国拉丁美洲和加勒比经济委员会ECOSOC UN Economic and Social Council 联合国经济和社会理事会ESCAP UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific 联合国亚洲及太平洋经济社会委员会ESCWA UN Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia 联合国西亚经济社会委员会EU European Union 欧洲联盟G 8 Summit Summit Group of Eight Summit八国集团首脑会议G20 Group of Twenty 20国集团G24 Group of Twenty Four 24国集团IADB Inter-American Development Bank 美洲开发银行/泛美开发银行IATA International Air Transport Association 国际航空运输协会IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development国际复兴开发银行/世界银行ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization 国际民航组织ICC The International Chamber of Commerce 国际商会ICO International Coffee Organization 国际咖啡组织ICSID International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes 国际投资争端解决中心IDA International Development Association 国际开发协会IDB Inter-American Development Bank 美洲开发银行IDB Islamic Development Bank 伊斯兰开发银行IEA International Energy Agency 国际能源机构IEC International Electro Technical Commission 国际电工委员会IFA International Franchise Association 国际特许经营加盟协会IFAC International Federation of Accountants 国际会计师联合会IFAD International Fund for Agriculture Development 国际农业发展基金IFC International Finance Corporation 国际金融公司IGC International Grains Council 国际谷物理事会ILO International Labor Organization 国际劳工组织IMF International Monetary Fund 国际货币基金组织IMC International Maritime Committee 国际海事委员会IMO International Maritime Organization 国际海事组织INBAR International Network for Bamboo and Rattan 国际竹藤组织INRO International Natural Rubber Organization 国际天然橡胶组织IOE Office International Des Epizooties 国际兽疫组织IOOC International Olive Oil Council国际橄榄油理事会ISDB Islamic Development Bank 伊斯兰开发银行ISF International Shipping Federation 国际海运联合会ISO International Organization for Standardization 国际标准化组织ISO International Sugar Organization 国际糖组织ITC International Trade Centre 国际贸易中心ITCB International Textiles and Clothing Bureau 国际纺织品与服装局ITU International Telecommunication Union 国际电信联盟MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency 多边投资担保机构OAPEC Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries 阿拉伯石油输出国组织OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 经济合作与发展组织OIE Office International Des Epizooties 世界动物卫生组织OIML International Organization for Legal Metrology 国际法定度量衡组织OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 石油输出国组织PBEC Pacific Basin Economic Council 太平洋盆地经济理事会PECC Pacific Economic Cooperation Council 太平洋经济合作理事会PIF Pacific Islands Forum 太平洋岛国论坛UN United Nations 联合国UN General Assembly 联合国大会简称联大UNSCSecurity Council联合国安全理事会FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 联合国粮食及农业组织UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 联合国教科文组织UNCF United Nations Children's Fund,其前身是United Nations International Children'sEmergency FundUNICEF 联合国儿童基金会UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization联合国工业发展组织UNDPUnited Nations Development Programme联合国开发计划署UNEP United Nations Environment Programme联合国环境署UNCDFUnited Nations Capital Development Fund联合国资本开发基金会UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 联合国贸易与发展会议WHO World Health Organization 世界卫生组织WMO World Meteorological Organization 世界气象组织WTO World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 关税及贸易组织WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization世界知识产权组织WPC World Peace Council 世界和平理事会ILO International Labour Organization 国际劳工组织IMF International Monetary Fund 国际货币基金组织IOC International Olympic Committee 国际奥林匹克委员会IPC International Paralympic Committee 国际残疾人奥林匹克委员会UPU Universal Postal Union 万国邮政联盟ITU International Telecommunication Union 国际电信联盟IFCInternational Finance Corporation 国际金融公司IMO International Maritime Organization 国际海事组织ISO International Standard Organization 国际标准化组织ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization 国际民用航空组织IDA International Development Association 国际开发协会IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development 国际农业发展基金会IOJ International Organization of Journalists 国际新闻工作者协会ICCInternational Chamber of Commerce国际商会UEAUniversal Esperanto Association国际世界语协会INTELSAT International telecommunications Satellitic国际通信卫星机构IRTO International Radio and Television Organization国际广播电视组织IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency 国际原子能机构NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization北大西洋公约组织OPECOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 石油输出国组织OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development经济合作与发展组织CMEACouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance经济互助委员会经互会APEC Asia and Pacific Economic Cooperation 亚洲太平洋经济合作组织ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations东南亚国家联盟OAU Organization of African Unity 非洲统一组织OIC Organization of the Islamic Conference 伊斯兰会议组织CIS Commonwealth of Independent States 独立国家联合体EU European Union 欧洲联盟IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union 各国议会联盟OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe欧洲安全与合作组织EEC European Economic Communities 欧洲经济共同体OEEC Organization for European Economic Cooperation欧洲经济合作组织NAM the Non-Aligned Movement 不结盟运动ANC African National Congress 非洲人民大会PLO Palestine Liberation Organization巴勒斯坦解放组织ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross 红十字国际委员会NASANational Aeronautics and Space Administration美国航天太空总署NMDNational Missile Defense国家导弹防御系统WB World Bank 世界银行ADB Asian Development Bank 亚洲开发银行EAC East African Community 东非共同体SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization 上海合作组织SEAFDEC Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center 东南亚渔业开发中心SWIFT Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial elecommunication 环球银行间金融电讯协会UNCITRAL United Nations Commission on International Trade Law 联合国国际贸易法委员会UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 联合国贸易与发展会议UNDP United Nations Development Programme 联合国开发计划署UNECA UN Economic Commission for Africa 联合国非洲经济委员会UNECE UN Economic Commission for Europe 联合国欧洲经济委员会UNEP United Nations Environment Programme 联合国环境规划署UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization 联合国工业发展组织UNIDROIT International Institute for the Unification of Private Law 国际统一私法协会WAIPA World Association of Investment Promotion Agencies 世界投资促进机构协会WASME Association for Small and Medium Enterprises 世界中小企业协会WB World Bank 世界银行WCO World Customs Organization 世界海关组织WEC World Energy Council 世界能源理事会WFC World Food Council 世界粮食理事会WFDSA World Federation of Direct Selling Associations 世界直销协会联盟WFP World Food Program me 世界粮食计划署WHO World Health Organization 世界卫生组织WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization 世界知识产权组织WTCA World Trade Center Association 世界贸易中心协会WTO World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织WTO-OMT World Tourism Organization 世界旅游组织。
本地化行业(Localization)不可不知的缩写词
Common Sense Advisory 评选“世界百强语言供应商”︱专注翻译 恪守精准1本地化行业(Localization)不可不知的缩写词作为本地化从业者，在日常工作和沟通中，我们总能听到一些耳熟能详的缩略语，但您都了解它们的具体含义吗？特此从中摘录了50条最为常见的缩写词，供各位学习参考：【字母数字组合缩略语】I18n – Internationalization （国际化）G11n – Globalization （全球化）L10n – Localization （本地化）T9n – Translation （翻译）【本地化组织或协会】LISA -- The Localization Industry Standards Association （本地化行业标准协会）GALA -- The Globalization and Localization Association （全球化与本地化协会）ATA -- American Translators Association （美国翻译协会）Common Sense Advisory 评选“世界百强语言供应商”︱专注翻译 恪守精准2TAC -- Translation Association of China （中国翻译协会）FIT -- International Federation of Translators （国际译联）【本地化日常沟通常用语】CAT -- Computer-aided Translation （计算机辅助翻译） TM -- Translation Memory （翻译记忆库）MT -- Machine Translation （机器翻译） TD/TdB -- Terminology Database （术语库）TU -- Translation Units （翻译单元） UI -- User Interface （用户界面）SW – Software （软件） PO -- Purchase Order （采购订单）Doc – Documentation （文档） OLH -- Online Help （在线帮助）DTP -- Desktop Publishing （桌面排版） JAS -- Job Assignment Sheet （工作任务单）LQR -- Language Quality Report （语言质量报告）TEP -- Translating, Editing, Proofreading （翻译、校对、审校）BU -- Business Unit （业务单元）【本地化供应商及职位】Common Sense Advisory 评选“世界百强语言供应商”︱专注翻译 恪守精准 3 LSP -- Language Service Provider （语言服务供应商） SLV -- Single-language Service Vendor （单语服务供应商） MLV -- Multi-language Service Vendor （多语服务供应商） LSDV -- Language Specific Dedicated VendorGPM -- Global Project Manager （全球项目经理）LPM -- Local Project Manager （本地项目经理） AM -- Account Manager （客户经理）PM -- Project Manager （项目经理） LL -- Language Lead （语言主管）TL -- Team Lead （团队主管） SME -- Subject Matter Expert （主题专家）【本地化邮件高频词】BTW -- By the way （顺便说一下）ASAP -- As soon as possible （尽快）OOO -- Out of office （不在办公室）PTO -- Paid time off （带薪休假）EOB – End of Business （下班前）EOD – End of Day （当日）Common Sense Advisory 评选“世界百强语言供应商”︱专注翻译 恪守精准 4 CC -- Carbon Copy （抄送）BCC -- Blind Carbon Copy （秘抄）【常用时区】DST -- Daylight Saving Time （夏令时）GMT -- Greenwich Mean Time （格林威治标准时间） CET -- Central European Time （欧洲中部时间） EST -- Eastern Standard Time （美国东部时间） EET -- Eastern European Time （欧洲东部时间） JST -- Japanese Standard Time （日本标准时间）。
世界各种组织会议中英文名大全
欧洲联盟（欧盟）独立国家联合体（独联体）上海合作组织阿拉伯各国议会联盟阿拉伯国家联盟 （阿盟)西欧联盟拉丁美洲议会阿拉伯马格里布联盟非洲联盟（非盟）欧洲安全与合作组织（欧安组织)美洲国家组织法语国家组织（又称“法语共同体”）里约集团国际移民组织伊比利亚美洲国家首脑会议桑戈委员会亚洲议会和平协会禁止化学武器组织欧洲委员会南亚区域合作联盟 （南盟)波罗的海国家委员会非洲统一组织（非统组织)各国议会联盟（议联)维谢格拉德集团政府间移民委员会巴黎统筹委员会（巴统）的正式名字是“输出管制统筹委员会” 亚太议会论坛海湾合作委员会（海合会)联合国协会世界联合会 (世联会)大赦国际国际刑事警察组织（国际刑警组织)伊斯兰会议组织前政府首脑国际行动理事会英联邦国际刑事法院加勒比国家联盟南美洲国家联盟前身为南美国家共同体（南共体)社会党国际核供应国集团葡萄牙语国家共同体（葡语国家共同体)“中欧倡议国”组织不结盟运动澳新美理事会自由进步党国际古阿姆民主与发展组织巴黎俱乐部 也称“十国集团”７７国集团国际劳工组织中国－阿拉伯国家合作论坛地中海联盟美洲议会联盟萨赫勒－撒哈拉国家共同体（简称萨－撒共同体）南方中心金砖四国中美洲议会美洲玻利瓦尔联盟世界贸易组织（世贸组织）亚太经济合作组织（亚太经合组织）石油输出国组织东非政府间发展组织 (伊加特）经济合作与发展组织亚洲开发银行 (亚行）世界银行集团，俗称世界银行阿拉伯石油输出国组织“十五国集团”又称“南南磋商与合作首脑级集团” 非洲开发银行欧洲复兴开发银行（欧洲银行）环印度洋地区合作联盟二十国集团美洲开发银行加勒比开发银行中部非洲国家经济共同体２４国集团欧洲中央银行欧洲自由贸易联盟南部非洲发展共同体国际展览局南方共同市场（南共市）比荷卢经济联盟西非经济共同体关税及贸易总协定 (关贸总协定)安第斯共同体 (安共体)太平洋岛国论坛大湖国家经济共同体博鳌亚洲论坛太平洋共同体东部和南部非洲共同市场（东南非共同市场）非洲发展新伙伴计划世界旅游组织东非共同体西非经济货币联盟 (西非经货联盟)加勒比共同体和共同市场国际能源机构拉美经济体系中美洲一体化体系大湄公河次区域经济合作世界能源理事会拉丁美洲一体化协会国际航空运输协会非洲、加勒比和太平洋地区国家集团（非加太集团）黑海经合组织发展中八国集团（伊斯兰发展中八国集团）反洗钱金融行动特别工作组国际货币基金组织南方银行加勒比石油计划国际标准化组织泛美开发银行集团科技、文化世界卫生组织 (世卫组织)第三世界科学院世界民主青年联盟国际足球联合会国际科学理事会世界基督教会联合会亚洲奥林匹克理事会国际档案理事会国际自由工会联合会国际奥林匹克委员会世界文化和自然遗产政府间委员会（世界遗产委员会）国际交流发展计划万国邮政联盟国际军事体育理事会世界汉语教学学会世界盲人联盟国际音乐理事会国际信息处理联合会世界厕所组织（也简称WTO）国际世界语协会(国际世协）国际新闻工作者协会国际新闻学会国际战略研究所国际新闻工作者联合会国际大学协会国际奥比斯组织国际图书馆协会联合会（国际图联）世界穆斯林大会无国界医生组织国际翻译家联盟 (国际译联)世界土著人理事会国际新闻电影协会国际自然及自然资源保护联盟世界佛教徒联谊会世界科技城市联盟国际志愿服务协调委员会国际会计师联合会世界休闲组织国际红十字会与红新月会联合会亚太空间合作组织世界医护人员联盟国际反贪局联合会国际捕鲸委员会世界知识产权组织世界动物卫生组织非洲性别平等集团世界气象组织国际博物馆协会世界移动通信大会和全球移动通信系统协会国际人类学与民族学联合会世界技能组织亚欧会议亚洲相互协作与信任措施会议（亚信会议）东亚峰会国际反贪污大会世界经济论坛世界社会论坛世界经济论坛世界社会论坛世界卫生大会世界妇女大会世界华商大会世界石油大会世界青年大会法非首脑会议日内瓦裁军谈判会议 (裁谈会)东盟外长会议上海合作组织峰会世界粮食首脑会议二十国集团峰会世界大城市首脑会议巴尔干国家首脑会议非洲－欧洲首脑会议联合国小岛屿国家会议联合国千年首脑会议联合国反对种族主义世界大会联合国国际人口与发展大会世界妇女峰会世界城市论坛亚洲政党国际会议东盟地区论坛世界水资源论坛世界月球会议世界知识论坛世界湖泊大会亚太经合组织领导人非正式会议东盟与中国（“１０＋１”）领导人会议东盟与中日韩（１０＋３）领导人会议东南欧稳定公约魏玛三角“北美安全与繁荣联盟”首脑会议（北美峰会）政治类组织European Union -- EUCommonwealth of Independent States -- CISShanghai Cooperation Organization -- SCOArab Inter-Parliamentary Union -- AIPULeague of Arab States -- LASWestern European Union -- WEULatin-American ParliamentUnion of the Arab Maghreb；Union du Maghreb Arabe -- UMA African Union -- AUOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe -- OSCE Organization of American States -- OASOrganisation Internationale de la Francophoniethe Rio GroupInternational Organization for Migration -- IOMIbero-American SummitZangger Committee -- ZACThe Association of Asian Parliaments for Peace—AAPP Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons -- OPCW Council of Europe -- COESouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation -- SAARC Council of the Baltic Sea States -- CBSSOrganization of African Unity -- OAUInter-Parliamentary Union -- IPUVisegrad GroupIntergovernmental Committee for Migration -- ICMCo-Ordinating Committee for Export ControlThe Asia-Pacific Parliamentary Forum — APPFGulf Cooperation Council -- GCCWorld Federation of United Nations Association -- WFUNA Amnesty International -- AIInternational Criminal Police Organization -- TERPOL Organization of the Islamic Conference -- OICInter Action Council of Former Heads of Government -- ICFHG The CommonwealthInternational Criminal Court -- ICCAssociation of Caribbean States -- ACSSouth American Community of Nations — CSNSocialist International -- SINuclear Suppliers Group -- NSGCommunity of Portuguese-Speaking Countries -- CPLPCentral European Initiative -- CEINon-Aligned Movement -- NAMANZUS councilLiberal International -- LIGUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic DevelopmentParis Club (Group-10)Group of 77 -- G77International Labor Organization -- ILOChina-Arab Cooperation ForumMediterranean UnionAmerican Parliamentary UnionCommunity of Sahel - Saharan StatesSouth CentreＢＲＩＣｓCentral American ParliamentBolivarian alliance经济类组织World Trade Organization -- WTOAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation -- APECOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries -- OPECIntergovernmental Authority on Development -- IGADOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Development -- OECDAsian Development Bank -- ADBWorld BankOrganization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries -- OAPECGroup 15（Summit Level Group for South-South Consultation and Cooperation）African Development Bank -- ADBEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development -- EBRDIndian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation -- IOR-ARCGroup of TwentyInter-American Development Bank -- IDBCaribbean Development Bank -- CDBEconomic Community of Central African States -- ECCASGroup of Twenty Four -- G2European Central Bank -- ECBEuropean Free Trade Association -- EFTASouthern African Development Community -- SADCBureau of International Expositions -- BIESouth American Common Market-- MERCOSURUnion Economique BeneluxEconomic Community of West African States --ECOWASGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade -- GATTAndean CommunityPacific Islands ForumEconomic Community of the Great Lakes CountriesBoao Forum for Asia -- BFAPacific Community -- PCCommon Market for Eastern and Southern Africa -- COMESAthe New Partnership for Africa's Development -- NEPADWorld Tourism OrganizationEast African Community -- EACUnion Economique et Monétaire Ouest-Africaine -- UEMOACaribbean Community and Common Market -- CARICOMInternational Energy Agency -- IEALatin Aamerican Economic System -- LAESCentral American Integration System -- SICAGreater Mekong Subregion Economic CooperationWorld Energy Council -- WECLatin American Integration Association -- LAIAInternational Air Transport Association -- IATAGroup of African, Caribbean and Pacific Region Countries -- Group of the ACP Bangladesh Steel & Engineering Corporation--BSECthe Group of the developing G8 (Group of Eight Islamic Developing)Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering -- FATFInternational Monetary Fund -- IMFSouth BankCaribbean oil planInternational Organization for Standardization--ISOInter-American Development Bank Group、文化、体育等专业类组织World Health Organization -- WHOThird World Academy of Sciences -- TWASWorld Federation of Democratic Youth -- WFDYFederation Internationale de Football Association -- FIFAInternational Council for Science -- ICSUWorld Council of Churches -- WCCOlympic Council of Asia -- OCAInternational Council on Archives -- ICAInternational Confederation of Free Trade Unions -- ICFTUInternational Olympic Committee -- IOCWorld Heritage CommitteeInternational Programme for the Development of Communication — IPDCUniversal Postal Union -- UPUInternational Military Sports Council -- CISMInternational Society for Chinese Language TeachingWorld Blind UnionInternational Music Council -- IMCInternational Federation for Information Processing -- IFIPWorld Toilet OrganizationUniversal Esperanto Association -- UEAInternational Organization of JournalistsInternational Press Institute -- IPIInternational Institute for Strategic Studies -- IISSInternational Federation of Journalists -- IFJInternational Association of Universities -- IAUProject Orbis -- ORBISInternational Federation of Library Associations and Institutions -- IFLAWorld Muslim Congress -- WMCDoctors Without Borders, Medecins Sans Frontiers -- MSFInternational Federation of Translators；Federation International des Traducteurs -- FIT World Council of Indigenous PeoplesInternational Newsreel and News Film Association -- INNAInternational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources -- IUCNWorld Fellowship of Buddhists -- WFBWorld Technoplis Association -- WTACoordinating Committee for International Voluntary Service -- CCIVSInternational Federation of Accountants -- IFACWorld Leisure OrganizationInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent SocietiesAsia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization--APSCOWorld allience of heakth careInternational Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities --IAACAInternational Whaling CommissionWorld Intellectual Property Organization -- WIPOOffice International Des Epizooties --OIEAfrican Gender Equality GroupWorld Meteorological Organization -- WMOInternational Council of MuseumsMobile World Congress and Global System for Mobile Associationthe International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciiences--ＩＵＡＥＳWorldSkills International国际会议Asia-Europe Meeting -- ASEMConference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia -- CICAEast Asia SummitInternational Anti-Corruption Conference -- IACCWorld Economic Forum -- WEFWorld Social Forum — WSFWorld Economic Forum -- WEFWorld Social Forum — WSFWorld Health Assembly -- WHAWorld Conference on WomenWorld Chinese Entrepreneurs Convention -- WCECWorld Petroleum Congress -- WPCWorld Assembly of Youth -- WAYFranco-African SummitConference on Disarmament in GenevaASEAN Foreign Ministers MeetingShanghai Cooperation Organization SummitWorld Food SummitSummit of the Group of TwentySummit Conference of Major Cities of the World -- SCMCWBalkan SummitAfrica-Europe SummitUnited Natiosn Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing United Nations Millennium SummitWorld Conference Against Racism of United NationsInternational Conference on Population and DevelopmentGlobal summit of womenWorld Urban ForumInternational Conference of Asian Political PartiesASEAN Regional ForumWorld Water ForumGlobal summit of moonWorld Knowledge ForumWorld Lake ConferenceAPEC Informal Leadership MeetingASEAN-China High- level SymposiumASEAN, China, Japan and ROK （10 ＋ 3 ） High- level SymposiumStability Pact for South Eastern EuropeWeimar Triangle summitSecurity and Prosperity Partnership of North America --SPPurs -- FIT ＩＵＡＥＳd Developing States。
国际组织中英文对照表
政治类联合国United Nations -- UN欧洲联盟，简称“欧盟”European Union -- EU独立国家联合体，简称“独联体”Commonwealth of Independent States -- CIS阿拉伯各国议会联盟Arab Inter-Parliamentary Union -- AIPU上海合作组织Shanghai Cooperation Organization -- SCO阿拉伯国家联盟，简称“阿盟”League of Arab States -- LAS西欧联盟Western European Union -- WEU拉丁美洲议会Latin-American Parliament阿拉伯马格里布联盟Union of the Arab Maghreb；Union du Maghreb Arabe -- UMA非洲联盟，简称“非盟”African Union -- AU欧洲安全与合作组织，简称“欧安组织”Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe -- OSCE美洲国家组织Organization of American States -- OAS；Organizacion de los Estados Americanos -- OEA法语国家组织Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie东南亚国家联盟，简称“东盟”Association of Southeast Asian Nations -- ASEAN里约集团the Rio Group国际移民组织International Organization for Migration -- IOM伊比利亚美洲国家首脑会议Ibero-American Summit ，全称为“伊比利亚和拉丁美洲讲西班牙语和葡萄牙语国家首脑会议”北大西洋公约组织，简称“北约”North Atlantic Treaty Organization -- NATO 桑戈委员会Zangger Committee -- ZAC ，又称“核出口国委员会”亚洲议会和平协会The Association of Asian Parliaments for Peace—AAPP 禁止化学武器组织Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons -- OPCW华沙条约组织，简称“华约”Warsaw Treaty Organization -- WTO——1991年7月1日解体欧洲委员会Council of Europe -- COE南亚区域合作联盟，简称“南盟”South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation -- SAARC波罗的海国家委员会Council of the Baltic Sea States -- CBSS非洲统一组织,简称“非统组织”Organization of African Unity -- OAU各国议会联盟,简称“议联”Inter-Parliamentary Union -- IPU,原名为“促进国际仲裁各国议会会议”维谢格拉德集团Visegrad Group政府间移民委员会Intergovernmental Committee for Migration -- ICM巴黎统筹委员会,简称“巴统”,正式名字是“输出管制统筹委员会”Co-Ordinating Committee for Export Control ——1994年4月1日，巴统正式宣告解散亚太议会论坛The Asia-Pacific Parliamentary Forum —APPF海湾合作委员会，简称“海合会”Gulf Cooperation Council -- GCC，全称“海湾阿拉伯国家合作委员会”联合国协会世界联合会，简称“世联会”World Federation of United Nations Association -- WFUNA大赦国际Amnesty International -- AI国际刑事警察组织，简称“国际刑警组织”International Criminal Police Organization -- TERPOL伊斯兰会议组织Organization of the Islamic Conference -- OIC前政府首脑国际行动理事会Inter Action Council of Former Heads of Government -- ICFHG英联邦The Commonwealth国际刑事法院International Criminal Court -- ICC加勒比国家联盟Association of Caribbean States -- ACS南美国家共同体South American Community of Nations —CSN社会党国际Socialist International -- SI核供应国集团Nuclear Suppliers Group -- NSG葡萄牙语国家共同体，简称“葡语国家共同体”Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries -- CPLP中欧倡议国组织Central European Initiative -- CEI不结盟运动Non-Aligned Movement -- NAM澳新美理事会ANZUS council ——澳大利亚、新西兰和美国三国结成的军事联盟组织自由进步党国际Liberal International -- LI巴黎俱乐部Paris Club ，也称“十国集团”Group-10，但拥有包括美国、英国、德国、法国、日本等国在内的19个成员77国集团Group of 77 -- G77 ，虽然后来成员国逐渐增加，但集团名称仍保持不变国际劳工组织International Labor Organization -- ILO古阿姆民主与发展组织GUAM中国－阿拉伯国家合作论坛科技、文化、体育等专业类世界卫生组织，简称“世卫组织”World Health Organization -- WHO亚太经济合作组织，简称“亚太经合组织”Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation -- APEC石油输出国组织Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries -- OPEC 东非政府间发展组织，简称“伊加特”Intergovernmental Authority on Development -- IGAD经济合作与发展组织Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development -- OECD亚洲开发银行，简称“亚行”Asian Development Bank -- ADB国际复兴开发银行International Bank for Reconstruction and Development -- IBRD ，通称“世界银行”World Bank阿拉伯石油输出国组织Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries -- OAPEC“15国集团”Group 15 ，又称“南南磋商与合作首脑级集团”Summit Level Group for South-South Consultation and Cooperation非洲开发银行African Development Bank -- ADB欧洲复兴开发银行，简称“欧洲银行”European Bank for Reconstruction and Development -- EBRD环印度洋地区合作联盟Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation -- IOR-ARC20国集团Group 20美洲开发银行Inter-American Development Bank -- IDB加勒比开发银行Caribbean Development Bank -- CDB中部非洲国家经济共同体Economic Community of Central African States -- ECCAS24国集团Group of Twenty Four -- G24欧洲中央银行European Central Bank -- ECB欧洲自由贸易联盟European Free Trade Association -- EFTA，又称“小自由贸易区”南部非洲发展共同体，简称“南共体”Southern African Development Community -- SADC国际展览局Bureau of International Expositions -- BIE南方共同市场，简称“南共市”South American Common Market--MERCOSUR比荷卢经济联盟Union Economique Benelux西非国家经济共同体，简称“西共体”Economic Community of West African States --ECOWAS关税及贸易总协定，简称“关贸总协定”General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade -- GATT——从1996年1月1日起，由世界贸易组织World Trade Organization -- WTO 取代关贸总协定安第斯共同体，简称“安共体”Andean Community太平洋岛国论坛Pacific Islands Forum大湖国家经济共同体Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries ——1976年8月18日，布隆迪、卢旺达、扎伊尔（1997年5月改名为刚果民主共和国，简称刚果（金））3国（均属坦噶尼喀湖和基伍湖沿岸国家，习惯称大湖国家博鳌亚洲论坛Boao Forum for Asia -- BFA太平洋共同体Pacific Community -- PC东部和南部非洲共同市场，简称“东南非共同市场”Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa -- COMESA非洲发展新伙伴计划the New Partnership for Africa's Development -- NEPAD世界旅游组织World T ourism Organization东非共同体East African Community -- EAC西非经济货币联盟，简称“西非经货联盟”Union Economique et MonétaireOuest-Africaine -- UEMOA加勒比共同体和共同市场Caribbean Community and Common Market -- CARICOM国际能源机构International Energy Agency -- IEA拉美经济体系Latin Aamerican Economic System -- LAES中美洲一体化体系Central American Integration System -- SICA大湄公河次区域经济合作GMS世界能源理事会World Energy Council -- WEC拉丁美洲一体化协会Latin American Integration Association -- LAIA国际航空运输协会International Air Transport Association -- IATA非洲、加勒比和太平洋地区国家集团，简称“非加太集团”Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific Region Countries -- Group of the ACP反洗钱金融行动特别工作组Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering -- FATF国际货币基金组织International Monetary Fund -- IMF黑海经济合作组织，简称“黑海经合组织”Black Sea Economic Cooperation -- BSEC穆斯林发展中八国集团,简称“发展中八国集团”Group of Eight Islamic Developing Countries——Developing Eight，D8南方银行——由巴西、阿根廷、委内瑞拉、乌拉圭、厄瓜多尔、玻利维亚和巴拉圭７个南美国家组建科技、文化、体育等专业类世界卫生组织，简称“世卫组织”World Health Organization -- WHO第三世界科学院Third World Academy of Sciences -- TWAS世界民主青年联盟，简称“世界青联”World Federation of Democratic Youth -- WFDY国际足球联合会Federation Internationale de Football Association -- FIFA 国际科学理事会International Council for Science -- ICSU世界基督教会联合会World Council of Churches -- WCC亚洲奥林匹克理事会,简称“亚奥理事会”Olympic Council of Asia -- OCA 国际档案理事会International Council on Archives -- ICA国际自由工会联合会，简称“自由工联”International Confederation of Free Trade Unions -- ICFTU国际奥林匹克委员会International Olympic Committee -- IOC联合国教科文组织世界遗产委员会，简称“世界遗产委员会”World Heritage Committee 和“世界遗产基金”World Heritage Fund国际交流发展计划International Programme for the Development of Communication —IPDC万国邮政联盟，简称“万国邮联”或“邮联”Universal Postal Union -- UPU 国际军事体育理事会，简称“国际军体理事会”International Military Sports Council -- CISM世界汉语教学学会International Society for Chinese Language T eaching 世界盲人联盟WORLD BLIND UNION国际音乐理事会International Music Council -- IMC；Conseil Internatinal de la Musique -- CIM国际信息处理联合会International Federation for Information Processing -- IFIP世界厕所组织World T oilet Organization，它也简称WTO国际世界语协会，简称“国际世协”Universal Esperanto Association -- UEA 国际新闻工作者协会International Organization of Journalists -- IOJ；Organisation Internationale des Journalistes -- OIJ国际新闻学会International Press Institute -- IPI国际战略研究所International Institute for Strategic Studies -- IISS国际新闻工作者联合会International Federation of Journalists -- IFJ国际大学协会International Association of Universities -- IAU国际奥比斯组织Project Orbis -- ORBIS——一个致力于为世界各国盲人和眼疾患者恢复光明的国际性慈善机构；“奥比斯”orbis 在拉丁文中含有“地球、眼睛”的意思(另一说法是“眼睛地球仪”)国际图书馆协会联合会，简称“国际图联”International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions -- IFLA世界穆斯林大会World Muslim Congress -- WMC无国界医生组织Doctors Without Borders, Medecins Sans Frontiers -- MSF国际翻译工作者联合会International Federation of Translators；Federation International des Traducteurs -- FIT世界土著人理事会World Council of Indigenous Peoples国际新闻电影协会International Newsreel and News Film Association -- INNA国际自然及自然资源保护联盟International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources -- IUCN ;World Conservation Union世界佛教徒联谊会,简称“世佛联”World Fellowship of Buddhists -- WFB 世界科技城市联盟World Technoplis Association -- WTA国际志愿服务协调委员会Coordinating Committee for International Voluntary Service -- CCIVS国际会计师联合会International Federation of Accountants -- IFAC国际红十字会与红新月会联合会International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies——2006年6月，第29届红十字与红新月国际大会正式批准将“红水晶”定为国际救援运动的第三个标志世界知识产权组织World Intellectual Property Organization -- WIPO世界休闲组织World Leisure Org.，又称“世界休闲与娱乐协会”World Leisure and Recreation Association，简称“世界休闲”世界动物卫生组织Office International Des Epizooties，OIE ,又称“国际兽疫局”International Office of Epizootics，IOE国际反贪局联合会International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities -- IAACA国际捕鲸委员会IWC亚太空间合作组织世界医护人员联盟。
ANSI C63.16-1993
ANSI C63.16-1993 American National StandardGuide for Electrostatic Discharge Test Methodologies and Criteria for Electronic EquipmentAccredited Standards Committee on Electromagnetic Compatibility, C63 accredited by theAmerican National Standards InstituteSecretariatInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.Approved November 22, 1993American National Standards InstituteAbstract: Based upon ESD events on electronic equipment in actual-use environments, a process to establish ESD test criteria is provided. Test procedures for highly repeatable ESD immunity evaluation of tabletop and floor-standing equipment are described. Simulator characteristics for hand/metal and furniture ESD testing are specified both for air and contact discharge methods. Statistical criteria is given to determine the number of test trials required, based on the confidence factor desired and various pass/fail categories. This ANSI ESD guide has been harmonized with other international ESD standards except where other standards have technical approaches that would reduce equipment quality or result in degraded product operation.Keywords: air discharge, contact discharge, coupling plane, direct discharge, electrostatic discharge (ESD), ESD event, ESD simulator, ESD test criteria, ESD waveform characterization,American National StandardAn American National Standard implies a consensus of those substantially concerned with its scope and provisions. An American National Standard is intended as a guide to aid the manufacturer, the consumer, and the general public. The existence of an American National Standard does not in any respect preclude anyone, whether he has approved the standard or not, from manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, or using products, processes, or procedures not conforming to the standard. American National Standards are subject to periodic reviews and users are cautioned to obtain the latest editions.CAUTION NOTICE: This American National Standard may be revised or with-drawn at any time. The procedures of the American National Standards Institute require that action be taken to reafÞrm, revise, or withdraw this standard no later than Þve years from the date of publication. Purchasers of American National Standards may receive current information on all standards by calling or writing the American National Standards Institute.Introduction(This introduction is not a part of ANSI C63.16-1993, American National Standard Guide for Electrostatic Discharge Test Methodologies and Criteria for Electronic Equipment.)This document is intended to serve as a guide when performing electrostatic discharge (ESD) testing. It incorporates the latest research in ESD waveform characterization and strives to ensure product quality through proper operation in actual equipment installations. The suggestions provided herein should not be construed as mandatory nor should they be blindly applied to all types of electronic equipment. Performance or acceptance test levels are not given in this document. The speciÞcation of performance or acceptance levels for any particular type of electronic equipment properly remains the prerogative of manufacturers and users of the particular equipment.Two models, the human body with metal object model (hand/metal) and the furniture discharge model are used for each testing methodology. Indirect contact testing to coupling planes is described for each testing methodology. Test descriptions for ßoor-standing and tabletop electronic equipment are given. Statistical cri-teria is given to determine the number of test trials based on the conÞdence factor desired and various pass/ fail categories.Although it was the intent to harmonize this ANSI guide wherever possible with IEC 801-2 (1991), the technical differences between the two guides are such that a complete harmonization is impossible. This ANSI guide includes information and guidance not included in that document, such as: furniture ESD simulation, statistical determination of the number of ESD discharges per test point, conÞdence level solution, and, probably most importantly, test waveforms more closely depicting the ESD waveforms as they occur in equipment installations.Because of the complexity of ESD, the variations in types of electronic equipment, and the many different actual use environments, it is a necessity for the reader to review and understand this guide in its entirety prior to commencing equipment testing.At the time this guide was completed, the working group under Subcommittee 1 of ANSI Committee C63, which developed this guide, had the following membership:David M. Staggs,Chair William T. Rhoades,Vice ChairDaniel J. Pratt,SecretarySteve Bloom Hugh Hyatt Henry OttWarren Boxleitner W. Michael King Robert ReninngerFranz Gisin John Maas Peter RichmanAndy Hish Hans Mellberg T. J. RitenourDaniel D. Hoolihan Michael Noble Mark SanesiAt the time that the Accredited Standards Committee on Electromagnetic Compatibility, C63, approved this guide, it had the following membership:Ralph M. Showers,Chair Edwin L. Bronaugh,Vice ChairLuigi Napoli,SecretaryOrganization Represented Name of RepresentativeAeronautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC)........................................................................................Mark QuigleyAmador Corporation.............................................................................................................Daniel D. HoolihanJames Johnson (Alt.) American Council of Independent Laboratories.................................................................William K. Hayes Association of American Railroads......................................................................................Chris AllmanOrganization Represented Name of RepresentativeAssociation of Telecommunications Attorneys....................................................................Glen DashJon Curtis (Alt.)AT&T Bell Laboratories.......................................................................................................H. Robert Hofmann Canadian Standards Association.........................................................................................F. DiamenteComputer and Business Equipment Manufacturing Association......................................Ralph CalcavecchioWilliam F. Hanrahan Electric Light and Power Group..........................................................................................William LoganMatthew C. Mingoia (Alt.) Electronic Industries Association........................................................................................Ralph JustusExchange Carriers Standards Association..........................................................................John LichtigPeter J. Pallesen (Alt.)Michael Parente (Alt.) Federal Communications Commission ...............................................................................Art WallHugh L. Van Tuyl (Alt.) Food and Drug Administration............................................................................................Paul RuggeraJeffrey Silberberg (Alt.) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc........................................................Edwin L. BronaughDonald N. HeirmanNestor KolcioNational Association of Broadcasters..................................................................................Michael C. RauKelly Williams (Alt.) National Electrical Manufacturers Association..................................................................Ronald HarroldLawrence WardNational Institute of Standards and Technology................................................................Myron Crawford National Telecommunications and Information Administration.......................................Karl NebbiaPersonal Computer...............................................................................................................Bill WongScientific Apparatus Manufacturers Association................................................................Ray MagnusonSecurity Industry Association..............................................................................................Bob BruniusSociety of Automotive Engineers.........................................................................................Herbert Mertel Telecommunications Industry Association..........................................................................Eric Schimmel Underwriters Laboratories..................................................................................................Willard TuthillWolf Josenhans (Alt.) Unisys Corporation...............................................................................................................Wallace AmosUS Air Force..........................................................................................................................John ZentnerDennis Baseley (Alt.)US Dept. of Energy—Bonneville Power Administration....................................................Vernon L. ChartierUS Dept. of Energy—Western Area Power Administration...............................................Pete R. HansonUS Dept. of the Army, Communications Electronic Command..........................................David CofieldUS Dept. of the Navy, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command...............................Stephen CaineUS Dept. of Transportation —Federal Aviation Administration.......................................Robert FrazierMembers-at-Large................................................................................................................Robert EaganHarold GauperA. Heath LightRichard SchulzRalph M. ShowersLouis SlesinChester L. SmithLeonard W. Thomas, Sr.J. L. Norman VioletteValerie E. ZelentyIEEE Standards Project EditorContentsCLAUSE PAGE1.Scope (1)2.Overview (1)2.1General (1)2.2Comparison with other ESD standards (2)3.References (2)4.Definitions (3)5.SafetyÑESD test operator cautions (4)boratory test conditions (4)6.1Climatic conditions (5)6.2Air breakdown voltage test value (5)6.3Electromagnetic conditions (5)6.4Test site description (5)7.Test methods (6)7.1Test method guidance (6)7.2Performance of the ESD simulator (7)7.3Application of the discharges (7)7.4Test setup (7)7.5Laboratory test procedures (14)7.6On-site test setup (17)7.7On-site test procedures (18)8.Establishing ESD test criteria (19)8.1Basis for establishing an ESD test criteria (19)8.2ESD responses (19)8.3 A three-phase process to establishing an ESD test criteria (20)8.4Test data records (24)9.Verification of ESD simulator performance (24)9.1Test equipment (25)9.2Verification tests (25)9.3Air discharge simulator verificationÑPerformance measurement (27)9.4Contact discharge simulator verificationÑPerformance measurement (29)10.Bibliography (30)ANNEX PAGEA ESD simulator characteristics and description (32)B Standard target descriptions (38)C Example procedure for establishing an ESD test criteria (46)D Test method guidanceÑAir or contact discharge (50)E Actual ESD event waveforms (52)F Correlation to other ESD test standards (56)G Vertical coupling plane (VCP) test considerations (58)American National StandardGuide for Electrostatic Discharge Test Methodologies and Criteria for Electronic Equipment1. ScopeThis guide describes methodologies for electrostatic discharge (ESD) testing of electronic equipment. The test methods and parameters described herein are chosen for standardization and repeatability of test results. This guide also recommends test criteria for evaluating equipment exposure and response to ESD. This guide does not set ESD test limits nor deal with equipment transient response to lightning, high-voltage breakdown, dielectric withstand, power line corona, or nuclear electromagnetic pulse.2. Overview2.1 GeneralAn ESD event occurs when the local electric Þeld between two bodies at different potentials exceeds the dielectric strength of air. When the ESD event occurs, the resulting current ßow produces both magnetic and electric Þelds.The nature of the ESD event has resulted in the following two testing philosophies:a)Air discharge testb)Contact discharge testThe goal in both cases is to determine the immunity of the equipment under test (EUT) to an ESD event.The air discharge simulator attempts to reproduce the actual ESD occurrence by creating a spark in air. This approach may not produce repeatable waveforms [B6], [B23].1 In the contact discharge simulator, the arc occurs inside the simulator under controlled conditions. This approach yields a repeatable waveform [B17]. The information in 7.1.1 and annex D will assist the user in determining the test method that is most suitable for the application.Further information about actual ESD events may be found in annex E of this guide and in IEEE Std C62.47-19922.1The numbers in brackets correspond to those in the bibliography in clause 10.2Information on references can be found in clause 3.ANSIC63.16-1993ANSI GUIDE FOR ELECTROST A TIC DISCHARGE TEST METHODOLOGIES 2.2 Comparison with other ESD standardsThis guide is written with reference to existing and draft international ESD standards, especially IEC 801-2 (1991) and CISPR 24. It is a guide, not a standard. As a guide, it should not be considered to be in conßict with these standards; rather, this guide will enhance them, improving ESD testing of equipment and the quality of that equipment as a result of the additional information presented. [Comparisons between IEC 801-2 (1991) and this guide are given in annex F.]This guide includes all of the main elements of the IEC 801-2 (1991) and CISPR 24 standards: the contact discharge method, the hand/metal source model, and the direct and indirect applications of ESD events to the EUT. This guide also includes information and material not found in these standards. This information is needed to complete the goals of ESD testing, primarilyÑTo ensure the quality of products and equipment through proper operation in actual-use environments (where ESD events occur)ÑTo have an ESD testing and evaluation procedure that is both realistic and workable, and that yields repeatable resultsThe key enhancements toward understanding ESD processes provided by this guide are as follows:a) A more complete treatment of the air discharge test method (including a more accurate speciÞcationand veriÞcation of the simulatorÕs performance)b)Information comparing actual ESD events as they occur in nature to the parameters recommended inthis guidec)Information comparing the parameters of this guide to those of IEC 801-2 (1991)d)Guidance on when to use the air discharge method and when to use the contact discharge method(including advantages and disadvantages of each method)e) A source model that simulates discharges from mobile ofÞce furnishingsf)Statistical guidance for selecting test voltage levels, number of test trials, and evaluation of testresults, instead of an arbitrary voltage limit and number of dischargesThe statistical guidance will help the user of this guide locate product susceptibility windows, which is crucial for testing any equipment that has time-variant operational states, such as information technology equipment (ITE).3. ReferencesThis guide shall be used in conjunction with the following standards. When the following standards are superseded by an approved revision, the revision shall apply.CISPR 24, Immunity of ITEÑPart 2 (ESD), draft, Dec. 1989.3IEC 801-2 (1991), Electromagnetic compatibility for industrial-process measurement and control equipmentÑPart 2: Electrostatic discharge requirements.4IEEE Std C62.47-1992, IEEE Guide on Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)ÑCharacterization for the ESD Environment.53CISPR publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission, 3 rue de VarembŽ, Case Postale 131, CH 1211, Gen•ve 20, Switzerland/Suisse. CISPR documents are also available in the United States from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.4IEC publications are available from IEC Sales Department, 3 rue de VarembŽ, Case Postale 131, CH-1211, Gen•ve 20, Switzerland/ Suisse. IEC publications are also available in the United States from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.5IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331, USA.ANSI AND CRITERIA FOR ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT C63.16-1993 4. DeÞnitions4.1 actual ESD events: Nonsimulated electrostatic discharges that occur in the intended environment of the electronic equipment.4.2 air discharge method: A method of ESD testing in which the charged electrode of the ESD simulator approaches the EUT or coupling plane regardless of the conductivity of the ESD receptor. The discharge is actuated by a spark in air to the EUT or coupling plane.4.3 charging current: The maximum continuous current at any charge voltage that may ßow at the ESD simulator probe tip as measured to the return path of the simulator through a 1500 W resistor that is connected to the probe tip.4.4 contact discharge method: A method of ESD testing in which the electrode of the ESD simulator is in Þrm contact with a conductive surface of the EUT or coupling plane prior to discharge. The discharge is actuated by a switching device (i.e., a relay) within the simulator.4.5 controlled ESD environment: One in which an attempt is made to maintain charge levels on humans and objects below a certain level. Typical control measures include humidity controls, equipment earth grounding, use of antistatic materials, ionized air, and high-resistance discharge paths for humans.4.6 coupling plane: A metal plate to which discharges are applied to simulate electrostatic discharge to objects adjacent (vertically or horizontally) to the EUT. See also:HCP, VCP.4.7 direct ESD test: A test in which ESD is applied directly to the surface or structure of the EUT.4.8 electrostatic discharge (ESD): The sudden transfer of charge between bodies of differing electrostatic potentials.4.9 ESD event: The occurrence of a single ESD.4.10 ESD receptor: The surface (or target) of the object at rest being subjected to the ESD event.4.11 ESD response: The EUT reaction to ESD.4.12 ESD simulator: A testing device used to simulate a human or furniture ESD event.4.13 ESD test voltage: The amplitude (usually expressed in kV) of the initial electrostatic voltage that exists prior to discharge.4.14 EUT: Equipment under test.4.15 exerciser: A device used to operate the EUT.4.16 failure: The inability of a product to meet its operating speciÞcation.4.17 furniture ESD: An ESD in which the intruder is an inanimate object such as a cart or chair, with or without a human in physical contact with the object.4.18 ground reference plane (GRP): A ßat conductive surface whose potential is used as a common reference. Where applicable, the operating voltage of the EUT and the operator ground should also be referenced to the ground plane.4.19 hand/metal ESD: An ESD from an intruding human hand that occurs from an intervening metal object such as a ring, tool, key, etc. Also called: hand/metal discharge.4.20 HCP: Horizontal coupling plane. See:coupling plane.ANSIC63.16-1993ANSI GUIDE FOR ELECTROST A TIC DISCHARGE TEST METHODOLOGIES 4.21 holding time: The interval of time within which the decrease of the test voltage due to leakage, prior to the discharge, is not greater than 10% when measured with an instrument that has a dc resistance greater than 1016W and a capacitance less than 10 pF.4.22 human/touch ESD: The ESD that occurs directly from a human Þngertip, without the presence of any metallic structure in the ESD path.4.23 indirect ESD test: A test in which ESD is applied to a coupling plane in the vicinity of the EUT.4.24 intruder: A body that is in motion in an ESD event. The intruder is usually, but not necessarily, charged relative to its surroundings. It is always at a potential different from that of the receptor.4.25 simulated ESD: An ESD that originates from an ESD simulator.4.26 simulator approach speed: The rate at which an air discharge ESD simulator approaches the EUT or coupling plane.4.27 table ESD test: An indirect test in which ESD is applied to the HCP.4.28 uncontrolled ESD environment: One in which no attempt is made to maintain charge levels on humans and objects below a certain level.4.29 undesirable response rate: The percentage of undesirable ESD responses exhibited by the EUT when subjected to a speciÞc number of ESD events.4.30 VCP: Vertical coupling plane. See: coupling plane.5. SafetyÑESD test operator cautionsThe ESD simulator is a high-voltage instrument. Some are capable of producing voltage levels up to 25 kV. Although the energy level of a single discharge at this voltage is below that which is considered lethal for a normal, healthy adult, this energy level can give the user an unpleasant shock. Therefore, there is an inherent danger when performing ESD tests.Operating and working around any high-voltage instrument or device requires a high degree of responsibility, care, and common sense. Normal high-voltage safety practices should be exercised when performing these tests. The ESD simulator manufacturerÕs safety practices should also be followed.6. Laboratory test conditionsThe intent of ESD testing in the laboratory is to simulate both the level and type of ESD occurrences that are experienced by the product in the Þeld in a manner that is representative of, but not necessarily identical to, actual ESD.In order to minimize the effect of environmental parameters on the test results, ESD testing should be carried out under the conditions deÞned in this clause.ANSI AND CRITERIA FOR ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT C63.16-1993 6.1 Climatic conditionsESD testing should be performed under the following climatic conditions:a)Temperature: 15Ð27 ûC (59Ð80 ûF)b)Relative humidity (RH): < 50%c)Atmospheric pressure: 68Ð106 kPaNOTES1ÑStandard conditions are deÞned as sea level (101.3 kPa and 15 ûC). Then 106 kPa is -383 m and 68 kPa is +3236 m altitude. International conversion for 1 kPa is 0.145 lbf/in2 or 0.2953 inHg (typical reported atmospheric pressure mea-surement in the USA) and 10 mbar.2ÑTests can be performed outside the recommended climatic conditions. However, the results may be signiÞcantly affected with increased RH and variations in temperature.The actual environmental conditions existing during the test should be recorded on the data sheet.6.2 Air breakdown voltage test valueAir breakdown at a Þxed distance between arcing electrodes is approximately proportional to atmospheric pressure and inversely proportional to absolute (K) temperature. Therefore, when testing EUTs for air breakdown (external or internal with either test method), the ESD test voltage level should be changed to reßect the test equipment speciÞcation and the environmental test conditions. Typically, air breakdown at sea level will be about 40% higher than at 3000 m. Failure to change the test voltage to account for pressure vari-ation will create site-to-site immunity variations in the EUT air breakdown values.6.3 Electromagnetic conditionsThe ambient electromagnetic conditions should be such as not to inßuence the results of this test.6.4 Test site description6.4.1 GeneralCare should be exercised when selecting a site to perform ESD testing. The ESD impulse produces a broad spectral distribution of energy, and these emissions may cause damage or malfunction of unprotected equipment in the immediate area. Also, other equipment and activity in the immediate area can interfere with the ESD test. The ESD test site, therefore, should be located in an area that is of sufÞcient size to minimize interference.Accordingly, it is recommended that a clear-area radius of at least 1 m be provided around the EUT and to any other metallic structure, including walls, so as not to impact the ESD test. Where possible, the EUT should be placed in a dedicated room with electrical isolation from unrelated equipment. Shielded rooms are not recommended for use as ESD test sites because of the possibility of creating standing waves that may affect the test results.6.4.2 Size of ground reference plane (GRP)A GRP of sufÞcient size to provide a continuous reference for the EUT, ESD simulator, and operator should be provided as part of the test site. The GRP on the ßoor is extended beyond the edges of the EUT at least 0.5 m for equipment up to 1 m in height, as well as for a tabletop test. To capture all edge effects for equipment over 1 m in height, the GRP should extend beyond the EUT at least 50% of the height of the EUT. An optional insulator, not to exceed 5 mm in thickness, may be placed over the GRP. The GRP shouldANSIC63.16-1993ANSI GUIDE FOR ELECTROST A TIC DISCHARGE TEST METHODOLOGIES be connected to the protective grounding system. Local safety regulations should always be met. See 7.4.1 for EUT ground connections.NOTEÑThe GRP is not used during veriÞcation of the hand/metal ESD waveform for a lumped-element or hand-held simulator. A GRP should be used for a distributed capacitance simulator.7. Test methodsThe recommendations of this guide are based on the premise that products will be evaluated for ESD performance utilizing test simulation equipment that complies with the requirements delineated herein. Discharge phenomena considered essential to product ESD performance are as follows:a)Discharges from human bodies through a metallic object (hand/metal)b)Discharges from metallic furnitureThese ESD tests may be performed using air or contact ESD simulators. Human/touch ESD, though frequently encountered in the actual environment, is not delineated in this guide. See annex E.7.1 Test method guidanceTests may be performed utilizing air or contact ESD simulations for ESD events from humans holding small metal objects (hand/metal ESD) or from furniture. Subclauses 7.1.1 and 7.1.2 provide information relative to the use of these simulations.7.1.1 GuidanceÑAir or contact ESD methodsThe particular test method (air or contact ESD simulation) selected as appropriate for EUT evaluation should be determined by Þrst establishing an intended result for the information that will be gained from the ESD test. The user of this guide should review the advantages and disadvantages of each method, as described in annex D, prior to selecting which test method to use. Items a) through c) brießy overview the processes involved with the two approaches.a)For EUTs with conductive surfaces, either the air or contact discharge method can be used forapplying discharges.b)For EUTs with insulating surfaces, the air discharge method, by its nature, is predominantly used(see 7.5.4.4). The contact discharge test method may be used, but it will be an indirect test.c)When performing indirect ESD testing using coupling planes, either the air or contact test methodmay be used, but the contact discharge test method is preferred for reasons of repeatability.7.1.2 GuidanceÑHand/metal and furniture ESD simulationsESD test evaluations of EUTs may be performed utilizing hand/metal or furniture simulations. The application of ESD from either simulation on the EUT is intended to be concentrated as follows:a)In physical areas likely to be touched by humans for the hand/metal conditionb)In physical areas likely to be impacted by mobile furnishingsEither of these two simulations may additionally be applied to VCPs and HCPs for purposes of evaluating the EUT performance under the inßuence of indirect ESD.These two simulation methods are not mutually exclusive, although in practice they could result in redundant testing in certain EUT areas. It is recommended, in 7.5.3, that furniture ESD simulations be applied to EUT areas that are contained below a boundary height of 1 m above the ßoor surface (for ßoor-。
国际组织和机构英语缩写和翻译
ACP（Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific Region Countries）非洲、加勒比和太平洋国家集团ADB （Asian Development Bank）亚洲开发银行ADB （African Development Bank）非洲开发银行APEC （Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation）亚太经济合作组织ASEAN （Association of Southeast Asian Nations）东南亚国家联盟公约AU（African Union）非洲联盟ANC (African National Congress) 非洲人民大会BBFA （Boao Forum for Asia）博鳌亚洲论坛BIE （Bureau of International Expositions）国际展览局BIS （Bank for International Settlements）国际清算银行CCAC （Codex Alimentarius Commission）食品法典委员会CDB （Caribbean Development Bank ）加勒比开发银行CFC （Common Fund for Commodities）商品共同基金CSD （Commission on Sustainable Development）联合国可持续发展委员会CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) 独立国家联合体CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) 经济互助委员会(经互会)EAC (East African Community) 东非共同体EEC (European Economic Communities) 欧洲经济共同体EBRD （European Bank for Reconstruction and Development）欧洲复兴发展银行ECLAC（Economic Commission for Latin America and Caribbean）联合国拉丁美洲和加勒比经济委员会ECOSOC （Economic and Social Council）联合国经济和社会理事会ESCAP （Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific）联合国亚洲及太平洋经济社会委员会ESCWA （Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia ）联合国西亚经济社会委员会FFAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 联合国粮食及农业组织GGATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) 关税及贸易组织G8 Summit（Group of Eight）八国集团首脑会议G20 （Group of Twenty ）20国集团G24 （Group of Twenty Four）24国集团IADB（Inter-American Development Bank）美洲开发银行/泛美开发银行IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) 国际原子能机构IATA （International Air Transport Association）国际航空运输协会IBRD（International Bank for Reconstruction and Development）国际复兴开发银行ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) 国际民用航空组织ICC (International Chamber of Commerce)国际商会ICO（International Coffee Organization）国际咖啡组织ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross) 红十字国际委员会ICSID （International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes）国际投资争端解决中心IDA (International Development Association) 国际开发协会IDB（Islamic Development Bank）伊斯兰开发银行IEA（International Energy Agency）国际能源机构IEC（International Electrotechnical Commission）国际电工委员会IFA（International Franchise Association）国际特许经营加盟协会IFAC（International Federation of Accountants）国际会计师联合会IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development) 国际农业发展基金会IFC (International Finance Corporation) 国际金融公司IGC（International Grains Council）国际谷物理事会ILO (International Labour Organization) 国际劳工组织IMF (International Monetary Fund) 国际货币基金组织IMC（International Maritime Committee）国际海事委员会IMO (International Maritime Organization) 国际海事组织INBAR（International Network for Bamboo and Rattan）国际竹藤组织INRO（International Natural Rubber Organization）国际天然橡胶组织INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization) 国际通信卫星机构IOC (International Olympic Committee) 国际奥林匹克委员会IOJ (International Organization of Journalists) 国际新闻工作者协会IOOC（International Olive Oil Council）国际橄榄油理事会IPC (International Paralympic Committee) 国际残疾人奥林匹克委员会IRTO (International Radio and Television Organization) 国际广播电视组织IPU (Inter-Parliamentary Union) 各国议会联盟IDB/IsDB（Islamic Development Bank）伊斯兰开发银行ISF（International Shipping Federation）国际海运联合会ISO (International Standard Organization) 国际标准化组织ISO（International Sugar Organization）国际糖组织ITC（International Trade Centre）国际贸易中心ITCB（International Textiles and Clothing Bureau）国际纺织品与服装局ITU (International Telecommunication Union) 国际电信联盟MIGA（Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency）多边投资担保机构NNATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)北大西洋公约组织NAM (the Non-Aligned Movement) 不结盟运动NASA（National Aeronautics and Space Administration）美国航天太空总署NMD (National Missile Defense) 国家导弹防御系统OOPEC(Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) 石油输出国组织OAPEC（Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries）阿拉伯石油输出国组织OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development)经济合作与发展组织OEEC (Organization for European Economic Cooperation)欧洲经济合作组织OAU (Organization of African Unity) 非洲统一组织OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe)欧洲安全与合作组织OIML（International Organization for Legal Metrology）国际法定度量衡组织OIC (Organization of the Islamic Conference) 伊斯兰会议组织OIE（Office International Des Epizooties）世界动物卫生组织/国际兽疫局PBEC（Pacific Basin Economic Council）太平洋盆地经济理事会PECC（Pacific Economic Cooperation Council）太平洋经济合作理事会PIF（Pacific Islands Forum）太平洋岛国论坛PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization)巴勒斯坦解放组织SSCO （Shanghai Cooperation Organization）上海合作组织SEAFDEC（Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center）东南亚渔业开发中心SWIFT （Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications）环球银行金融电信协会UUEA (Universal Esperanto Association) 国际世界语协会UN General Assembly 联合国大会（联大）UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) 联合国教科文组织UNCF 联合国儿童基金会(United Nations Children's Fund）其前身是United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund（UNICEF）UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization)联合国工业发展组织UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)联合国开发计划署UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)联合国环境署UNCDF(United Nations Capital Development Fund)联合国资本开发基金会UNSC（Security Council）联合国安全理事会UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) 联合国贸易与发展会议UNECA （UN Economic Commission for Africa）联合国非洲经济委员会UNECE （UN Economic Commission for Europe）联合国欧洲经济委员会UNCITRAL （United Nations Commission on International Trade Law）联合国国际贸易法委员会UNIDROIT （International Institute for the Unification of Private Law）国际统一私法协会UPU (Universal Postal Union) 万国邮政联盟WWHO (World Health Organization) 世界卫生组织WMO (World Meteorological Organization) 世界气象组织WCO（World Customs Organization）世界海关组织WTO（World Trade Organization）世界贸易组织WTO（World Tourism Organization）世界旅游组织WEC（World Energy Council）世界能源理事会WFC（World Food Council）世界粮食理事会WPC (World Peace Council) 世界和平理事会WFP（World Food Programme）世界粮食计划署WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) 世界知识产权组织WTCA（World Trade Center Association）世界贸易中心协会WAIPA（World Association of Investment Promotion Agencies）世界投资促进机构协会WASME （Association for Small and Medium Enterprises）世界中小企业协会WFDSA （World Federation of Direct Selling Associations）世界直销协会联盟。
翻译与改革开放
国际翻译家联盟国际翻译家联盟（Federation Internationale des Traducteures / International Federation of国际翻译家联盟副主席柯本迪Translators），英文简称FIT，中文简称国际译联。
国际权威的翻译工作者联合组织，成立于1953年，拥有遍及60余个国家和地区的120余个会员组织，代表全球6万余名翻译工作者的利益。
国际译联下设14个专业委员会，3个区域中心（欧洲、北美和拉美）和一个论坛。
世界翻译大会（FIT World Congress）每三年举行一次，迄今已经召开17届。
2005年8月，在芬兰坦佩雷斯举行的第17届世界翻译大会上，中国译协获得2008年第18届世界翻译大会的主办权，大会将于2008年8月4-7日在上海举行，这也是唯一得到中央批准在举办北京奥运会前夕举办的大型国际会议。
在中国，政治对翻译的影响总是比其他国家要大历史和社会原因国际翻译家与中国文学翻译家合影1949年中华人民共和国成立之前，中国内战频仍，并且遭受外来侵略。
统治阶级却无视人民大众的疾苦，过着奢华的生活。
1895年甲午战争，中国战败，这给当时的国家和爱国学者当头一棒。
学者们认为低我们一等的日本通过西化而变得强大，这是日本胜利的原因。
为了使国家富强起来，中国学者们翻译了各类书籍，涵盖科学、文学、政治和学术等门类。
国家的安危与富强成为他们关心的头等大事。
如果国将不国，他们将成为亡国奴。
于是他们大量地介绍西方科学，技术和任何与西方文化相关的东西，将它们引进中国。
政治家和作家，几乎所有忧国忧民的知识分子，都把目光转向了翻译。
1898年，严复翻译《天演《20世纪中国翻译史》论》，在中国引起了强烈震动。
他向国人介绍了弱肉强食的道理，指明被西人讥为“东亚病夫”的黄种中国人如果麻木不仁，失去独立性，那么他们也会像美洲的红人和非洲的黑人一样被奴役。
那个年代的翻译带有强烈的爱国主义色彩，主要宣扬“强国”、“富民”的思想，激发人们的“民族自强”意识。
国际商法第七章
Chapter 7 – Trade in Goodspage 245The Bretton Woods SystemThe negotiators who met for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods in July 1944 were determined to create a system that would promote trade liberalization and multilateral economic cooperation. The Bretton Woods System was meant to be an integrated undertaking by the international community to establish a multilateral institutional framework of rules and obligations.As originally planned the Bretton Woods system was to have had 3 major international organizations: the international Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD or World Bank), and the ill-fated International TradeOrganization (ITO). Together they were to collectively administer and harmonize world trade. The IMF was to ensure monetary stability and facilitate currency exchange. The World Bank was to assist war-ravaged and developing countries reconstruct or upgrade their economies. The ITO was to administer管理a comprehensive code综合法典governing the conduct of world trade. This code was to be broad and encompassing, dealing with a wide range of issues, including trade and trade barriers, labor and employment, economic development, economic development, restrictive business practices and intergovernmental commodity.In the year 2011, most of what was planned for the ITO has come to be through General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, through multilateral trade negotiations, called rounds. The current “round” begun at Doha,Qatar (the Doha Round) has dissolved into anumber of long-standing disputes, primarilyover U.S. And EU subsidies for their own agricultural industries. The IMF andWorld Bank are still doing their business oftaking U.S. Money, loaning it out and then “forgiving major balances”. The U.S. Isgiving money away to promote peace andstability, but that will end if the U.S. Does not at least in part, return to the ideology of “the business of America is business” -Calvin Coolidge, 1927. The only way the IMF and World Bank survive is through U.S.Financial support. As U.S. National debtgrows so much faster than GDP, ability of the U.S. To also support IMF and World bank diminishes. The change of world order is already apparent – the PRC sent a delegation to Spain and Portugal in January 2011 to buy their bonds and prevent their collapse.Page 248The Uruguay RoundThe Uruguay Round (1986-1994) brought about a major change in the institutional structure of the GA TT, replacing the informal GATT institution with a new institution: the World Trade Organization, which officially came into existence on January 1, 1995.The second part of the Final Act is made up of the WTO Agreement and its annexes, of which there are 2 kinds: multilateral trade agreements and plurilateral trade agreements.Multilateral Trade Agreements多边贸易协定are “integral parts不可分割的部分” of the WTO Agreement and are “binding on all members” of the WTO. They consistof (1) 14 agreements on trade in goods, (2) the General Agreement on t Trade in Services T型贸易总协定(GATS), (3) theAgreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights知识产权(TRIPS), (4) the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes争论(DSU) and (5) the Trade Policy review Mechanism 贸易政策审核制度(TRPM). The Plurilateral Trade Agreements are also part of the WTO Agreement, but they are only binding on those member states that have accepted them. They do not create either obligations or rights for members that have not accepted them.Page 250The World Trade OrganizationThe World Trade Organization (WTO) is best described as an umbrella organization under which the agreements that came out of the Uruguay Round of MTNs are gathered. As the WTO Agreement states, the WTO is meant to provide the “commoninstitutional framework” for the implementation of those agreements. The WTO thus serves 4 basic functions:1.To implement实施, administer and carry out he WTO Agreement and its annexes附加物2.To act as a forum for ongoing multilateral trade negotiations3.To serve as a tribunal法庭for resolving disputes4.To review the trade policies and practices of member statespage 251The WTO AgreementThe WTO Agreement established a legal framework to bring together the various trade pacts that were negotiated underGA TT 1947. The WTO was created as a unified administrative organ to oversee all of the Uruguay Round Agreements. This unification solves 2 problems that hamperedthe old GA TT. First, because GA TT 1947 dealt with trade in goods, there was no obvious mechanism for handling agreements relating to trade in services and the protection of intellectual property rights. The WTO Agreement, which separates the institutional concepts from the substantive rules, eliminates this difficulty. Second, because the ITO never came into existence, the old GA TT had no formal institutional structure. The establishment of the WTO rectifies this.Page 252Membership of the WTOTonga joined the WTO in July 2007 bringing its total membership to 151. The members of the WTO comprise both states and customs territories that conduct their own trade policies. States that were members of GA TT 1947 on January 1, 1995, along with the EU were eligible to become“original members” of the WTO. These members agreed to adhere to all the Uruguay Round multilateral agreements and to submit their Schedules of Concessions and Commitments concerning industrial and agricultural goods and their Schedules of Specific Commitments concerning services within a year after joining. Original members, however, that are recognized by the United Nations as being among the least developed states, were required to undertake only commitments and concessions consistent with their individual development, financial and trade needs within their administrative and institutional capabilities. They also were given an additional year in which to submit their schedules.Page 253 Exhibit 7-3Decision Making within the WTOThe WTO Agreement says that the WTO will “continue the practice of decision making by consensus followed under theGA TT 1947. Consensus is the making of a decision by general agreement and in the absence of any voiced objection. The WTO, however, can make a decision by a vote if a consensus cannot be reached. At meetings of the Ministerial Conference and the General Council, each WTO member state has one vote, with the EU having a number of votes equal to (but not more than) the number of its member states that are members of the WTO. Should a vote be required, the decision will be made by a simple majority in most cases.Page 256Waivers弃权GA TT 1947 was sometimes characterized as a system of loopholes 漏洞held togetherby waivers. The WTO agreements dramatically戏剧性changed this. First, with one exception, the waivers of obligations in existence under GA TT 1947 terminated终止no later than 2 years after the inauguration开始of the WTO. Second, the procedures for obtaining new or continuing waivers are more rigorous. Thus, an applying member state must1.describe the measures that it proposes to take2.specify the policy objectives it seeks to obtain3.explain why it cannot achieve those objectives without violating its obligations under GA TT 1994Third, waivers must be approved by the Ministerial Conference, which has up to90 days to do so by consensus. If a consensus cannot be reached in that period, waivers must then be approved by a three-quarters majority of the members. Waivers are reviewed annually thereafter. Fourth, any dispute that arises in connection with a waiver, whether or not the waiver is being carried out in conformity with its terms and conditions, can be referred for settlement under the Dispute Settlement Understanding. Page 257GA TT 1994 is made up of the same set of rules as GA TT 1947. The changes in this text of GA TT 1994 amounts mainly to changes in terminology.Direct EffectSome of the provisions of GA TT 1994 are directly effective. That is, they may be relied upon by private person (including both natural and juridical persons) to challenge the actions of a member state. In particular, those provisions that prohibit a state from taking action contrary to theGeneral Agreement are directly effective. Those that require a contracting state to take some positive action may only be challenged by individual if the state adopts implementing legislation authorizing such a challenge.Case 7-1 Finance ministry v. Manifattura Lane Marzotto, SPAPlaintiff: Manifattura Lane Marzotto, SpA, an Italian manufacturer of woolen goods.Complaint:that the “administrative service duty” applied to wool imported from Australia violated GA TT.Defendant: Italian Finance Ministry. Proceedings: Italy had fully integrated into its legal system the firs part of the General Agreement – including the provisions concerning customs duties – but the Finance Ministry continued to charge duties to see if, in Italy, this provisionwould merely be treated as a simple declaration of principle and deprived of any direct legal effect within the country. The trial court by dismissing the case indicated that Italian Government could continue to impose duties, even though they had signed a binding agreement not to, so the plaintiff appealed.Court Decision: The court decided that the GA TT provision that prohibits a GA TT member from increasing duties on imported products above the level established when the member nation acceded to the agreement was directly effective. Thus it was part of Italian law and an individual citizen or company could bring a lawsuit to enforce this provision.Point of Law:General Agreement provision which is essentially a prohibition against increasing duties above those in effect on the date a member state accedes tothe General Agreement. Accordingly this prohibition is complete and directly effective not only between the member states but also between the member states and their nationals.Was Justice Served:YES – what is the point of Italy signing a General Agreement if they have no intention of following it. A failure to enact should be grounds for immediate dismissal from WTO.Page 259NondiscriminationThe must fundamental principle of GA TT is that international trade should be conducted without discrimination. This principle is given concrete form in the most-favored-nation (MFN) and multinational treatment rulesThe MFN RuleAny advantage, favor, privilege or immunity granted by any member to anyproduct originating in or destined for any other country shall be accorded immediately and unconditionally to the like product originating in or destined for the territories of all other members.The MFN rule does NOT apply to1.The use of measures to counter dumping and subsidization津贴2.The creation of customs unions关税同盟and free trade areas3.Restrictions限制that protect public health, safety, welfare and national security国家安全page 260Case7-2 Japan – Taxes on Alcoholic BeveragesPlaintiff: Canada, the EU and the United StatesInjury:Japan imposed lower taxes on shochu, a locally produced alcoholic beverage, than it did on imported alcoholicbeverages, including vodka, Defendant:government of Japan Proceedings: The Japanese government maintained that “substantial noticeable differences in physical characteristics exist between the rest of the alcoholic beverages at dispute and sochu that would disqualify liqueurs, gin and genever; the use of ingredients wold disqualify rum, lastly, appearance (arising from the manufacturing processes) would disqualify whiskey and brandy.Court decision: The Panel noted that a difference in the physical characteristic of alcoholic strength of 2 products did NOT preclude a finding of likeness especially since alcoholic beverages are often drunk in diluted form. Since they are like products and imported vodka was taxed at a higher rate, this practice constituted a violation of Japan's obligations under GA T-WT rules.Point of Law: GATT Article III:2 The products of the territory of any contracting party缔约国imported into the territory of any other contracting party shall not be subject受制于, directly or indirectly, to internal taxes or other internal charges of any kind in excess of 超过those applied, directly or indirectly, to like domestic products. Moreover, no contracting party shall otherwise apply internal taxes or other internal charges to imported or domestic products in a manner contrary to the principles set forth in paragraph 1 of Article II - “The contracting parties recognize that internal taxes and other internal charges, and laws, regulation and requirements affecting the internal sale, offering for sale, purchase transportation, distribution or use of products in specified amounts or proportions, should not be applied toimported or domestic products so as to afford protection to domestic production. Was Justice Served:Yes – since the only technical difference between vodka and sochu is the media used in filtration, it was clear the intent of the higher tax was blatant protectionism for local alcohol industry. Japan had signed agreements they would NOT tax imports higher to protect domestic industries.Page 263Protection Only Through TariffsThe second major principle of the GA TT is that each member state may protect its domestic industries only through the use of tariffs. Quota and other quantitative restrictions that block the function of the price mechanism are forbidden by Article XI of GA T.Additionally, to ensure that internal taxes are not disguised as tariffs, Article IIrequires that tariffs be collected “at the time or point of importation.” The main exceptions include:1.The imposition of temporary export prohibitions or restrictions to prevent or relieve critical shortages of foodstuffs or other essential products.2.The use of import and export restriction related to the application of standards or regulations for classifying, grading, or marking commodities3.The use of quantitative restrictions on imports of agricultural and fisheries products to stabilize national agricultural markets.4.The use of quantitative restrictions to safeguard a state's balance of payments5.The use of quantitative restrictions by a developing state to further its economic development.Page 266Escape ClauseArticle XIX of GA TT 1994 – entitled “Emergency Action on Imports of Particular Products” is an escape clause or safety valve that allows a member state to avoid, temporarily, its GA TT obligations when there is a surge in the number of imports coming from other member states. The injured state can impose emergency restrictive trade measures – known as safeguards – if it can demonstrate that there is an actual or seriously threatened injury to one of its domestic industries. ExceptionsThe general exceptions免责条款exclude 排除a member state from complying with its GA TT obligation义务so long as this is not done as “a means of arbitrary任意的or unjustifiable discrimination” or as a “disguised假装的restriction on international trade”. They allow a state totake measures contrary to GA TT that1.are necessary to protect public morals2.are necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health3.relate to the importation or exportation of gold or silver4.are necessary to secure compliance with laws or regulations that are not inconsistent with GA TT5.relate to the products of prison labor6.protect national treasures of artistic, historic or archaeological value7.relate to the conservation of exhaustible natural resource8.are undertaken in accordance with an intergovernmental commodity agreement 9.involve restrictions on exports of domestic materials needed by a domestic processing industry during periods when the domestic price of those materials is held below world prices as a part of agovernmental stabilization plan or are essential to acquiring products in short supplypage 267Case 7-3 United States – Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp ProductsPlaintiff: WTO panelWhy: U.S. Rules prohibiting shrimp imports harvested with commercial fishing technology which may adversely affect sea turtles.Defendant: U.S. Government Proceedings: The United States issued regulations in 1987 pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 requiring all United States shrimp trawl vessels to use a pproved Turtle Excluder Devices (“TEDs”) or tow-time restrictions in specified areas where there was a significant mortality of sea turtles in shrimp harvesting. Theseregulations, which became fully effective in 1990, were modified so as to require the use of approve TEDS at all times and in all areas where there is a likelihood that shrimp trawling will interacted with sea turtles, with certain limited exceptions.Court Decision: The panel first concluded that the sea turtles involved here did constitut e “exhaustible national resources” under Article XX(g) of theGA TT, and thus the exception might apply. However, the WTO panel held that the U.X. Rules were discriminatory under the chapeau (heading) of Article XX of the treaty in that they were applied in a rigid manner, without regard to any measures taken to protect turtles by other nations. In addition, the panel found that the U.S. Procedure for determining whether other nations met the U.S. Standards constituted arbitrary discrimination, in that the decisionwas made without any opportunity for the other nations to present evidence, or to have a hearing or consultation, and no review or appeal was allowed.Points of Law: The Article II (g) exception to the rule出轨边缘that WTO members must treat imported good the same way as domestic goods and not subject them to additional requirements. Second, were sea turtles indeed an Article II(g) exception 0 and “exhaustible 可耗尽natural resource” Finally, Article XI of GATT 1994, the obligations义务of the U.S. To determine whether other nations met the U.S. Standards,, and if not to provide a hearing consultation and ultimately appeal听证会协商，并最终上诉。
FISM世界魔术大会
• For the second phase of the competition (see Article 7a) the Presidium may decide in common accord to add a nonmagician, preferably an authority in the theatre or entertainment business, to the appropriate judging panel. • The president of the jury, although watching as many contest performances as possible, does not judge the acts as the other judges do. He chairs the joint jury meetings and attends as many of the panel meetings as possible. He or she concludes and summarizes the final decisions and is, together with the panel chairmen, responsible for the observance of the FISM contest rules. In case of a tie, the jury President will arbitrate, and that decision will be final.
• any magician who has reached the FISM Level (see Article 7d) and who is a member of a Society affiliated to the FISM, after having received the written authorization of the President of the FISM Society of which he or she is a member; • any magician who has reached the FISM Level and who is not a member of a FISM Member Society, after having received the written authorization of the Presidents of FISM Member Societies from three different countries. • The President of the FISM Member Society who has given this authorization is responsible for the quality of the act of the contestant. Only contestants having attained the FISM Level should receive such an authorization. The names of the Member Society and its President will be mentioned when the contestant is announced. Member Societies, having sponsored more than one competitor performing under FISM level, can – by judgment of the Presidium – lose their sponsoring rights for the next FISM WCM.
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THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF TRANSLATORS国际翻译工作者联合会THE TRANSLATOR’S CHARTER翻译工作者宪章(Approved by the Congress at Dubrovnik in 1963, and amended in Oslo on July 9, 1994)本宪章于1963年9月在杜布罗夫尼克（南斯拉夫）召开的国际翻译工作者联合会（国际译联）第四次代表大会上通过，1994年7月9日在挪威奥斯陆修订。
The International Federation of Translators国际翻译工作者联合会noting认为，that translation has established itself as a permanent, universal and necessary activity in the world of today; that by making intellectual and material exchanges possible among nations it enriches their life and contributes to a better understanding amongst men;翻译工作在当代世界被看作是一种经常、普遍和必不可少的活动形式；翻译工作能够使各国人民进行精神与物质上的交流，丰富各国人民的生活，促进人们之间的了解；that in spite of the various circumstances under which it is practised translation must now be recognized as a distinct and autonomous profession; and尽管从事翻译工作的环境各有不同，但当前必须把翻译工作看作是一种固定、独立的职业。
desiring希望to lay down, as a formal document, certain general principles inseparably connected with the profession of translating, particularly for the purpose of以正式文件的形式，阐明与翻译工作者的职业密切相关的几项共同原则，以便- stressing the social function of translation,着重指出翻译工作的社会职能，- laying down the rights and duties of translators,明确翻译工作者的权利和义务，- laying the basis of a translator’s code of ethics,奠定翻译工作者道德规范的基础，- improving the economic conditions and social climate in which the translator carries out his activity, and改善翻译工作者从事翻译工作的经济条件与社会环境，- recommending certain lines of conduct for translators and their professional organizations, and to contribute in this way to the recognition of translation as a distinct and autonomous profession,为翻译工作者及其职业团体提供某些活动方针，借以肯定翻译工作是一种固定、独立的职业。
announces the text of a charter proposed to serve as guiding principles for the exercise of the profession of translator.有鉴于此，国际翻译工作者联合会特公布本宪章，作为翻译工作者从事翻译活动的指针。
SECTION I GENERAL OBLIGATIONS OF THE TRANSLATOR第一章翻译工作者的义务1. Translation, being an intellectual activity, the object of which is the transfer of literary, scientific and technical texts from one language into another, imposes on those who practice it specific obligations inherent in its very nature.翻译工作作为一种脑力劳动其目的是将文学、科学方面的材料从一种语言译成另一种语言，从事这一工作的人承担着由该工作性质产生的特殊义务。
2. A translation shall always be made on the sole responsibility of the translator, whatever the character of the relationship of contract which binds him/her to the user.不管翻译工作者与使用译文的个人和机关建立的是什么关系或合同，译文概由翻译工作者负责。
3. The translator shall refuse to give to a text an interpretation of which he/she does not approve, or which would be contrary to the obligations of his/her profession.凡是翻译工作者不同意的或与翻译工作者业务职责相抵触的对原文的解释，翻译工作者应该加以拒绝。
4. Every translation shall be faithful and render exactly the idea and form of the original - this fidelity constituting both a moral and legal obligation for the translator.任何译文都应忠实于原意，准确表达原文的思想和形式，遵守这种忠实的原则是翻译工作者法律上与道德上的义务。
5. A faithful translation, however, should not be confused with a literal translation, the fidelity of a translation not excluding an adaptation to make the form, the atmosphere and deeper meaning of the work felt in another language and country.然而，正确的译文不应同逐字翻译混为一谈，因为翻译的忠实并不排除文字上的必要改变，以便使人能够用另一种语言在另一个国家体会到原作的形式、气氛及其内在含意。
6. The translator shall possess a sound knowledge of the language from which he/she translates and should, in particular, be a master of that into which he/she translates.翻译工作者应通晓原文，更重要的是要精通用来进行翻译的语言。
7. He/she must likewise have a broad general knowledge and know sufficiently well the subject matter of the translation and refrain from undertaking a translation in a field beyond his competence.翻译工作者应该知识广博，对所译对象应有足够了解，对不熟悉的工作不予承担。
8. The translator shall refrain from any unfair competition in carrying out his profession; in particular, he/she shall strive for equitable remuneration and not accept any fee below that which may be fixed by law and regulations.翻译工作者在职业活动中应该不作任何不诚实的竞争；翻译工作者不能接受低于法律专门决议、习惯或者他所在的职业团体明文规定的报酬。
9. In general, he/she shall neither seek nor accept work under conditions humiliating to himself/herself or his/her profession.翻译工作者不应该在有损于个人或职业尊严的条件下去寻找或接受工作。
10. The translator shall respect the legitimate interests of the user by treating as a professional secret any information which may come into his/her possession as a result of the translation entrusted to him/her.翻译工作者应该尊重使用译文的个人和机关的合法利益，应将所有在从事委托给他的翻译工作时可能得到的资料视为职业秘密。
11. Being a "secondary" author, the translator is required to accept special obligations with respect to the author of the original work.翻译工作者作为"再创造"的作者，对原作者负有特殊义务。