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医学英语unit1课文diagnosis

医学英语unit1课文diagnosis

医学英语unit1课文diagnosisthe prevention and preventive treatment of disease治病求本treatment aiming at the root cause of disease扶正祛邪strengthening healthy qi and dispelling pathogens Examples of therapeutic principles调整阴阳regulating yin and yang三因制宜(因时、因地、因人制宜)treating diseases in accordance with three conditions" (i. e. the climatic and seasonal condition, geographic localities and the patient's constitution)《黄帝内经》Huangdi NeijingYellow Emperor's ClassicThe Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon of Medicine The Inner Canon of MedicineThe Inner Canon of Medicine The Inner CanonThe Yellow Emperor's Canon Huangdi's Classic on MedicineCommon TCM Text Names and their English Translations《素问》Su WenBasic Questions Simple Questions Essential Questions Plain Questions《神农本草经》Shengnong Bencao JingDivine Husbandman's Classic of Materia Medica Shennong’s Materia Medica/ Shennongs Herbal Divine Farmer's Herbal Common TCM Text Names and their English Translations《伤寒杂病论》Shanghan Za Bing LunTreatise on Cold-Induced and Miscellaneous Diseases.《针灸甲乙经》Zhenjiu Jiayi JingClassic of the ABC's of Acupuncture and Moxibustion The Systematized Canon of Acupuncture and Moxibution Common TCM Text Names and their English Translations《伤寒论》Shang Han LunTreatise on Cold-Induced Diseases Discussion of Cold-induced DisordersTreatise on Cold--Induced Febrile Diseases Treatise on Injury by Cold 《诸病源候论》Zhu Bing Yuan Hou LunTreatise on The Origins and Symptoms DiseaseCommon TCM Text Names and their English Translations《金匮要略》Jin Gui Yao LÜeSynopsis of the Golden Chamber Synopsis of the Golden CabinetSynopsis of Prescriptions from the Golden Chamber Essentials from the Golden CabinetCommon TCM Text Names and their English Translations《外台秘要》Wai Tai Mi YaoArcane Essentials from the Imperial Library Secrets of a Frontier official《千金要方》Qian Jin Yao FangEssential Formulas Worth A Thousand Ducats Thousand Ducat Prescriptions(Formulas)Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Ducats《千金翼方》Qian Jin Yi FangSupplement to Formulas Worth A Thousand Ducats《类经》Lei JingThe Classic of Categories。

医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译

医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译

Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。

它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。

大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。

剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。

肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。

从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。

因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。

肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。

肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。

肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。

每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。

肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。

外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。

这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。

锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。

每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。

肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。

经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。

由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。

肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。

当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。

细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。

从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。

由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。

组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。

每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。

医学英语课文翻译unit1-7

医学英语课文翻译unit1-7

Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。

它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。

大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。

剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。

肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。

从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。

因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。

肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。

肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。

肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。

每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。

肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。

外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。

这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。

锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。

每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。

肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。

经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。

由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。

肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。

当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。

细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。

从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。

由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。

组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。

每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。

医学英语新教程 王兰英 第一单元 课文原文+翻译

医学英语新教程 王兰英 第一单元 课文原文+翻译

第一课细胞结构及细胞转运机制1 所有的生物都是由细胞和细胞外基质构成的。

这种的简单的论述叫做细胞理论,是150年前第一次提出来的。

我们可以把这种理论叫做猜测或者假设,有时候也确实如此,但是证据证实了细胞理论的正确性。

All living organisms are made of cells and cell products. This simple statement, called the Cell Theory, was first proposed over 150 years ago. You may think of a theory as a guess or hypothesis, and sometimes this is so. But a theory is actually the best explanation of all the available evidence. All of the evidence science has gathered so far supports the validity of the Cell Theory.2 细胞是多细胞生物最小活的亚单位,比如人。

细胞是复杂的化学排列;是活体;并且进行着特殊的活动。

微生物如变形虫、细菌是单细胞生物,其细胞有着独立功能。

然而,人类细胞必须相互依赖,共同作用。

内环境稳定取决于所有不同类型细胞的作用。

Cells are the smallest living subunits of a multicellular organism such as a human being. A cell is a complex arrangement of the chemicals; is living; and carries out specific activities. Microorganisms, such as amoebas and bacteria, are single cells which function independently. Human cells, however, must work together, and function interdependently. Homeostasis depends upon the contributions of all of the different kinds of cells.3人类细胞在大小、形状和功能上有所不同。

医学英语阅读uint-2中英对照

医学英语阅读uint-2中英对照

第一篇人体疾病第一章对人体的简要概述使我们对两个被认为是医学基础的不同学科有了初步认识,这两个学科就是解剖学与生理学.然而不把病理学包括进去,这种概述是不完整的,因为病理学是研究疾病引起的结构和功能变化的学科.实际上,现代对疾病的研究方法强调病理学与生理学的密切关系,并强调在治疗任何人体疾病时了解病理学与生理学基础的必要性.The brief survey of the human body in Chapter One has given us a glimpse into two different studies that are considered the fundamentals of medical sciences, namely anatomy and physiology. However, the picture is not plete without considering pathology, the science that deals with the structural and functional changes produced by the disease. In fact, the modern approach to the study of disorder emphasizes the close relationship of the pathological and physiological aspects and the need to understand the fundamentals of each in treating any body diseases.那么什么是疾病呢?它可以被定义为正常机能或者部分机能遭受损害时的一种状态.每一种生物,无论植物还是动物,都会生病.例如,人类常常被微小的细菌感染,但是细菌又转而可能被更加微小的病毒感染.Then what is a disease? It may be defined as a condition that impairs the proper function of the body or of one of its parts. Every living thing, both plants and animals, can succumb to disease. People, for example, are often infected by tiny bacteria, but bacteria, in turn, can be infected by even more minute viruses.世界上有数百种疾病,每一种都有其特定的症状和体征,这些都是医生诊断疾病的线索.症状是病人自己能觉察到的,比如,高烧、流血或者疼痛.而体征则是医生能够观察到的,比如,血管扩张或内器官肿大.Hundreds of different diseases exist. Each has its own particular set of symptoms and signs, clues that enable a physician to diagnose the problem. A symptom is something a patient can detect, such as fever, bleeding, or pain. A sign is something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood vessel or an enlarged internal body organ.疾病可按不同的标准来分类.例如,流行病是感染某一地区许多人的疾病.当它年复一年地发生在同一地区,就成了一种地方病.急性病发作快、病程短.例如,急性心脏病发作常常没有前兆,而且会很快致命.慢性病发病缓慢,但病程有时会长达数年.风湿热正是由于发病慢、病程长而成为一种慢性病.介于急性与慢性之间的另一种类型被称为亚急性.Diseases can be classified differently. For instance, an epidemic disease is one that strikes many persons in a munity. When it strikes the same region year after year it is an endemic disease. An acute disease has a quick onset and runs a short course. An acute heart attack, for example, often hits without warning and can be quickly fatal. A chronic disease has a slow onset and runs a sometimes years-long course. The gradual onset and long course of rheumatic fever makes it a chronic ailment. Between the acute and chronic, another type is called subacute.疾病也可以依其病原体来划分,例如,传染病指可以在人与人之间传播的疾病,如可通过咳嗽或打喷嚏造成的飞沫进行传播.极小的有机体,如细菌和真菌,可导致传染病.病毒和小虫子也可以.不论病原体是什么,只要它存活于受感染的人体内就能传染给别人.有时,一种致病菌侵入人体后,该人却没有显示患病的症状.于是无症状的病原携带者甚至在自己也不知情的情况下就把疾病传染给了他人.Diseases can also be classified by their causative agents.For instance,an infectious, or municable, disease is the one that can be passed between persons such as by means of airborne droplets from a cough or sneeze. Tiny organisms such as bacteria and fungi can produce infectious diseases. So can viruses and tiny worms. Whatever the causative agent might be, it survives in the person it infects and is passed on to another. Sometimes, a disease-producing organism gets into a personwho shows no symptoms of the disease. The asymptomatic carrier can then pass the disease on to someone else without even knowing he has it.非传染性疾病是由身体机能失调引起的,这包括器官或组织退化、异常细胞生长以与异常的血液生成和血液循环.当然也包括胃、肠、内分泌系统和泌尿生殖系统的紊乱.一些疾病也可能由饮食不足、身体抵抗力下降或神经系统运行不良造成.Noninfectious diseases are caused by malfunctions of the body. These include organ or tissue degeneration, erratic cell growth, and faulty blood formation and flow. Also included are disturbances of the stomach and intestine, the endocrine system, and the urinary and reproductive systems. Some diseases can be caused by diet deficiencies, lapses in the body’s defense system, or a poorly operating nervous system.心理因素和社会因素也会引发残疾和疾病.这些疾病包括毒品成瘾、肥胖、营养不良和由污染造成的健康问题.Disability and illnesses can also be provoked by psychological and social factors. These ailments include drug addiction, obesity, malnutrition, and pollution-caused health problems.而且,上千种乃至更多的遗传性出生缺陷由基因变异引起.由于小小的基因负责产生许多身体所需的化学物质,它们的缺失或者运行不良都会严重损害健康.影响人体化学反应的基因失调被称为先天性代谢失调,某些智力发育迟缓有遗传性.Furthermore, a thousand or more inheritable birth defects result from alternations in gene patterns. Since tiny genes are responsible for producing the many chemicals needed by the body, missing or improperly operating genes can seriously impair health. Genetic disorders that affect body chemistry are called inborn errors of metabolism. Some forms of mental retardation are hereditary.病菌如何侵袭身体人类生活的世界里有许多其他生物为食物和繁衍而竞争.很多致病生物,即病原体,通常被广义地称为病菌,能侵入人体并利用其细胞和液体来满足自己的需求.一般来讲,身体防御系统能够抵抗这些入侵者.Humans live in a world where many other living things pete for food and places to breed. The pathogenic organisms, or pathogens, often broadly called germs that cause many diseases, are able to invade the human body and use its cells and fluids for their own needs. Ordinarily, the body’s defense system can ward off these invaders.病原体能通过多种方式进入人体.一些病原体是被吸入人体的,如引起普通感冒、肺炎和结核病的病菌;有的是通过性接触进入人体的,如引起性病的病原体;还有的是通过受污染的食物、水或器皿进入人体,比如引起肝炎、霍乱和伤寒的病原体.Pathogenic organisms can enter the body in various ways. Some—such as those that cause the mon cold, pneumonia, and tuberculosis—are breathed in. Others—such as those that cause venereal diseases—enter through sexual contact of human bodies. Still others—such as those that cause hepatitis, colitis, cholera, and typhoid fever—get in the body through contaminated food, water or utensils.昆虫作为媒介或者病原体携带者传播疾病.苍蝇能将病菌从人类的排泄物或其他腐烂的物质带到食物和饮料中;蚊子、虱子或其他媒介动物的叮咬也会将病菌传入人体.Insects can spread disease by acting as vectors, or carriers. Flies can carry germs from human waste or other tainted materials to food and beverages. Germs may also enter the body through the bite of a mosquito, louse, or other insect vector. 身体如何抵抗疾病作为第一条防线,健康的身体有许多物理屏障来抵御感染.覆盖在体表或者器官开口处的皮肤和粘膜能在很大程度上抵抗细菌或其他感染体的入侵.如果这些物理屏障遭到损坏或烧伤,身体对感染的抵抗力就会下降.在一些较轻的病情中,可能只会发生疖子和丘疹.在较重的情况下,身体的大面积区域则可能会被感染.As a first line of defense, a healthy body has a number of physical barriers against infection. The skin and mucous membranes covering the body or lining its openings offer considerable resistance to invasion by bacteria and other infectious organisms. If these physical barriers are injured or burned, infection resistance drops. In minor cases, only boils or pimples may develop. In major cases, however, large areas of the body might bee infected.呼吸道尤其容易受到感染.幸好,呼吸道内覆盖了能分泌粘液的细胞,它们能捕获微生物和尘埃.另外,呼吸道内覆有一层叫纤毛的细小绒毛,能象麦田里的小麦一样舞动,轻轻地将异物扫出呼吸道.另外,呼吸道内的异物还常通过擤鼻涕、咳嗽、打喷嚏和清嗓子而被排出.然而,反复感染、抽烟或其他原因会损坏呼吸道,使之容易受感染.Breathing passages are especially vulnerable to infection. Fortunately, they are lined with mucus-secreting cells that trap tiny organisms and dust particles. Also, minute hairs called cilia line the breathing passages, wave like a field of wheat, and gently sweep matter out of the respiratory tract. In addition, foreign matter in the breathing passages can often be ejected by nose blowing, coughing, sneezing, and throat clearing. Unfortunately, repeated infection, smoking and other causes can damage the respiratory passageways and make them more susceptible to infection.很多潜在的入侵者不能在体温〔华氏98.6度或摄氏37度〕下生存.即使能在这种温度下生存繁殖的病菌,在体温升高发烧时也会被杀灭.Many potential invaders cannot stand body temperature <98.6o F or 37o C>. Even those that thrive at that temperature may be destroyed when the body assumes higher fever temperatures.外耳道里的蜡质和泪管里的眼泪能减缓一些细菌的生长速度,而胃酸也能毁掉某种吞食进去的病菌.Wax in the outer ear canals and tears from eye ducts can slow the growth of some bacteria. And stomach acid can destroy certain swallowed germs.身体的第二条防线是血液和淋巴.某些白细胞群聚集在被感染区,通过形成脓肿使感染限于局部.如果脓块不破裂,里面的脓不排出,感染很可能会扩大.发生这种情况时,感染首先被该区域的淋巴腺阻挡.例如,手上的感染向上传到手臂时,手臂上会出现红痕,腋窝淋巴腺肿胀,有触痛感.如果感染得不到控制,将会导致血液中毒.The body’s second line of defense is in the blood and lymph. Certain white blood cells flock to infected areas and try to localize the infection by forming pus-filled abscesses. Unless the abscess breaks and allows the pus to drain, the infection is likely to spread. When this happens, the infection is first blocked by local lymph glands. For example, an infection in the hand travels up the arm, producing red streaks and swollen, tender lymph glands in the armpit. Unless the infection is brought under control, it will result in blood poisoning.Phagocytes are located at various sites to minimize infection. One type in the spleen and liver keeps the blood clean. Others in such high-risk areas as the walls of the bronchi and the intestines remove certain bacteria and shattered cells.位于身体不同部位的吞噬细胞能最大程度地减少感染.肝和脾内的吞噬细胞能保持血液清洁.位于支气管壁和肠壁等高危区域的吞噬细胞能清除某些细菌和破碎的细胞.第二篇诊断与预后诊断在大多数临床就诊过程中,病人会向医生提出一些基本的问题,例如:"我怎么了?"、"我的病是什么原因引起的?"这些问题促使医生做出诊断,即确定生病的原因.诊断包括病史、身体检查和实验室检查.In most clinical encounters, the patient presents basic questions to the doctor: What’s wrong with me? What is causing my illness? These questions set the stage for making a diagnosis, i.e. determining the cause of an illness.And a diagnosis is acplished with history, physical examination and laboratory testing.疾病的诊断过程由采集病人的病史开始,医生向病人询问当前和过去所患的疾病、家族病史、生活习惯等等.下表是一个标准病历应包含的内容.The process of diagnosing a disease begins with the person’s heal th history. The physician asks the patient questions on both present and past illnesses, family history of disease, habits and so on. The following table presents typical contents of a standard medical history.病人的一般情况年龄、性别、民族、职业和生育情况〔适用于女性〕主诉用四到五个字,最好是引用患者的自述,陈述就诊的目的与病痛的持续时间.偶尔也可将患的请求作为主诉,如:"我需要注射流感疫苗".患者的其他医生##、地址、以与患者的关系现病史每种主要症状,包括什么症状、发生部位、发生时间、轻重程度、时间经过、症状好转或加重的影响因素、既往诊治情况与可能缩小诊断范围相关的问题既往史既往疾病与住院情况、免疫情况、用药情况、过敏史、饮酒、吸烟与有无药物成瘾等社会与职业史描述患者日常生活中典型的一天以与目前疾病对其生活的影响;患者可获得的社会支持〔自家庭、朋友或同事〕与职业史家族史家族中的遗传病史,家族成员的寿命与死亡原因各系统的评估主要器官系统的系统性评估:皮肤、造血系统〔包括淋巴结〕,头、眼、耳、鼻、口、喉颈、乳房、呼吸系统、心血管系统、胃肠道系统、泌尿生殖系统、肌肉骨骼系统、神经系统内分泌系统和精神系统Description of patientAge, gender, race, occupation and parity <for woman>Chief plaintFour or five words, preferably quoting the patient, stating the purpose of the vis and the duration of the plaint. Occasionally the patient states a request inste of a plaint such as I need a flu shot.Other physicians involved in the patient’s careName, address, telephone number, and relationship to the patientHistory of the present illnessFor each major symptom, what, where, when, how much, chronological course, what mak the symptom better or worse, past medical care, questions to narrow diagnost possibilitiesPast medical historyPrevious illnesses and hospitalizations, immunizations, medications the patie takes, allergies, and alcohol, tobacco and drug habitsSocial and occupational historyDescription of a typical day in the patient’s life and how the present illne affects it, social supports <family, friends, and colleagues> available to t patient, and occupational historyFamily historyHistory of genetically related diseases in the patient’s family and longevity a cause of death of family membersReview of systemsSystematic review of major organ systems: skin, hematopoietic system <includi lymph nodes>, head, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, throat, neck, breasts, and respirator cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, musculoskeletal, nervouendocrine and psychiatric systems询问病史之后是全面的身体检查,内容包括测量身高、体重和血压,对心肺听诊,检查眼、耳和口腔.听力和视力检查有时在常规身体检查中进行.反射检查是简单的神经传导检查,有好几项,包括用橡皮锤在某些部位〔如膝盖〕敲打.Asking the patient’s medical history is followed by the general physical examination which inc ludes measuring height and weight, and taking blood pressure; listening to the heart and lungs with a stethoscope; and examining eyes, ears, and mouth. Tests of hearing and vision are sometimes performed in routine physical examinations. Reflex tests are simple tests of nerve conduction that involve, among several other tests, tapping with a rubber hammer in areas such as the knee.由于体液常常揭示了关于疾病性质的重要信息,所以实验室检查对于确诊疾病起着非常重要的作用.血液检查能判断病人是否贫血,即正常红细胞数量不足,判断病人是否有感染或血液病如白血病.血液分析还能显示是否有营养不良和其他疾病.葡萄糖耐糖试验用于诊断糖尿病,通过检测血糖水平来测量胰岛素的活性.Since body fluids often reveal important information about the nature of the disorder, laboratory testing plays an important role in determining the patient’s disease. Blood tests can determine whether the person has anemia—that is, an insufficient amount of healthy red blood cells—infection, or a blood disease, such as leukemia. Blood analysis can also uncover nutritional deficiencies and other disorders. The glucose-tolerance test, which is used to diagnose diabetes, measures insulin activity by monitoring the level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood.尿液检查用于检测其中是否有葡萄糖、细菌、蛋白质与其他物质.尿液中存在葡萄糖有时是由糖尿病引起的.尿液中有细菌表明肾脏或膀胱有感染,尿液中存在蛋白质可能源于某种肾脏疾病.粪便样品检查旨在寻找致病微生物和便血,便血是肠道病的一个常见症状.Urine is also tested for glucose as well as for bacteria, protein, and other materials. Glucose in the urine is sometimes caused by diabetes. Bacteria in the urine can indicate a kidney or bladder infection, and the presence of protein may result from a kidney disorder. A stool sample is tested for disease-causing microorganisms and for blood, which is often a symptom of intestinal disease.当怀疑有神经系统病变时,常常通过脊液检查来发现微生物和其他不正常成分.鼻腔和喉部的粘液检查常常可用于确定引起呼吸道感染的微生物.Spinal fluid is examined for microorganisms and other unusual contents when a nervous system disorder is suspected. Mucus from the nose and throat can be tested to identify the organisms responsible for respiratory infections.活检是指从人体的某个器官或部位采集组织样品,然后把该样品切成非常薄的切片,用特殊的染料染色,再置于显微镜下观察,以发现细胞的病变.A sample of tissue can be taken from an organ or any other part of the body by a process called biopsy. The tissue is then sliced into very thin sections, stained with special dyes, and studied under the microscope to discover abnormalities in the cells.放射照片〔即X光照片〕被用来检查身体的各个部位.比如,胸片有助于诊断肿瘤、肺炎和结核.X光片也可以显示骨折和肌肉骨骼系统的其他疾病.Radiographs, or x-ray photographs, are used to examine various parts of the body. A chest x- ray, for example, can help diagnose tumors, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. X-rays can also show bone fractures and other conditions of the musculoskeletal system.计算机断层扫描〔CT〕扫描仪是一种特别的X射线相机,它可以获得硬组织和软组织的高清图像.通过每次对身体组织的一个断层进行扫描照相,CT扫描仪可以检测到非常小的肿瘤和其他疾病.puted tomography <CT> scanners are specialized X-ray cameras that take highly detailed images of hard and soft tissues. By picturing one layer of the body’s tissues at a time, CT scanners can detect very small tumors and other disorders.核磁共振〔即磁共振成像〕是一种无副作用、无创的检查方法,运用强磁场下的无线电波来对患者进行检查,并生成脑、心脏、肝脏与其他器官的薄层可视图像.由此产生的对比度高、具有不同色调的图像可以发现肿瘤、缺血组织与斑块.Nuclear magnetic resonance, or magnetic resonance imaging, is a hazard-free, non-invasive method that uses radio waves in the presence of a strong magnetic field to probe a patient and generate visual images of thin slices of the brain, heart, liver, and other organs. The high-contrast, variable-toned images that result can uncover tumors, blood-starved tissues, and plaques.超声检查对于检测肺部和腹腔肿瘤很有效,它使用超高频声波来形成内部器官的电视图像.由于超声波无任何辐射,有时用于确定妊娠期胎儿的大小和位置.Ultrasonography is useful in locating tumors of the lung and abdominal cavity. It employs ultra-high frequency sound waves to form television images of internal organs. Because it produces no radiation, ultrasound is sometimes used during pregnancy to determine the size and position of the fetus.心肌和神经系统产生的电脉冲可以通过特殊设备测量出来.心电图可用于诊断某些心脏疾病,将电极贴在胸口,就可以记录病人在休息或活动时的心脏电活动,如在跑步机上行走时的心脏电活动.脑电图通过连接在头部的电极测量大脑电活动,可检测大脑中的某一区域是否存在波动,如发生癫痫时.肌电图记录肌肉神经的活动,它对于诊断诸如多发性硬化症的退行性神经疾病很有帮助.Both the heart muscle and the nervous system produce electrical impulses that can be measured with special machines. The electrocardiograph is useful for diagnosing certain heart conditions. With electrodes t aped to a person’s chest, the electrical activity of the heart can be recorded while the patient is either resting or performing some activity, such as walking on a treadmill. The electroencephalogram measures the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes attached to the head. This test detects whether there is an area of irritability in the brain, which, for example, occurs in epilepsy. The electromyogram <EMG> records the activity of nerves in muscles. The EMG is helpful in diagnosing degenerative nerve disorders such as multiple sclerosis.肺功能检查主要检测肺和呼吸道的呼吸能力,通过向一根与肺量计相连的管道呼气就可以获得有关呼吸功能的信息.Tests of pulmonary function measure the breathing capacity of the lungs and airways. By exhaling into a tube connected to a machine called a spirometer, information is obtained on respiratory functions.光纤技术使医生能够看到以前只能通过手术才可看到的部位,光纤仪器主要是细如发丝的玻璃纤维,可以进入细小区域,并且深入体腔.光纤技术可用于检查结肠和肺部支气管.Fiber optic technology has allowed physicians to see parts of the body that previously could be seen only by performing surgery. Fiber optic tools are essentially hair-thin glass fibers that can enter small areas and can be moved deep into the body cavities. Fiber optic technology can be used to examine the colon and the bronchial tubes in the lung.盆腔检查用于评估女性的生殖整体健康情况,巴氏涂片可检测宫颈癌.乳房检查能够发现可能是癌症的肿块.乳房X线照相术使用特殊的X射线产生乳房的软组织图像,是一种检测肿瘤的更可靠的方法.A pelvic examination is performed to assess the general reproductive health of a woman. The pap smear is a test for cancer of the cervix. A breast examination can detect lumps that may indicate cancer. Mammography, a procedure that involves using special x-rays to produce an image of the soft tissues of the breast, is a much more reliable way to detect tumors.皮试用于诊断过敏,心理测试用于诊断学习和精神障碍.Skin tests are used to diagnose hypersensitivity conditions, or allergies. Psychological tests are used to diagnose learning and mental disorders.预后医生可能会遇到另一类问题,如:"你觉得我的病能康复吗?"或"你能使我病情好转吗?".病人是在询问他们的预后,即关于其疾病的可能性结果的预测.事实上,对于很多患者来说,预后是他们最关心的问题.A physician may encounter another type of questions, such as "Do you think I can get recovered from my condition?" or "Can you help me to stay well?" The patient is asking their prognosis, the forecast of the probable results of his/her disease. In fact, for a great many patients, the prognosis is their biggest concern.因此,将诊断结果告诉病人并与病人讨论治疗过程是非常重要的.如果病情很可能治愈并无后遗症,那么安慰一下患者就行了.然而,最难讨论的预后是关于那些致命性疾病的,尤其是众多癌症.即使是不好的预后,大多数患者也想知道,但在多大程度上告知病人情况主要是由病人而不是医生来决定,医生有责任让病人意识到讨论预后与否将取决于病人的意愿.详细的讨论最好在随访时进行,即在双方有机会相互了解之后.最高明的医生在告知病人事实时也会给予希望,帮助病人走出震惊、否定、抑郁的复杂情绪,并最终接受绝症这一事实.最重要的是,他们会让病人知道医生不会放弃他们.So, it is important to tell the patient the diagnosis and discuss what to expect from the clinical course of the condition. If the illness is likely to resolve without sequelae, reassurance is often all that is needed. However, the most difficult prognoses to discuss are those for fatal illnesses, especially many cancers. Most patients want to know even bad prognoses, but how much a physician tells a given patient should be determined primarily by the patient, not the physician. The physician has the duty to make the patient aware of his/her willingness to discuss the prognosis. Often detailed discussions are best conducted at follow-up visits, after the two have had a chance to get to know each other. The best physicians blend honest fact and hope together, helping the patient through the plicated steps of shock, denial, depression, and acceptance of fatal illness. Most importantly, they make it clear that they will not abandon the patient.第三篇接近病人病人就诊是为了寻求医生的帮助──帮助他/她恢复健康或保持健康,医生的任务就是为病人的健康服务.为此,医生必须努力减轻疾病、缓解痛苦,为有残疾的病人提供帮助,防止病人早逝,最大限度地使病人满意.有人把这些行为概括成为解决五个"D"的问题──疾病〔disease〕、不适〔disfort〕、残疾〔disability〕、死亡〔death〕和不满〔dissatisfaction〕.在上述各个方面医生有时均能获得成功,在最理想的情况下,医生能够预防疾病并帮助病人保持健康;而有时,面对疾病和死亡,医生却无能为力.有时上述的各个方面一无所成,但即便如此,医生也不应放弃努力.针对病人的健康问题,医生应该尝试各种临床手段来挽救病人的健康.When a patient sees a doctor, the patient is seeking help—to regain or retain health. The physician’s task is to work for the patient’s health. The doctor does so by trying to attenuate1disease, by relieving disfort, by assisting the patient with any disability, by preventing premature2 death, and by maximizing contentment3. Some have summarized these activities as tackling "the five D’s" of health—disease, disfort, disability, death, and dissatisfaction. Sometimes there is success in all these areas. In the best of circumstances, the doctor is able to prevent disease and help the patient remain healthy. In other cases, disease and death defeat us. In some cases none of the goals is achieved, but even that oute must not stop us from trying. By focusing on the health of the patient, the doctor tests the myriad4 activities of clinical medicine against the health oute of the patient.治疗和预防越来越多的病人就诊的目的不是诊断而是对正罹患的疾病进行治疗.即使当一个医生必须作出诊断时,也应牢记仅仅作出诊断无法改善病人的健康状况,只有治疗和预防可以.Increasingly, patients visit doctors not for diagnosis but for treatment of ongoing medical problems. Even when a doctor must make the diagnosis, it is important to remember that making a diagnosis alone cannot improve the health of a patient. Only treatment and prevention can.需牢记两条治疗的总则.首先,医生既治疗疾病也治疗病人.每一次临床接触中,医生都应努力让病人感到因为医生病情在好转.对病人来说,当给予具体治疗时,缓解症状,尤其是疼痛和恶心,与使用抗生素控制感染同样重要.其次,疾病治疗的成功,特别是对不住院病人的治疗,通常要求病人的积极配合.Two general principles should be kept in mind about treatment. First, the physician should treat the patient as well as the disease. With every clinical encounter, the physician should strive to ensure that the patient feels better just for having been with the doctor. When prescribing specific treatment, alleviation5 of symptoms, especially pain and nausea6, is often as important to the patient as, say, antibiotics7 for an infection. Second, successful treatment of an illness, especially outside the hospital, usually requires the patient’s active participation.[治疗过程]治疗过程如手术、放疗、血管成形术、化疗〔和有创诊断化验〕必须向病人解释透彻;多数情况下,必须获得病人的签字同意.医生必须帮助病人了解在治疗过程中可能发生的情况、预期的结果和这种结果的发生概率、治疗过程中的副作用与其出现的可能性.知情同意书是医疗相关法律的要求,同样重要的一点,它也是优质临床护理的基础.医疗技术的进步是复杂的,常常花费昂贵,且大多数时候都可能有潜在的并发症.真正的知情同意对医生的临床技巧有很高的要求.医生应以病人的利益为重,做他们的代言人.医生应让病人了解一切必要的情况,但不能用那些深奥难懂的技术细节与一连串听起来十分可怕而医疗过程中又不大可能出现的副作用让病人不知所措.医生应坦诚地给病人以专业性的忠告,同时也应清楚地表明最后的决定仍取决于病人本人.如果经过充分的讨论之后病人对某项医疗措施仍然犹豫不决,多数情况下最好推迟决定治疗是否进行.如果病人由于感到医生的压力而接受有一定风险的检查或治疗,一旦出现并发症,病人会感到特别心烦.Therapeutic Procedures. Therapeutic procedures such as surgery, radiation, angioplasty8,and chemotherapy <as well as invasive diagnostic tests> must be explained thoroughly to the patient; in most cases, signed consent9must be obtained. The physician must help the patient understand what will happen during the procedure, the hoped-for oute and its probability, and adverse effects10of the procedure and their probabilities. Informed consent is a medical-legal requirement, but, just as important, it is a cornerstone11 of excellent clinical care. Technologic advances in medicine are plex, often costly, and rarely without the potential for adverse plications12. True informed consent requires a great deal of clinical skill on the doctor’s part. The physician should act as the patient’s advocate13. The patient should be given the necessary facts but not overwhelmed with inprehensible technical details or a long list of terrifying and improbable adverse effects of a procedure. The physician should freely give professional advice but clearly municate that the final decision is the patient’s. If the patient remains undecided about a procedure after a thorough discussion, in most cases it is best to delay the decision. A patient who feels pressured by the doctor to undergo a risky procedure may be particularly upset if plications arise.[药物治疗]医生的医嘱在医院里可以得到执行,但对于门诊病人来讲则很难保证.用简洁的话语将用药向非住院病人进行解释,说明用药目的、剂量安排,持续用药时间等,这一点特别重要.Medications. pliance14 with physicians’ medication orders is a given in hospital, but this is certainly not true in the ambulatory15 setting. With ambulatory patients it is especially important to explain the medication to the patient, its purpose in simple terms, its dosage16schedule, and how long the patient should continue the medication.应要求病人每次随访时把所有药品都带来,这样做是有好处的.很多病人不知道自己所用药物的名称,所以就瓶中的药片进行说明比单纯解释抽象的药名要容易得多.医生也经常能通过瓶中药片的多少来估计出病人遵医嘱用药的大致情况,虽然在开始服用某一药瓶的药之前,持续用药的病人可能把前后要服用的药物合并在一个瓶子里,也可能把重新买来的药物装入原来的瓶子中,因此想对遵医嘱用药情况作出准确判断有时是不可能的.有时,医生会发现病人没有服用处方中开出的某一种药,医生可能也会发现病人正在服用另一位医生开的药.对于谈到的每一种药,医生都应询问病人的服药时间与是否有什么问题.如果病人服药不当,医生就应确定问题出在哪里:是不了解还是忘记了用药剂量?或是因为药有副作用?或是因为药费昂贵或其他原因等等.It is useful to ask the patient to bring all medicines to each follow-up visit. Many patients do not know the names of their medicines; discussing pills in bottles is easier than abstract medication names. Often the doctor can make a rough estimate of medication pliance by the level of pills in the bottle although for ongoing prescriptions patients may bine bottles or refill prescriptions17before beginning to take the medication in a particular bottle, thus making accurate pliance measurement impossible. Sometimes the physician discovers that the patient does not have one of the prescribed medicines. The doctor may discover that the patient is taking medication prescribed by another physician. For each medicine discussed, the doctor should ask how often the patient is taking it and if there are any problems. If the patient is taking the medicine incorrectly, the physician can determine whether the problem is misunderstanding of the dosage schedule, forgetfulness, an adverse side effect, the cost of the drug, or some other reasons.。

医学英语综合教程课文和翻译

医学英语综合教程课文和翻译

Unit2。

Cells and AgingAging is a normal process accompanied by a progressive alteration of the body’s homeostatic adaptive responses; the specialized branch of medicine that deals with the medical problems and care of elderly person is called geriatrics。

衰老是一种正常的生理过程,伴有机体内环境稳定适应性应答的进行性改变。

研究老年人的健康问题和保健的一门特殊医学分支被称作老年病学The obvious characteristics of aging are well known; graying and loss of hair, loss ofteeth, wrinkling of skin, decreased muscle mass, and increased fat deposits。

The physiological signs of aging are gradual deterioration in function and capacity to maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis) in response to changes in temperature, diet,and oxygen supply。

These sings of aging are related to a net decrease in the number of cells in the body and to the dysfunctioning of the cells that remain。

医学英语课文翻译

医学英语课文翻译

Unit OneText A: Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人,尊重病人,尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。

作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的,虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。

根据医学历史权威的看法,这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的,这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。

无论如何,不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的(希波克拉底宣言),这个宣言的内容都反映了他在医学伦理上的看法。

作为代表当时希腊观点的唯一一小部分,希波克拉底誓言首次被写时并没有受到很好的欢迎。

然而,在那远古时代结束时,医生们开始遵循誓言的条款。

当科学医学在罗马帝国衰亡后遭受一显而易见的衰退时,这个誓言,连同希波克拉底医学的指示命令,在西方都几乎被遗忘是有可能的。

正是通过东方坚持不懈的探索精神,使得希波克拉底医学信念和希波克拉底宣言得以在这一恶化的时期幸存下来,尤其是通过阿拉伯当局在医学上的著作。

希腊医学知识而后在西方基督教复活是通过了阿拉伯文论著和原始希腊文的拉丁文翻译。

到17世纪后期,专业行为标准已经在西方世界建立。

被专业组织通过的第一部医学伦理学的法典是由英国内科医生托马斯·珀西瓦尔(1740 - 1804)1794年编写的, 并在1846年被改编和通过了美国医学协会(AMA)。

医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译(2)

医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译(2)

Unit1肺‎和肾的功能肺的血管系统‎肺从两个血管‎系统----支气管循环系‎统和肺循环系‎统获得血液供‎应。

它的营养血液‎来自于支气管‎循环系统,流向肺部除肺‎泡外的所有组‎织,因为支气管循‎环系统始于主‎动脉及上肋间‎动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。

大约三分之一‎的支气管循环‎的静脉输出流‎入全身静脉,然后回到右心‎房。

剩余的输出流‎入肺静脉,并在心脏最小‎静脉的作用下‎,在正常情况下‎,以1%-2%的量自右向左‎分流。

肺动脉系统沿‎着气道从肺门‎向外周延伸,向下连接下段‎气道(直径大约2毫‎米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富‎有弹性。

从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化‎发展,直至其达到3‎0微米,此时肌层消失‎。

因为这些小肌‎肉动脉起着积‎极控制肺部血‎流分布的作用‎,所以大部分动‎脉压降产生在‎这些小肌肉动‎脉中。

肺小动脉将血‎液排空,送入广泛分布‎的毛细血管网‎,进入肺静脉。

肺静脉的壁很‎薄,它们最终在肺‎门处与动脉和‎支气管汇合,出肺进入左心‎房。

肾结构成分人类肾脏在解‎剖学上位于腹‎膜后隙,与下胸椎和上‎腰椎平行。

每个成年人的‎肾脏大约重1‎50克,长、宽、厚分别为12‎厘米、6厘米以及3‎厘米。

肾脏的冠状部‎分分为/由两个明确的‎区域(组成)。

外周部的皮质‎大约1厘米厚‎,深部的髓质由‎几个肾锥体构‎成。

这些锥体状结‎构的底部位于‎皮髓质结合处‎。

锥体的顶部伸‎入肾门,称为肾**。

每个肾**被一个肾小盏‎包裹。

肾小盏与肾大‎盏相聚组成肾‎盂。

经肾**流出的尿液汇‎集在肾盂,通过输尿管排‎入膀胱。

由主动脉分支‎出来的肾总动‎脉为两肾输送‎血液。

肾总动脉通常‎分为两个主侧‎支,这两个侧支又‎进一步分为叶‎动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血‎液。

当这些血管进‎入肾实质,变成(这些血管)又进一步细分‎。

细分后的更小‎血管在皮髓质‎结合处成为叶间动脉‎通向肾皮质时‎,竖‎支--弓状动脉。

从弓状动脉伸‎出的叶间动脉‎进入皮质。

医学英语My Stethoscope课文

医学英语My Stethoscope课文

医学英语My Stethoscope课文Stethoscope, the most commonly used diagnostic tool for women and children, is the symbol of doctors. Modern medicine began with the invention of stethoscope. Since the stethoscope was applied in the clinic on March 8,1817, the shape and transmission mode have been continuously improved, but its basic structure has not changed much, mainly by the sound pickup part (chest piece), the conduction part (hose) and the listening part (ear parts). The French doctor Rex (Laennec17811826) invented the first stethoscope in 1816, and it was first used for clinical diagnosis on 8 March 1817.听诊器(Stethoscope),是内外妇儿医师最常用的诊断用具,是医师的标志,现代医学即始于听诊器的发明。

听诊器自从1817年3月8日应用于临床以来,外形及传音方式有不断的改进,但其基本结构变化不大,主要由拾音部分(胸件),传导部分(胶管)及听音部分(耳件)组成。

法国医生雷奈克(Laennec1781–1826)于1816年第一个发明了听诊器,1817年3月8日开始用于临床诊断使用。

听诊器作用Normally we can hear breathing in the trachea, bronchus, alveoli and other alveoli. If the breathing tone weakens or disappears, it may be breathing weakness, limited breathing activity, obstructive emphysema, pneumothorax, pleural effusion, etc If the respiratory tone is enhanced, it may be that hypoxia stimulates the respiratory center. It may be due to partial obstruction, spasm, or stenosis of the lower respiratory tract, such as bronchitis, bronchial asthma, etc. Respiratory breath is intermittent, seen in pneumonia, tuberculosis and so on. Respiratory sound is rough, suggesting mild edema or inflammatory infiltration of the bronchial mucosa, as seen in the early stage of bronchitis or lung inflammation. The lungs may also produce additional sounds: if there is more mucus, sputum, blood, exudate, etc. in the airway, inhalation will produce a sound similar to the blister burst sound, we call it wet luo sound. If the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles are narrowed or partially blocked, and when the air is inhaled or exhaled, it will make a whistle-like or snoring sound, which we call a dry rale. If the pleura is inflamed and exudation, the pleural friction can be heard. In addition, we can also use a stethoscope to check the conduction and resonance of speechin the lungs.正常我们能够听到的是气管、支气管、肺泡等部位的呼吸音。

医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译

医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译

Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。

它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。

大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。

剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。

肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。

从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。

因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。

肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。

肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。

肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。

每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。

肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。

外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。

这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。

锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。

每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。

肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。

经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。

由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。

肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。

当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。

细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。

从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。

由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。

组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。

每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。

医学英语cell biology text b 课文

医学英语cell biology text b 课文

医学英语cell biology text b 课文Cell biology is a fascinating field that focuses on the study of cells - the building blocks of living organisms. In the advanced course of Cell Biology Text B, students delve deeper into the inner workings of cells, exploring topics such as cell structure, cell signaling, and cell division.One key concept covered in Cell Biology Text B is the structure of cells. Students learn about the different organelles that make up a cell, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum. They also learn about the functions of these organelles and how they work together to sustain the life of a cell.Another important topic covered in this course is cell signaling. Cells communicate with each other through a complex network of signaling pathways, which allow them to respond to changes in their environment. Students learn about the different types of signaling molecules, such as hormones and neurotransmitters, and how they regulate cellular processes like growth, metabolism, and differentiation.Cell division is also a key focus of Cell Biology Text B. Students learn about the different stages of the cell cycle,including interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. They also study the regulation of the cell cycle, including the role ofcyclin-dependent kinases and other cell cycle regulators.Overall, Cell Biology Text B provides students with a comprehensive understanding of the inner workings of cells. By studying topics such as cell structure, cell signaling, and cell division, students gain insights into the fundamental processes that drive life at the cellular level. This course is essential for anyone interested in pursuing a career in biology, medicine, or research.In conclusion, Cell Biology Text B is a challenging yet rewarding course that offers students a deeper understanding of cell biology. By studying the structure, signaling, and division of cells, students gain valuable insights into the fundamental processes that sustain life. This course is a cornerstone of any biology curriculum and provides a solid foundation for further study in the field of cell biology.。

基础医学英语课文翻译

基础医学英语课文翻译

基础医学英语课文翻译-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1【Chapter 1】The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane— as with the hinge joint of the elbow— or movement around a single axis—as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate.顱骨不能運動,是由於骨與骨之間的連接太過緊密.但其他的關節可允許活動,如一個平面上的前後屈身運動,如肘關節;或是繞軸心旋轉運動,如樞軸點允許頭部轉動.The ends of these muscles are attached to different bones by connective tissue bands so that when the muscle contracts, one bone moves in relation to the other. This makes it possible to move the whole body, as when walking, or to move jus one part of the body, as when bending a finger.結締組織是肌肉末端附著於不同的骨面上,所以當肌肉收縮時,兩骨彼此靠近而產生運動.這也就使整個人體可以運動起來,如走路,運動軀體某個部位,如彎曲手指.The heart is a muscle that is divided into two nearly identical halve: one half receives blood from the lungs and sends it to the rest of the body, the other half sends blood that has traveled through the body back to the lungs.心臟是一塊被分為幾乎對等兩半的肌肉.一辦吸收來自肺部的血液,並把血液運送到機體的其餘部位,另一半使流經全身的血液回流入肺.The trachea divides to enter each of the two lungs and then divides more than 20 times to form a very large number of small air spaces. Oxygen from the air enters the blood through capillaries in the walls of these air spaces, and the blood releases carbon dioxide into the air spaces to be exhaled.氣管分成左右支氣管,各連結左右肺,左右之氣管在分支20多次,在終端形成大量為小的肺泡.從空氣攝取的氧氣流經這些肺泡壁內的毛喜血管流入血液.血液在經肺泡把釋放出的二氧化碳排出體外.The urinary system maintains normal levels of water and of certain small molecules such as sodium and potassium in the body. It does this by passing blood through the kidneys, two efficient filtering organs that get rid of any excess of various molecules and conserve those molecules that are in short supply.泌尿系統維持水分及體內某些小分子物質,如鈉`鉀的正常水平.身體是通過讓腎過濾血液來做到這一點的.腎是兩個有效的過濾器官,他濾出各種多餘的小分子物質,保留那些供應不足的小分子物質.A major gland is the pituitary, which is located under the brain in the middle of the head. It produces at least eight hormones, which affect growth, kidney function, and development of the sex organs.腦垂體是一個主要的腺體,他位於頭中部腦下方.他至少分泌八種激素,這些激素對人體生長,腎功能及性器官發育有影響.The female productive system is responsible for producing and transporting ova( the female sex cells), eliminating ova from the body when they are not fertilized by sperm, nourishing and provid-ing a place for growth of an embryo when an ovum is fertilized by sperm, and nourishing a newborn child.女性生殖系統產生,輸送卵子(女性性細胞),將未受精的卵子排出體外,而當精,卵結合時,女性生殖系統培養,提供胚胎生長場所,並孕育新生兒.【Chapter 2】A symptom is something a patient can de-tect, such as fever, bleeding, or pain. A sign is something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood vessel or an enlarged internal body organ.症狀是病人自己就能察覺到的,比如,高燒,流血,或是疼痛.而徵兆則是醫生所能夠觀察到的,比如,血管擴張或是體內器官腫大.The skin and mucous membranes covering the body or lining its openings offer considerable resis-tance to invasion by bacteria and other infectious organisms. If these physical barriers are injured or burned, infection resistance drops. In minor cases, only boils or pimples may develop. In major cases, however m large areas of the body might become infected.覆蓋在體表或者器官開口處的皮膚和黏膜能在很大程度上抵抗細菌或其他感染體的入侵.如果這些屏障遭到了損壞或損傷,身體對感染的抵抗力就會下降.在一些病情較輕的病例中,疥子和小膿胞可能會發生.在病情較重的病例中,身體的大面積區域則可能會被感染.Breathing passages are especially vulnerable to infection. Fortunately, they are lined with mu-cus-secreting cells that trap tiny organisms and dust particles. Also, minute hairs called cilia line the breathing passages, wave like a field of wheat, and gently sweep matter out of the respiratory tract.呼吸通道尤其容易受到感染,幸運的是,呼吸道內附蓋滿了能分泌黏液的細胞,他們能捕捉微小的有機體和塵粒.另外,被叫做纖毛的細小毛髮也覆蓋了呼吸道,他們像微風下麥田裡的小麥一樣舞動著,輕輕地將異物掃出呼吸道.In addition, foreign mater in the breathing passages can often be ejected by nose blowing, coughing, sneezing, and throat clearing.除此之外,呼吸道內的異物還常常因為擤鼻涕`咳嗽`打噴嚏和清喉嚨而被彈出.Unless the abscess breaks and allows the pus to drain, the infection is likely to spread.如果膿塊不破裂,裡面的膿不排除掉,感染很可能會擴大.1.Each antibody is made of a heavy chain of chemical subunits, or amino acids, and a light chainof them. The light chain has special sites where the amino acids can link with their com-plements on the antigen molecule.每一個抗體由一條化學亞單位(及氨基酸)的重鏈和一條輕鏈所構成.這條輕鏈上有特別的部位,在那裡,氨基酸能使其補體和抗原分子相連.2.In some cases, through the process of opsonization, antibodies “butter” the surface of someantigens and make them “tastier” to phagocytes, which engulf the antigens.在某些情況下,通過調理素作用的過程,抗體在抗原表面塗抹上一些”奶油”,讓吞噬細胞更喜歡吞噬他們.3.Sometimes an antibody hooks to bacterial antigen but needs an intermediate, or complement,to actually destroy the bacterium, As the antibody-antigen complex circulates in the blood, the complex “fixes” complement to it.在另一些情況下,抗體和一個細菌抗原合上以後,卻需要一個中間體,或補體來實施對該細菌的消滅.於是,當抗體和抗原的結合體隨血液循環時,該結合體會有一個補體附體.4.During the first day or so , antibodies against the infection cannot be found in the blood. Butthis is only because the basic cells involved in antibody production have been triggered by the presence of antigen to multiply themselves.在第一天左右,血液中沒有發現對付傳染病的抗體,但是,這只是因為涉及抗體製造的基本細胞已被當前的抗原存在所觸發而準備開始繁殖.【Chapter 3】The fleshy belly is attached to one bone while the tendon passes over a joint to become firmly attached to the adjoining bone.肌腱跨過關節牢固連接相鄰的兩塊骨頭,而腹肌則與骨頭緊密相接.Shortening of the fleshy part of the muscle produces movement at the joint by pulling on the tendon. The tendon itself does not change in length.腹肌收縮拉動肌腱使關節運動,而肌腱本身的長度是不變的.The many bundles surrounded by the fibrous connective tissue fascia form the fleshy belly of the muscle.許多纖維束又被纖維結締組織筋膜所包繞,最後形成肌肉的肌腹部份.The relation of the muscle bundles to the tendons is that the muscle bundles ate surrounded and held together by the fibrous connective tissue that is continuous with the fibrous connective tissue of the tendonous part of the muscle.肌束和肌腱之間的關係是:肌束被纖維結締組織包繞並連接在一起,纖維結締組織又與肌鍵部份的結締組織相延續.The nerve fibers separate within a muscle with a terminal branch of the nerve going to each muscle fiber.在一塊肌肉中神經纖維可分枝出許多神經末梢,分配到每塊肌纖維中.【Chapter 4】Flat bones are generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone.扁骨一般較薄,由兩層大致平行的骨密質骨板圍繞一層鬆質骨構成.Bones undergoing either intramembranous or endochondral ossification are continually remodeled from he time that initial calcification occurs until the final structure appears.自最初的鈣化發生開始,骨通過膜內骨化或軟骨內骨化而不斷地得以重塑,直至最後結構的形成.And still others, espe-cially the sex hormones, aid osteoblastic activity and thus promote the growth of new bone. The sex hormones act as a double-edged sword. They aid in the growth of new bone, but they also bring about the degeneration of all the cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates.還有其他激素,特別是性激素,協助成骨細胞活動因而促進骨生長.性激素作用具有兩面性,他能促進骨生長,但也使骺板所有軟骨細胞退化.There are two principal effects of aging on the skeletal sys-tem. The first effect is the loss of calcium from bones.衰老對骨骼系統有兩個主要作用.第一個作用是骨鈣喪失.The second principal effect of aging on the skeletal system is a decrease in the rate of protein formation that results in a decreased ability to produce the organic portion of bone matrix.衰老對骨骼系統的第二個主要影響,是蛋白質合成速度降低至使產生骨基質的有機成分的能力下降.【Chapter 5】The cardiac sphincter relaxes and contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach, whereas the py-loric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has sufficiently digested. 賁門括約肌的舒張與收縮使食物由食管入胃,而幽門括約肌卻使食物在充分消化後出胃. These substances help transform food present in the stomach into a semifluid substance called chime. The pyloric sphincter allows food to pass into the small intestine only after it has been transformed into chime.這些物質(鹽酸)協助將胃內現存的食物轉變成為稱為食糜的半流質物質.幽門括約肌只有在食物完全變為食糜後才將其排入小腸.【Chapter 6】Air enters the body through the nose and passes through the nasal cavity, which is lined with a mucous membrane and fine hairs(cilia) to help filter out foreign bodies, as well as to warm and moisten the air.空氣通過鼻進入人體內.在通過鼻腔時,其內排列的黏膜和纖毛過濾了異物,同時使進入的空氣溫暖而溼潤Paranasal sinuses are hollow, air-containing spaces within the skull that communi-cate with the nasal cavity.副鼻竇位於頭顱骨內,中空含氣,並與鼻腔相通.They, too, have a mucous membrane lining and function to provide the lubricating fluid mucus, as well as to lighten the bones of the skull and help produce sound.副鼻竇也有黏膜襯裡,其功能是提供潤滑黏液,減輕頭顱骨負荷,以及協同發聲.It is in the hypopharyngeal region that the pharynx, serving as a common passageway for food from the mouth and air from the nose, divides into two branches, the larynx(voice box) and the esopha-gus.下咽部是來自於嘴的食物和來自鼻的空氣之共同通道,他在這裡又分為兩支,喉(聲音盒)和食管.A special deterrent to this event is provided for by a flap of cartilage attached the root of the tongue that acts like a lid over the larynx.這一起著特殊阻滯作用的物體是一層連著舌根的軟骨結構,它像塊蓋子蓋過喉.The measure of how easily the lungs expand under pressure is compliance.肺器之所以能在壓力下輕鬆自如地展開,其方法就是因勢利導,順其自然.Breathing is regulated unconsciously by center in the brainstem. These centers adjust the rate and rhythm of breathing according o changes in the composition of the blood, especially the concen-tration of carbon dioxide.腦幹裡呼吸中心在不知不覺中控制和調節了呼吸.這些中心根據血液裡的成分,特別是二氧化碳的濃度來調節呼吸的速率和節奏.If too much carbon dioxide is exhaled by hyper-ventilation, body fluids tend to become more alkaline, a condition termed alkalosis. If too little car-bon dioxide is exhaled as a result of hypoventilation, body fluids tend to become more acid, a condi-tion termed acidosis.如果因為換氣過度而二氧化碳呼出過多,身體體液就容易變的偏鹼性,一種被稱為鹼中毒的狀態.然而,如果由於換氣不足,二氧化碳呼出過少,身體體液就容易變的偏酸性,一種被稱為酸中毒的狀態.Lining the trachea and bronchial tree are cells that secrete mucus, which traps pollutants and bacteria. Also in the bronchi are cells containing tiny cilia, that project into the blanket of mucus and with constant wavelike motions push the mucus up out of the airways.第一,氣管和支氣管樹鋪滿能分泌黏液的細胞,它們能捕捉污染物質和細菌.第二,支氣管裡還有長有細小纖毛的細胞,它們深入遍布的黏液層,不停地通過波浪般的動作把黏液向上清掃出呼吸道.【Chapter 7】There are three major types of blood vessels, i.e. , veins, and capillaries.血管分為三大類,即動脈、靜脈、毛細血管The largest artery, the aorta, is about 1 inch in diameter and has the thickest wall.主動脈是最大的動脈,管腔直徑約為1英吋,血管壁最厚The capillary boundaries are the most important center of activity of the entire circulatory system.毛細血管網是整各循環系統的最重要活動中心Most veins are equipped with one-way valves that permit the blood to flow in only one direction. They are most numerous in the veins of the extremities.大多數靜脈具有單向瓣膜,使血液朝著一個方向流動.在四肢的靜脈中,這樣的瓣膜最多The pulmonary arteries carry blood low in oxygen from the right ventricle, while the pulmonary veins carry blood high in oxygen from the lungs into the left atrium.肺動脈攜帶右心室出來的、含氧量低的血液;而肺靜脈將含氧量高的血液從肺攜帶到左心房Blood returning from tissues other than the lungs enters the heart by way of the venae cavae: the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.從組織(肺組織除外)而來的血液經腔靜脈,即上腔靜脈與下腔靜脈,回到心臟When the atria contract, blood in the right atrium is forced through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.當心房收縮時,右心房的血液則通過三尖瓣進入右心室Atrial contractions force blood from the left atrium through the mitral valve, also called bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle.心房收縮將血液從左心房擠壓通過二尖瓣,進入左心室When the ventricles contract, blood in the left ventricle is forced through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta, the body’s largest artery, for distribution to the tissues.當心室收縮時,左心室的血液被擠壓通過主動脈瓣,進入主動脈(機體內的最大動脈),然後分配到機體的各个組織【Chapter 8】Oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract are absorbed into blood for transport to the tissues.血液吸收肺部來的氧和消化道來的營養物質,並輸送到組織At the same time, carbon dioxide and other waste products of cellular metabolism are absorbed from the tissues for transport to the organs of elimination.同時,組織的細胞代謝產生的二氧化碳和其他廢物,送到排泄器官The blood also transports hormones from endocrine glands to their target organs.血液還將內分泌腺產生的激素輸送到它們的靶器官。

医学英语课文翻译

医学英语课文翻译

Unit 1 解剖学▪肺的血管系统▪肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。

它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。

大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。

剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流▪肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。

从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。

因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极(地)控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。

肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。

肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房▪肾结构成分▪人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。

每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。

肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。

外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。

这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。

锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾乳头。

每个肾乳头被一个肾小盏包裹。

肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。

经肾乳头流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。

▪由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。

肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,供应肾脏上、中、下区域的血液。

当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。

细分后的小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。

从弓状动脉伸出的小叶间动脉进入皮质。

由于传入小动脉始于这些终叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。

▪组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。

每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分—紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。

医学英语cell biology text b 课文

医学英语cell biology text b 课文

医学英语cell biology text b 课文Cell Biology Text BIntroduction:Cell biology is the study of cells, the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. In this text, we will explore various aspects of cell biology, from the structure and function of cells to the processes that occur within them.Cell Structure:Cells are incredibly diverse in structure, but they all share some common features. The cell membrane, for example, is a lipid bilayer that surrounds the cell and regulates the passage of molecules in and out. Within the cell, organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum work together to carry out specific functions.Cell Function:Cells perform a wide range of functions that are essential for life. These functions include energy production, protein synthesis, and waste removal. Cells are also able to respond to their environment and communicate with other cells through various signaling pathways.Cell Division:Cell division is a process by which cells reproduce. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis, which produces two identical daughter cells, and meiosis, which produces gametes for sexual reproduction. Both processes are tightly regulated to ensure the proper functioning of the organism.Cell Communication:Cells communicate with each other through a variety of mechanisms, including direct contact and signaling molecules. These communication pathways are essential for coordinating the activities of different cells within an organism and maintaining homeostasis.Cell Cycle:The cell cycle is a series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide. It consists of interphase, during which the cell prepares for division, and mitosis, during which the cell divides its genetic material and cytoplasm. The cell cycle is tightly regulated to ensure the proper growth and development of the organism.Cell Signaling:Cell signaling is a complex process by which cells communicate with each other to coordinate their activities. Signaling can occur through many different pathways, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and cell surface receptors. These pathways allow cells to respond to external stimuli and adapt to changes in their environment.Conclusion:Cell biology is a fascinating field that provides insights into the fundamental processes of life. By studying cells, scientists can better understand how organisms grow, develop, and function. This text has provided an overview of some of the key concepts in cell biology, but there is still much more to learn about this intricate and dynamic field.。

医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译

医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译

Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。

它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。

大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。

剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。

肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。

从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。

因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。

肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。

肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。

肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。

每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。

肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。

外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。

这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。

锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。

每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。

肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。

经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。

由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。

肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。

当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。

细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。

从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。

由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。

组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。

每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。

医学英语_课文翻译

医学英语_课文翻译

Unit 1肺和肾的结构一、肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。

它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。

大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。

剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。

肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。

从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。

因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。

肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。

肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。

二、肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。

每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。

肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。

外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。

这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。

锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。

每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。

肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。

经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。

由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。

肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。

当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。

细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。

从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。

由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。

组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。

每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。

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Unit 1参考译文
一、肺的血管系统
肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。
病理学的范围
病理学是医学科学和实践的基础。没有病理学,医学实践也将成为神话和民间传说。
临床病理学和实验病理学
人们对人类疾病的科学认识来自于对病人的观察,也来自用类推法对动物和细胞培养的实验性研究。而最大的贡献则来自于对病体组织和体液的深入研究。
第二,生化在医学及其他领域有着巨大的影响。分子损伤造成的镰状细胞贫血、囊性纤维化、血友病及其他疾病在生化水平得以阐述,一些分子事件诱导的癌症的发展也已被证实。了解基本的缺陷为研究有效的治疗开启了一扇新的大门。生化使得合理设计新药成为可能,包括病毒、如人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)复制所需的酶的特殊抑制剂。基因工程或其他生物可用来作为产生的有价值蛋白质的工厂,如胰岛素和血细胞发育的诱导剂。
普通病理学(总论)研究和阐明存在于各主要疾病的容,举例说明各种疾病。在学习专科(器官)病理学之前,理解普通病理学的各原理至关重要。普通病理学是学习各种疾病系统病理学之前所必须具备的理论基础。
――专科(器官)病理学
Unit 4 参考译文
病理学是研究疾病的科学。在临床实践和医学教学中,病理学的含义更为广泛:病理学由一系列(a large body of) 的知识、观点和研究方法构成,(essential for )它们对理解现代医学及医学实践至关重要。
二、肾结构成分
人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。
病理学是一门拥有许多分支的庞大学科。在实践中,病理学包含以下几大分支:组织病理学:通过对组织的检查研究和诊断疾病。细胞病理学:通过对单个细胞的检查研究和诊断疾病。血液病学:对血液中细胞成分和可凝结成分的异常进行研究。微生物学:对传染性疾病及相关生物体进行研究。免疫学:对机体特殊防御机制进行研究。化学病理学:从组织和体液的化学变化中研究和诊断疾病。遗传学:对异常染色体和基因进行研究。毒理学:对已知或疑似毒物的作用进行研究。法医病理学:病理学在法律中的应用,比如对可疑情况下的死亡进行调查。
生化也有助于临床诊断。比如:提升血液中起报警作用的酶的水平可以显示病人是否最近有心计的损伤(心脏病发作)。DNA探针在遗传紊乱、传染病及癌症的精确诊断中起着越来越重要的作用。农业也因生化的发展受益匪浅,发展了更加有效的、环境安全的杀虫剂、除草剂,基因工程植物,也对昆虫有了更强的抵抗力。这些努力都因基因测序的进步而加速发展。
组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。这个小管包含几个明显的解剖和功能成分。
Unit 2参考译文
葡萄糖在机体中是最丰富的糖类,它在衰老的过程中也可能起作用。根据一个假设,任意给细胞内外的蛋白质增加葡萄糖,结果会在相邻蛋白质分子间形成不可逆交联。当人衰老时,会形成更多的交联,这可能导致正在衰老的组织变得僵化,丧失弹性。
虽然正常情况下,每分钟会有好几百万的新细胞产生,但人体有几种细胞:心脏细胞,骨骼肌纤维细胞,神经细胞是无法替代的。实验显示,许多种类的细胞分裂能力有限。在机体外生长的细胞仅仅分裂几次就停止了。细胞分裂数与捐献者的年龄有关,与这些细胞获取的不同物种的正常寿命有关。这些发现为这种假说提供了有力证据,即细胞有丝分裂的终止是正常的,有基因决定的。根据这个观点,衰老基因是出生时就存在的基因蓝图的一部分,它取决于生命攸关的减慢或停止过程出现的特定时间。
由于这些分支都拥有各自的专业人士队伍,对病理学进行划分的专业意义大于它的教育意义。病理学的教学必须着眼于整体,因为在这些常规分类中机体和疾病是没有区分的。
因此,该书采用多学科方法阐述病理学。专科(器官)病理学部分概述各器官的正常结构与功能,描述各临床症状和体征的病理学基础,强调了各疾病的临床意义。
肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。
――实验病理学
实验病理学观察诸如疾病动物模型或细胞培养等实验系统的操作效果。幸运的是,细胞培养技术在进步,所以在医学研究和实验病理学中,人们对实验动物的使用减少了。然而,通过细胞培养复制完整人体中普遍存在的生理环境仍然是一种极其困难的。
――病理学的分支
衰老的另一个表现是组织的细胞外成分也随年龄的变化而变化。负责肌腱力量的胶原纤维的数量增加,而质量却随着衰老降低。动脉壁胶原质中的变化造成动脉壁伸展性缺失,如同动脉壁上的积聚物造成动脉粥样硬化(即动脉壁脂肪物质堆积)一样。弹性蛋白是另一种细胞外成分,主要负责血管和皮肤的弹性。随着年龄的变化,它的变粗,变碎并需要获得更大的钙亲和力,这些可能也是造成动脉粥样硬化的原因。
生物化学氏一种在细胞及分子水平应用化学方法研究生物进程的学科。它是20世纪初浮现的一门独特的学科,那是科学家联合了化学、物理、分子生物学以及免疫学的方法研究在生物物质中发现的复杂的分子的结构和表现,以及这些分子相互作用形成细胞、组织、整个生物体的方式。生化涉及了从基因转录到高分子结构、功能的广泛的细胞功能。
生化演变成了理解所有生物进程的基础,它可以为很多人类、动植物的疾病的起因提供解释。我们对于生化的理解已经并将继续在许多人类的努力的方向中产生广泛的影响。首先,生活本身是一种美丽而且迷人的知识结构。我们现在已了解在最基础的生化进程中的本质和许多细节,比如,一个单分子的DNA是如何复制产生两个完全相同的副本,DNA分子的基础序列如何决定编码蛋白质中氨基酸的序列,我们用详细的机械语言描述这些进程的能力为其他生物进程奠定了坚实的化学基础。此外,我们把重要的生命进程,如遗传信息的传播,理解为化学结构及反应的意识,是具有重要的哲学含义的,这又意味着什么呢?生物化学的,还是成为人类呢?人类、猩猩、老鼠、果蝇在生化方面的差别又是什么呢?比起我们的差异是否相同之处会更多呢?
专科(器官)病理学(各论)研究和阐明影响各器官或器官系统的各种疾病
6. 黑热病传播路径之探索
自从1903年发现杜氏利什曼原虫,黑热病的病原体以来,一些致力于健康护理的工作人员一直在进行有关黑热病是如何传播的研究。研究的早期,大多数研究者试图从实验室动物和黑热病患者中找到答案,结果走了一些弯路也没有取得什么成果。但是一个叫辛顿的工作者从流行病学的角度进行了研究并注意到了黑热病患者的分布和印度白蛉分布之间的相关性。印度的其他一些研究者也在几个黑热病患者的粪便中偶然发现了杜氏利什曼原虫。他们相信黑热病可以通过粪口途径由诸如伤寒和痢疾的疾病进行传播。许多其他研究者也尝试在实验室里证实是否不同的昆虫(比如臭虫、苍蝇、蚊子、跳蚤、虱子等)可以成为带菌者在自身体内繁殖杜氏利什曼原虫,从而有不同的后果。但是,研究者们意识到白蛉将是最有可能的带菌者,因为杜氏利什曼原虫可以很容易地在白蛉里繁殖。同时,有一个复杂的现象,即使杜氏利什曼原虫可以轻易地在白蛉里繁殖,实验室动物不可能被白蛉虫叮咬而受到感染。相反,如果实验室动物以杜氏利什曼原虫为食的话,它们就会很容易感染上黑热病。就像一些研究者们报导过,正常的动物是可以感染上黑热病的,如果它们和受到过感染的动物生活在一起的话。上述提及的所有的事实都表明,在实验室里,黑热病的传播路径是多样的。那么实验室的结果是否也适用于在自然环境状态下呢?
病理学不等同于疾病组织的形态学,把两者等同起来是一种过时的看法。病理学包括对疾病功能及结构的认识和理解,包含从分子水平到对个体的影响。
随着新科学方法的应用,人们更深入地了解疾病(iloluminates:说明,阐述),病理学所涵盖的内容也会不断地改变、更新和拓展。
病理学的最终目的(the ultimate goal of pathology )在于确定疾病的原因(the identification of the causes of …),从而达到防治疾病的基本目标。
衰老的另一个理论即自由基理论。自由基是含有未配对电子的带电荷分子。这是一种不稳定的高反应性分子,容易损害蛋白质。自由基的影响有:皮肤起皱,关节僵直,动脉硬化。自由基也可以损害DNA。造成自由基的因素有:空气污染,放射线以及我们摄取的某些食物。
饮食中的其他物质如维生素E,维生素C,β-胡萝卜素以及硒都是抗氧化剂,可以抑制自由基形成。最近的两个研究支持了衰老的自由基理论。孕育健康长寿的果蝇株产生超正常量的酶:过氧歧化酶。它可以中和自由基。同样,把产生过氧歧化酶的基因注射进果蝇胚胎会延长其平均寿命。
然而,关于衰老的理论,有些是在细胞水平上解释其过程,有的则强调整个生物体内运作的调节机制,比如免疫系统产生各种抗异物侵扰的抗体,可是会对细胞本身发起攻击。这种自身免疫应答可能是细胞表面变化造成,引起抗体附加并标记出破坏细胞。当细胞表面变化增加,自身免疫应答加强,产生众所周知的衰老。
unit 3
由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
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