石油及石油产品分析文摘译文
石油专业外文翻译(SPE 121762),英文原文可根据spe号在百度文库收索即可。
SPE 121762完井中新微乳型原油破乳剂的实验室和现场研究摘要在石油工业中，水和油的乳化形成了一个持续的生产问题，受到了大量的技术的关注。
在有利于环保的基础上，我们利用一种新的微乳型破乳剂(ME-DeM)对水包油（o/w）乳液的破乳效果进行测试。
本产品测试了一系列的原油，已被证明相比于其他破乳剂更具有商业效用(DeM)。
结果表明在现场试验中，本产品能对破乳效果产生明显的改善，更多的实地研究正在筹备之中。
绪论乳液的形成与稳定油水乳液已经成为石油工业研究课题之一，因为它关系到先关的操作问题，而且需要考虑生产，回收，输送，运输和提炼程序中的费用。
一个非常好的名叫“一个国家的艺术审查” 并有关于原油乳液的总结是由Sunil Kokai提出的（Kokai 2002年）。
乳状液，可定义为结合两个或两个以上的混容液体彼此不会轻易的分离开来单独存在，它以胶体大小或更大的小液滴形式存在，可导致高抽水成本。
如果水分散在连续的油相中，被称为油包水型（w/o）乳状液；如果油分散在连续的水相中，则被称为水包油型（o/w）乳状液。
如果没有稳定的油水界面，就没有乳状液的热力学稳定。
液滴的聚集会导致不稳定的乳液(Holmberg, et al. 2007)。
然而油水界面处的部分聚集会使界面更加稳定从而阻碍油水各自之间的聚并（破乳）进程。
材料如自然形成或注射的表面活性剂，聚合物，无机固体以及蜡，可使界面更稳定。
乳化形成过程也受到流体混合，剪切，湍流，扩散，表面活性剂聚集（Miller 1988），空间位阻稳定（非离子表面活性剂），温度和压力的影响。
在被驱散的液滴周围，表面活性剂可以形成多层次的层状液晶的增长。
当流体滤液或注射液与储层液体混合，或当产出液的PH变化是，则会产生乳状液。
沥青质，树脂和蜡的组成和浓度(Lissant 1988, Auflem 2002, Sifferman 1976, Sifferman 1980)是影响乳状液形成和稳定的因素。
化工英文文献翻译
Heavy Oil Development Technology of Liaohe OilfieldHan Yun(Scientific Research Information Department Exploration&Development Research Institute，Liaohe Oilfield Company)Liaohe Oilfield，the largest heavy oil production base in China，features in various reservoir types，deep burial，and wide range of crude oil viscosity．For many years，a series of technologies have been developed for different oil products and reservoir types of the oilfield，of which water flooding，foam slug drive，steam stimulation，steam drive,and SAGD are the main technologies. After continuous improvement，they have been further developed and played an important role in the development of heavy oil in the oilfield．Liaohe Oilfield is abundant in heavy oil resources，46％ of the total proved reserves of Liaohe Oilfield Company. Horizontally the resources concentrates in the West Depression and the southern plunging belt of the Central Uplift in Liaohe Rift. Vertically,it is mainly distributed in Paleocene Shahejie Formation(ES). The distinctive geological feature of Liaohe 0ilfield is manifested in three aspects：first，the heavy oil reservoirs are deeply buried and 80％ of them are buried more than 900m deep；second，the heavy oil viscosity ranges widely．For most of the reservoirs．the dead oil viscosity ranges in 100～100000mPa·s with the maximum 650000mPa·s.Third the reservoir types are various with complicated oil—water relationship，most of the reservoirs are edge water and bosom water reservoirs and there are also edge water reservoirs，top water reservoirs and bosom water reservoirs．For more than 20 years of development，Liaohe Oilfield has developed series of heavy oil development technologies for different oil products and different types of reservoirs，such as water flooding, foam slug drive,steam stimulation steam drive and SAGD．The most difficult issues have been overcome in the development of the super heavy oil in deeper formation．which has maintained the annual heavy oil output at 8 million tons for many years in Liaohe Oilfield．Water flooding development technology for conventional heavy oil-type 1Based on heavy oil classification,the conventional heavy oil．type I refers to the heavy oil with viscosity ranging in 50～100mPa·s，taking up about 20％ of the proved oil reserves of the oilfield．The heavy oil reservoirs of this type are buried ranging from 1 500m to 2400m deep and are capable of flowing．Therefore，natural energy is utilized for conventional development and then water flooding technology is used．For example，the reservoir of $32 oil unit of Block Leng-43 is buried 1 650～l 940m deep with the average oil zone 87.7m thick and the oil viscosity in situ 58mPa·s．In 1992，the 141 m spacing square well pattern was adopted to develop the kind of reservoirs by utilizing natural energy and two sets of oil production zones．In 2004，water flooding technology was applied. Currently,the degree of reserve recovery reaches 14％．the annual oil recovery rate is 1％，and the ultimate recovery ratio is predicted to be as high as 22％．Technology of foam slug and for conventional heavy oil-type steam flooding for conventional heavy oil-type 2 The upper limit of viscosity for the conventional heavy oil—type IIis l 0000mPa·s(the dead oil viscosity in situ)．This kind of heavy oil is the dominant type of heavy oil in Liaohe Oilfield，accounting for 60％ of total proved reserves．The reservoir of such heavy oil is buffed 800-1 600m deep in genera1. At initial development stage, steam stimulation was carried out to develop this kind of reservoirs．In the higher cycles of steam flooding，the reservoirs with the heavy oil viscosity close to the lower limit of this kind of heavy oil are conversed into the steam drive development．Pilot tests of foam slug and steam flooding have conducted in Block Jin-90 and Block Qi-40 successfully,and they will be applied to the whole blocks in near future．The recovery factor is forecast to be up to 50％ ~60％．Steam stimulation technology for special heavy oilThe special heavy oil refers to the heavy oil with the viscosity ranging in 10000~50000mPa·s in situ,which takes up 10% of proved oil reserves of the oilfield. The reservoir of the kind of oil is buried ranging from 1400m to 1800m. Steam simulation technology is often applied to develop such reservoirs. However, technology of steam drive or SAGD are also under research and experiments for reservoirs of good quality.SAGD technology for super heavy oilThe super heavy oil reservoir refers to the heavy oil with dead oil viscosity in situ over 50000mPa·s, which accounts for 10% of proved reserves of the oilfield. Due to its extremely high viscosity, it is just developed for few years. For the massive super heavy oil reservoirs, SAGD can be applied in the late stage of steam stimulation. At present, good intermediate results have been obtained in SAGD pilot test in Block Du-84 of Guantao Formation, showing good prospect for application. Theyhave been applied in the whole block and the ultimate recovery factor is predicted to achieve 55%.ConclusionVarious technology should be applied to develop different types of heavy oil reservoirs. Besides the technologies mentioned above, the technologies of combustion in situ, flue gas drive, and steam foam drive are also under research currently. Therefore, various development technologies will be increasingly improved with the heavy oil development of Liaohe Oilfield.References[1] Wang Xu. 2006. Heavy Oil Development Technologies and Discussion on the Research Orientation in the Next Step. Petroleum Exploration and Development [J],33(4):484~490[2] Liu Junrong. The Paper Collection of Liaohe Oilfield Development Seminar[C]:Beijing, Petroleum Industry Press, 2002[3] Zeng Yuqiang. 2006. Heavy Oil steam Stimulation Review. Special Oil&Gas Reservoir[J], 13(6):5~9辽河油田的重油开发技术韩云（科研信息部门勘探和开发研究所、辽河油田公司）辽河油田，在中国最大的重油生产基地，在不同的储层类型，具有埋藏深，与原油粘度范围宽。
石油英语unit3-textA参考译文
石油的消费、进口和未来趋势简介1 石油在现代工业社会中发挥着重要、甚至决定性作用。
石油及石化产品几乎影响着人类文明以及个人生活的方方面面，包括衣食住行和娱乐等。
石油的生产、供应和消费影响着国民经济，同时与全球政治与国际关系密切相关。
2 以私营公司的石油总储量进行归类核算，“超级巨头”的总产量接近全球石油供应总量的15%。
而超过80%的世界油气储量由国有公司控制。
全球实力最雄厚的20家石油公司中，有15家是国有企业。
3 石油在世界能源消费中占相当大比重，低至欧亚的32%，高至中东的53%。
其他地区的消费数据如下：南美及中美占44%，非洲占41%，北美占40%。
全球年均消耗石油总量三千亿桶，其中发达国家为主要消费国。
2007年，美国占世界石油消费总量的25%。
全球竞赛：20年石油之争全球石油市场的开放，消除了80年来世界对能源多样性的顾虑，然而新的挑战开始出现：油价。
4 对于全球石油生产及能源安全而言，两件事使1991年成为至关重要的一年。
首先是1990年8月，海湾战争爆发。
当时由萨达姆·侯赛因主政的伊拉克入侵了科威特，战争于1991年2月28日结束。
同年12月底，前苏联宣告解体，而这一地区拥有除中东以外最大的可探明石油储量。
5 苏联解体之前的30年中，美国对石油进口依赖性持续增强。
1991年，美国石油进口达40%，其中54%和24%的进口石油分别来自石油输出国组织和波斯湾。
1973年和1979年的石油危机重创美国经济，其阴影至今令国人心有余悸。
自始至终，能源高度依赖进口都被视为国家安全隐患。
6 中东地区的政局十分动荡。
从那时起，美国能源安全政策就一直致力于摆脱对这一地区的能源依赖。
正如温斯顿·丘吉尔在1913年所言：“石油的安全与稳定依赖于多样性，且只能依赖于多样性。
”践行这一理念，就意味着从友邦那里进口石油，增加全球石油供应，并实现全球石油市场的一体化整合。
7 政局变化和经济波动也为市场带来了新的石油来源。
中石油职称英语翻译重点课文分析
【经典资料，ＷＯＲＤ文档，可编辑修改】【经典考试资料，答案附后，看后必过，ＷＯＲＤ文档，可修改】2015年中石油职称英语翻译重点课文分析（个人观点仅供参考）1. President Hu Urges Efforts to Ensure Global Energy Security.1、胡锦涛主席敦促国际社会协同努力保障全球能源安全.1. The international community should take joint efforts to ensure global energy security, Chinese President Hu Jintao said in St. Petersburg, Russia on July 17.1、中国国家主席胡锦涛七月十七日在俄罗斯圣彼得堡发表讲话说，国际社会应该共同努力，保障全球能源安全。
2. “To ensure global energy security, we need to develop and implement a new energy security concept that calls for mutually beneficial cooperation, diversified forms of development and common energy security through coordination,” Hu said in a written speech to the outreach session of the G8 summit.2、在八国集团同发展中国家领导人对话会议上，胡主席在讲话稿中谈到：”为保障全球能源安全，我们应该树立和落实互利合作、多元发展、协同保障的新能源安全观。
”3. While global energy security is crucial to the economic growth and people’s livelihood of all countries, the world peace and stability, and common development, “few countries can achieve energy security without joining in international cooperation,” he stressed.3、胡锦涛主席强调，全球能源安全，关系各国的经济命脉和民生大计，对维护世界和平稳定、促进各国共同发展至关重要。
石油类英文翻译文献Strategic Importance Of Crude Oil And Natural GasPipelines
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 6(3): 87-96, 2012ISSN 1991-8178Strategic Importance Of Crude Oil And Natural Gas PipelinesAsst. Prof. Dr. İdris DemirAhi Evran University Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences Department of InternationalRelationsAbstract: This paper argues that crude oil and natural gas pipelines create mutual interdependence among the various participants the interests of which would be deteriorated in the event of any kind of failure throughout the different chains of the operations of the pipelines under consideration. It is an obvious fact that ‘security of supply’ is crucially important for the uninterrupted flow of the continuation of the social life and the economies of energy importers (crude oil and natural gas) in one hand. On the other hand, this paper foregrounds that ‘security of demand’ is vitally important for the continuous flow of the social life and economies of energy exporters (crude oil and natural gas). It is the strategic importance of the crude oil and natural gas pipelines that brings the interests of energy exporters, importers, transit countries, international money lending institutions and operator companies and creates a cobweb of relations among different participants of the crude oil and natural gas pipelines.Key words: Pipeline, Crude Oil, Natural Gas, InterdependenceINTRODUCTIONThe history of international oil industry has long been identified with the characteristics of Standard Oil Company of Rockefeller. One should remember that Standard Oil Company was the owner of a network of pipelines. However, the Company gained the ownership of the both sides of the pipelines; the production facilities and the distribution network. It was the monopoly position of the company over the pipelines that have been regarded to be strategic assets that have been useful in controlling the industry for a long time.It is obvious that there is a close link between trade and interdependence. International commerce leads to international interdependence, which in turn leads to international cooperation in various fields with different dimensions. It is clear that as interdependence increases, nations become more sensitive to domestic developments in partner countries. Industrialists, traders and financiers start to rely on the level and amount of the international exchange at the same time. The flow of international commerce in any kind would find reflections in domestic transactions as well. International trade would create domestic interests in its maintenance. In one hand, exporters would not like their markets disappear. In the other hand, importers would not like their supplies diminish. Moreover, foreign investors would not like their holdings confiscated. Bankers and finance institutions would like the uninterrupted continuation of transactions so that their loans would be repaid. It is because of these reasons that interdependence is regarded to generate a powerful case among the participants. Arthur A Stein, (1993)Likewise, international trade actualized through oil and gas pipeline creates international interdependence among the participants that energy exporters do not want their markets disappear. Security of demand is crucial for the continuation of their economies. Energy importers do not want their supplies interrupted for any reason. Security of supply is vitally important for the continuation of sustainable development of their economies. International finance institutions and creditors of the projects do not want any disruption for any reason in order not to threaten the return of the funds that they have invested in the construction of pipeline projects. Thus, interdependence creates embedded relations among the parties the disruption of which would result in economic and political loss for each of the parties. It is clear that some imports constitute inputs essential to the functioning of economy more than the others. A dependence on others for videocassette recorders and jewelry is not the same as one for oil, gas or computer chips. Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, (1977) In this respect, this particular study proposes that pipelines are strategic entities that create interdependence among parties. Participants of the interdependence that has been contextualized through the cooperation of oil and gas pipelines are careful in order not to harm the continuation of the relationship that is beneficial for all sides in many dimensions which is not only restricted to the field of energy.In clarifying the subject matter, this particular study is structured as follows: Section two illustrates the standing points of the energy consumers. The vitality of the issue of security of supply for the uninterrupted continuation of sustainable development and social life is taken into consideration in this section. Following section deals with the production/loading facilities of the pipelines. Concerns of security of demand of energy producers have been analyzed in detail in this section. Section four is responsible for the clarification of the strategic importance of pipelines among other ways of energy transportation. The institutionalized relationship Corresponding Author: Asst. Prof. Dr. İdris Demir, Ahi Evran University Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences Department of International Relationsamong energy producers, consumers, transit states and participant companies are scrutinized in this section of the study. The interdependence of the relevant parties is covered in section five. The cobweb of relations that expands beyond the boundaries of cooperation on energy field is provided in detail in this section with different examples.2. Security of Supply for Energy Importers:Energy is defined as the capability to do work. Every kind of economic activity requires an amount of energy consumption. Automobiles need energy to travel from one place to another. Factories need energy for the production of goods and items. Household items in kitchens and living rooms need energy to operate the appliances. It is the basic and sole responsibility of the policy makers of the countries to secure the necessary amount of energy forms for the uninterrupted continuation of the economic and social life of their countries.In this respect, energy security can be regarded to be a state of being that the policy makers has clear indicatives to believe that they have enough reserves and production and distribution facilities in place to meet the energy demands of their citizens with affordable prices. The situation is regarded to be insecure when the well being of the citizens and/or the capability of governments are threatened either as a result of physical failure arising from sabotage, accidents or inadequacy of the existing structures. Governments may be unable to meet the necessary amounts of energy because of the rise in energy prices, too. (Robert Belgrave, Charles Ebinger and Hideaki Okino, 1987) There would be the adequate amounts of energy forms in presence but the budget of the country may not be able to meet the required amounts of funds to meet the energy demands. Therefore, energy security is described as the availability of energy at all times, in various forms, in sufficient quantities at affordable prices. (Philip Andrews-Speed, 2002)A sudden rise in energy prices and a kind of a physical disruption for any reason may have devastating effects on energy importing countries. It is not only the negative economic effects that should be taken into consideration, but political and social deficiencies should be indicated as well. Lacking sufficient amounts of energy supplies would result in low levels of industrial output. There would be a decline in new investments. Unemployment would increase and inflation rate would rise because of the absence of economic progress. There is going to be a balance of payments problem within the budget calculations of the country. The amount of funds that has been paid for the energy imports would rise. The balance of payment calculations would face a serious new arrangement. (Michael Lynch, 2003) Consumer countries would have two options: They are going to either reflect the high prices directly to the citizens or employ protectionist policies. The governments would look for sources of funds or borrow money from abroad.In either case there would be a kind of money transfer from the consumer countries to the producer countries. The amount of the supernormal profit that producer countries acquire from this newly developed relationship would have different reflections over the political economy in the global scale. (David Grene, 1998) In addition to deteriorating economic conditions, energy importers would fall into weak bargaining positions in their mutual relations regarding their export sources. Energy importers would not be able to act as flexible as they used to be in both domestic and international political issues. Therefore, energy importers tend to create long lasting friendly relationships with energy exporters. The functional use of long term agreements among producers and consumers make parties feel secure in times of crisis that results from either a physical shortage in the global markets or the scarcity of energy forms because of political reasons. (Gawdat Bahgat, 2004) In addition to economic and social considerations, energy items are regarded to be strategic goods that have the capability to determine and/or change the continuation and the fate of a war. Lacking adequate amounts of hydrocarbon resources can bring the consuming countries into her knees quickly. The main motive of Germany in invading Russia was the aim of accessing the hydrocarbon resources of the Soviet Union. It is widely accepted that the fate of the war, consequently, the whole world might have been different if Germany had access to the hydrocarbon sources under discussion. It is not only in the Second World War that hydrocarbon energy has determined the status and the continuation of the war. The British decision of changing the fuel of the ships of the Navy from coal to oil had detrimental impacts upon the stages of the First World War. Oil burning appliances of the British Navy made it possible to have longer distances of travel in a faster course than her rivals, thus determining an advantageous position for Britain. (Hikmet Uluğbay, 2003) There are a number of events that can be regarded as potential threats to energy security. These threats are categorized as the events that have global impact and events that have impact on a specific country or a region. Special emphasis is needed to shed light on the latter group since the content of this particular study focuses on pipelines. Oil and gas pipelines are strategic assets that combine the consumers and producers together. Energy forms are meaningless and valueless if they are not available to be used at the point of consumption. The possibility of a disruption arising from misuse or inability of the operation of pipeline structures that bring the interests of loading and unloading parties together would have devastating effects on the security of energy supply calculations of a particular country and/or region. It is an actual fact that the failure of pipelines to operate would have a reflection in the global energy considerations, too. However, the extent of the pressure andthe strength of this effect would be proportional directly to the amount of energy transported through the pipeline and the amount of the contribution of that particular pipeline in openness to the global markets.Embargo disruption of a specific exporting state may result in a threat of security of supply of a local scale. It can place a heavy burden over the importing country especially in the short period if the existing structure of the energy importing country fails to respond the change in circumstances immediately. Embargo disruption may come necessarily not from the exporter states but from the transit countries as well. The closure of the pipeline structures, with no doubt, would have devastating effects upon the economies, politics and social lives of importer countries. (Paul Stevens, 2000) The devastating effects would be vital and even at life threatening levels if the importing country is landlocked; does not have access to high seas. The absence of maritime lines would make transportation of energy via energy carrying ships impossible; laying road transportation via trucks and trains alone. It is doubtful whether the geography and already existing infrastructure would make it possible to carry the necessary forms of energy in adequate amounts.Local market disruptions are other issues of concern that have to be dealt carefully for consumer countries that try to secure the necessary forms of energy for uninterrupted flow of sustainable development of their country. There can be disruptions in energy flow because of a monopolist supplier or some pressure groups the interests of which can be deteriorated. Mismanagement of the policy makers is another reason that can result in local market disruptions. In either case, the responsibility lies over the shoulders of the governing authorities to diversify the energy sources and suppliers within the primary energy mix of the energy importing country. Furthermore, enhancing regulative means of energy consumption is another responsibility of the authorities in achieving the aim of the security of supply.The disruption of the strategic infrastructure of any kind is another serious threat to the calculations of the security of supply. Logistical disruptions may occur in the event of accidents, sabotage activities or terrorist incidents along the route of the transportation infrastructure. In this case, terrorist activities of some groups can no longer be regarded as the responsibility of the host government alone. All parties are affected negatively from these activities the prevention of which need collective action of all sides. (Anne Korin, 2005) The interests of all parties that are seeking security of demand and security of supply would be deteriorated. The authorities of both ends of the pipeline would attach a great importance to the well functioning of that strategic infrastructure.3. Security of Demand for Energy Exporters:The examination of the notion of the security of demand is an important but, often, a neglected issue. The vitality of the security of energy supply for energy consumers finds its reflection as the importance of the security of demand for producers.It should be remembered that revenues coming from the energy trade are the backbone of the budgets of the exporting countries. The economy of the whole country depends on one single item: hydrocarbon earnings. Economies of energy exporters in general (Countries such as Great Britain) lack the existence of a well functioning industry, tourism earnings, surplus in trade of goods and items. The bureaucratic structure is built on the oil and gas industries at the same time. It is because of the negative effects of the Dutch Disease that the balance of payments calculations do not show healthy indications. (M Corden, 1984) The concept of ‘state’ changes form and is regarded to be the mechanism of the distribution of wealth and welfare based on subjective calculations rather than following a process of collecting taxes and directs the expenditures of the budget for the benefit of the existing and future generations. It is the industry sector that is mostly affected from the negative consequences in industrialized countries. However, it is the agriculture sector that suffers from the biggest negative effects. (Paul Stevens, 2003)The members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) suffer from the negative consequences of this unbalanced balance of payments. Trade balances of the OPEC members have indicators of exporting one single item –energy sources- and import almost all of the consumption of the country. Energy exporters, the economies of which are dependant almost entirely on energy earnings, would experience an unstable economic ground both in domestic and international affairs. It is going to be hard to follow efficient fiscal policies and direct future investments. Domestic fiscal policies would be tied to international energy prices that are bound to global developments in which the exporter states may not have a big effect. (Kiren Chaudhry, 1989)The dependence of economy on energy earnings is peculiar not only to OPEC members. Other major exporters depend on energy earnings heavily, too. The threat of Rentier State structuring shows its reflections in Non-OPEC members at the same time. The ‘dependence’ of energy earnings makes it necessary for exporters to seek for markets and continue to supply them with oil and gas for the continuation of the cycle of their domestic economies.Two major threats for security of demand can be categorized as the loss of the market share of hydrocarbon energy sources in general and the deterioration of the market share of the exporting country in particular. Unsteady flow of oil and gas to global markets with unaffordable prices will result in articulations of differentforms of energy. The importance attached to renewable and alternative energy forms will be fore grounded in accordance with the developments, new findings and advancements in energy forms that are regarded to be used instead of hydrocarbon resources. Consequently, there would be less demand for hydrocarbon sources in general and possible future earnings of energy exporters would be cut off.Apart from the potential threat of the losing the share of hydrocarbon sources within the primary energy mix of the countries in global scale, the loss of the market share of a single exporting country would have fatal consequences for that particular country. It is a well known fact that energy importers attach great importance to long term sales agreements with particular exporters rather than the spot trade in the international market. In the event of the absence of the supplier, consumer countries would find new suppliers and conclude new deals. Thus, the energy exporters would face a loss in the market share and security of demand for her energy sources.Securing the flow of energy in the future with long term sales agreements is paramount to the strategies of consumer countries in one hand. Securing the income coming from the future sales of the contracted trade occupies a vital place within the revenue calculations of the exporting states on the other hand. Therefore, two sides of the same coin should be taken into consideration together. No one party has the intention or desire to harm the ongoing relationship. Deteriorating neither the security of demand nor the security of supply would be beneficial to both sides. In this context, it should not be forgotten that oil and gas pipelines acquire a strategic significance in the sense that infrastructures under consideration combine the producers and consumers together. Both ends of the pipeline attach great importance to the continuous, uninterrupted flow of energy from the production fields to the points of consumption. In this respect, pipelines create cobweb of relations not only in political terms, but also in physical aspects as well. It is with no doubt that none of the parties involved in the relationship would have the intention of the disruption of the relationship which would mean the deterioration of the interests of all parties. In this respect, pipelines combine the consumers, producers and the transit countries together in strategic terms with long lasting relationships.4. Strategic Importance of Pipeline Transportation:Any form of energy is meaningless unless it is ready to use in the final consumption point. The fact that oil and gas resources are not distributed homogeneously makes it necessary to transport these energy sources from the production fields to the consumption centers. The issue of transportation has gained a significant importance as the levels of consumption and the proven oil and gas reserves increase.Levels of oil and gas consumption increase with the rise in living standards and the rise in the levels of industrialization. Higher levels of living standards and industrialization bring the inevitable consumption of energy sources in higher amounts. However, it is a fact that current reserves that are close to the traditional consumption centers are either declining or about to reach to the declining phase. This brings the significant importance of transportation into agenda.There are a couple of ways that are used widely in order to transport oil and gas from the production facilities to the consumption points. Transportation ways that are generally used are pipelines, crude oil and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) ships, huge trucks and some sort of specially designed railway storage tanks. The most suitable way of transportation is determined by geology, geography, and the type of energy and the economies of scale. (Paul Stevens, 2001)Pipelines and tanker carriages via high seas are the most common types of transportation that link the production and consumption points. Since the control of the pipelines has all the potentialities for the control of the petroleum industry, they have long been recognized as the most important means of transportation in the petroleum industry. (Roy A Prewitt, 1942) Likewise, although an amount of gas transportation has been conducted by LNG ships, gas transportation via pipelines has been of crucial importance.The decision of constructing a pipeline requires many calculations that include strategic outcomes at the same time. The investment decision of a pipeline depends upon the evaluation of future demand. (Jerome Ellig and Jack High 1992) Moreover, it is very important to evaluate the safety and reliability of these complex and large scaled systems. (Dong Yuhua and Yu Datao, 2005) In this respect, maintenance of pipelines is an issue of great concern for both companies and governments. Any possibility of leakage, for example, must be detected before the leakage takes place and preventive action should be taken in order to avoid losses of energy and ecological disasters. (d Jun Okamoto, 1999)Therefore, it is not only economics and politics that are taken into consideration in the investment decisions of pipelines; there are a couple of different issues such as ecological considerations, geographical and geological conditions that should be taken into granted throughout this complex context.Once constructed, pipelines are not possible to be removed or rerouted. (Once operational) They attract economies of scale in great amounts like other stages of the international oil and gas industry. Thus, ‘big is beautiful and small is stupid’ in the investment decisions of pipelines. Big numbers mean big calculations and huge losses in the event of a failure of any kind. The effects and the application of ‘Bygones rule’ is another issue of concern that has to be taken into consideration throughout the operation record of oil and gas pipelines.It is because of this fact that pipelines continue to operate and their activities are not shut down for a considerable period of time even if they are making losses.The configuration of the network and sizes of pipes used must be chosen to minimize the construction costs. (Jack Brimberg, Pierre Hansen, Keh-Wei Lih,) In addition to construction costs, other issues relevant to the successful operation of the pipeline require careful examination, too. The transportation issues preferred by governments and companies must not only take the economic risks into account but also consider the negative effects of possible terrorist activities, changes in the policies of the participants and trade embargoes over the long period of the projected operation of the pipeline. (Sydney Thomas and Richard Dawe, 2003) In addition to that, the amount of oil that can be put through the pipe varies with the initial pressure of the petroleum, the loss of pressure per square inch per mile, the density of the liquid, the viscosity and unique characteristics of the fluid handled, the diameter of the pipe and the geographical features of the landscape on the route of the pipeline. (A C Monahan, 1945)The complex structuring of pipeline facilities can be reviewed closer through the analysis of transportation of offshore oil and gas products. The first section of the analysis is the riser or the rigid section of piping. This conveys the fluids from the production facilities to the seabed (and vice versa). Failure of this section would affect the production platform and production personnel. Second section of the process concerns the sea line that transports the fluids to the shore. Any kind of failure in this stage would result in losses in shipping and potential environmental pollution. The third section of this process involves the land section. The energy items that are produced offshore and transported reach the ground. Any kind of failure resulting from accidents or sabotage would have detrimental affects on the public. The final section is the landline that is buried under the ground. This can be of any length in reaching to the final consumption centers. It is with no doubt that failure of this section would result in devastating environmental effects. (F K Crawley, I G Lines and J Mather, 2003) Furthermore, security of demand, security of supply and transit fee calculations of the relevant parties would also face potential threats.It is obvious that the construction of a pipeline require a transit agreement among the parties. This agreement may involve competition for markets and competition for volumes. It is because of this feature that pipeline agreements involve different governments and, may be, different companies. Producing governments would have different objections on one hand, on the other hand consumer governments and transit governments would have objectives of their own. Moreover the inclusion of contractor companies would add another dimension to the discussion under consideration. While the objectives of the governments are going to be determined by the considerations of security of supply and demand and the principle of sovereignty, contractor companies would seek for pure commercial considerations. (Paul Stevens, 2003) Producer countries would demand high price for their energy exports. Consumer countries would look for a small bill for their imports. Transit countries would require high amounts of transit fees and greater amounts of off take from the pipeline for their domestic consumption with favorable prices. Contractor companies, on the other hand, would seek for greater economic rent and share from the operation of the facilities of pipelines under consideration.The fact that the pipelines cross borders of different nation states makes it inevitable to be influenced by different legal regimes. The possibility of the presence of different legal regimes and regulations makes it necessary to bring various legal terms and norms together within the initializing the transit agreement. The process of harmonization of different legal regimes should be wide enough to cover the potential changes throughout the continuation of the activities of the pipeline for the success of the operation. Therefore, the distribution of benefits and sovereign rights should be well determined and documented to cover the long period of the long operation time of the pipeline project. (Paul Stevens,)It should not be forgotten that the technical features that embody the construction phase have detrimental impacts upon the continuation of the operation of the pipelines. Pipelines have large upfront investments. They have high fixed costs and low variable costs. Once they are built, it is hard to apply a change in the capacity of the pipeline. Therefore, it is very important to apply careful and just calculations in the formation process of pipelines that are regarded to be natural monopolies that combine the relevant parties strategically in long lasting terms. The key to the success of the operations of pipelines lies in the fact that the agreements would take the change in circumstances in time into account throughout the duration of the activities of the pipeline. The success of the operations of the pipeline should not be left to the bargaining powers of the parties alone at the initial stages. (Ekpen J Omonbude, 2007)The issue of pipelines requires a greater attention when the transportation of natural gas is taken into consideration. Natural gas is a clean burning fuel that is used to heat homes, hospitals, schools; generate electricity and fuel industries. The usage of natural gas varies from plastics and petrochemicals to fertilizer producers. (Obindah Wagbara, 2007) The fact that natural gas is a clean burning fuel that is compatible with environmental considerations has led the way to the issue that natural gas has become the energy medium choice for many governments and environmental groups throughout the world (Ferdinand E. Banks, 2003). In fact, the reason why natural gas do not acquire the dominant seat within the primary energy mix of consumer states is hidden in the clean characteristic of this fuel besides the problems of transportation. Natural gas has been。
几篇石化文章的汉译英
根据最早期的科学研究调查，石油的形成被归结为两种起源：有机的和无机的。
一些化学家和天文学家认为石油是无机起源的，有的是火成岩成因，有的是宇宙成因，或者是两者的结合体。
大部分石油地质学家认为石油是由埋藏的有机物质经成岩作用形成的，并且指出石油形成于沉积岩而不是火成岩。
经济而精确的化学分析技术的出现使得生油岩的研究成为可能。
现在，可以把石油和生成它的页岩进行对比，用来确定潜在的生油岩、它们生油或生气的倾向，以及它们的热成熟度水平。
要形成商业性油气藏，必须满足5个条件：1．必须有富含有机质的源岩以产生石油和或天然气；2．源岩必须经受足够的热演化以生成石油；3．必须有能够容纳排出的油气的储集层。
该储集层必须具有孔隙度来存储油和或气，以及渗透性而让流体流动；4．储集层必须被非渗透性的盖层所封闭，以防止油气向上逸散到地表；5．源岩、储集层和盖层必须合理地分布来圈闭石油。
From the earliest days of scientific investigation the formation of petroleum had been attributed to two origins: inorganic and organic. Some chemists and astronomers argued for an inorganic origin --- ometimes igneous, sometimes extraterrestrial, or a mixture of both. Most petroleum geologists believe that petroleum forms from the diagenesis of buried organic matter and note that it is indigenous to sedimentary rocks rather than igneous ones. The advent of cheap and accurate chemical analytical techniques allowed petroleum source rocks to be studied. It is now possible to match petroleum with its parent shale and to identify potential source rocks, their tendency to generate oil or gas, and their level of thermal maturation.For a commercial oil accumulation to occur, five conditions must be fulfilled:1. There must be an organic-rich source rock to generate the oil and/or gas.2. The source rock must have been heated sufficiently to yield its petroleum.3. There must be a reservoir to contain the expelled hydrocarbons. This reservoir must have porosity, to contain the oil and/or gas, and permeability, to permit fluid flow.4. The reservoir must be sealed by an impermeable cap rock to prevent the upward escape of petroleum to the earth's surface.5. Source, reservoir, and seal must be arranged in such a way as to trap the petroleum.原油储量是指从已知油田的油井中将来可望产出原油的估计数量。
中石油英语60篇课文翻译
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------中石油英语60篇课文翻译一、Carbon-based Alternative 碳基替代燃料 1.Although recent years have seen substantial reductions in noxious pollutants from individual motor vehicles, the number of such vehicles has been steadily increasing. Consequently, more than 100 cities in the United States still have levels of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and ozone (generated by photochemical reactions with hydrocarbons from vehicle exhaust) that exceed legally established limits. There is a growing realization that the only effective way to achieve further reductions in vehicle emissions-short of a massive shift away from the private automobile- is to replace conventional diesel fuel and gasoline with cleaner-burning fuels such as compressed natural gas. liquefied petroleum gas, ethanol, or methanol. 1、尽管近几年来私人机动车辆排放的有害污染物已有相当程度的减少，但这类车辆的数量却仍在稳定地增长。
翻译
前置式抽油机的现场试验刊物转载说明这篇文献将于1962年5月24日到25日呈现在比林斯，勃朗峰的落基山联合区域会议上。
它是石油工程师学会的财产。
除非是由石油技术杂志的编辑或者执行秘书明确地发布于媒体，本文的权限发布特此限制为不超过300字的没有插图的摘要。
这些摘要应该明确包含此文由谁在哪呈现于媒体的信息。
在此文发表于媒体后的任何引用应提供适当的本文原始信息。
我们接受关于本文的任何讨论。
但是任何讨论应该做成一式三份的文件送到石油工程协会的办公室。
这样的讨论可以在上述会议上提出，可以和本文一起发表在SPE杂志上。
概论最近，几大石油公司对比研究了前置式抽油机、非对称式抽油机和那些众所周知的传统的采油机械。
研究结果表明，前置式抽油机的小扭矩以及结构载荷允许操作人员用更便宜的设备来处理油田中相同的流体载荷。
本文包含一些最近的，有代表性的，石油公司的研究和它的结论。
在1956年后期，油田出现了一种前置式，非对称的机械横梁式抽油机。
这种机器的应用范围被设计得和地面上标准的或传统的采油设备一样。
尽管这种新型机械系统拥有和一般的采油设备相同的结构基础，但是它的机械性能以及功能却和传统的抽油机有着很大区别。
这种机械性能的区别得益于它的结构重组。
结构重组使得这种机器从第一类机械系统（杠杆回转中心在中间）变为第三类机械系统（杠杆回转中心在后梁）。
通过在曲柄上安装角度偏移的配重以及将齿轮减速器移动相应距离使得油井载荷和平衡扭矩产生相位差从而使得机器在特定的方向上运转。
这种前置式抽油机（第三类机械系统）（【图1】所示）采用了简单的杆系结构和空气平衡装置，融合了常规系统的简约、耐用以及高效率等特点，另外，还提供了原动机以及减速器都非常需要的相对均匀的转矩。
这种新型的几何结构使得以下几种抽油机特性成为可能：①简单形式的杆系结构使得因泵的冲程而产生的载荷的波动变得相对有规律。
通过缓和峰值扭矩，我们往往可以选用较小的减速器和原动机来完成指定任务。
原油价格与石油产品价格外文翻译文献中英文最新
原油价格与石油产品价格外文文献翻译中英文（节选重点翻译）英文A review of the evidence on the relation between crude oil prices andpetroleum product pricesLouis Ederington, Chitru FernandoAbstractWe review a large body of the empirical literature focusing on the relation between petroleum product prices and oil prices and discuss the evidence on the direction of causality between crude oil prices and petroleum product prices. In addition, we survey the literature on the much-debated question of whether petroleum product prices respond differently to increases versus decreases in oil prices, which Bacon (1991) labeled the “rockets and feathers” phenomenon.Keywords: Oil prices, Petroleum product prices, Energy economics, Commodities1. IntroductionThis survey is the first of a two-part series that reviews the extant empirical evidence regarding the behavior of petroleum productfutures prices. Herein we review the literature focusing on the relation between petroleum product prices and oil prices. In the companion review (Ederington et al., 2018a), we turn to the general distributionalcharacteristics of petroleum product prices, the influence of fundamental factors such as refinery outages and weather on product prices, the way that price discovery occurs for petroleum product prices, the predictive accuracy of petroleum product futures prices for future spot prices, and the impact of speculation on petroleum product prices.Crude oil is the “main ingredient” in refined petroleum products. Two primary hypotheses regarding the causal relation between oil prices and petroleum product prices have been presented in the literature. The first argues that the primary causal relation runs from oil prices to product prices (see the survey of Frey and Manera, 2007; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2014) and rests on the hypothesis that the marginal price of a barrel of a petroleum product should, in principle, be determined by the highest marginal cost of oil used. An alternative is that causality runs in the opposite direction (Verleger, 1982, 2011; Baumeister et al., 2018). The direction of causality has important implications for the regulation and organization of these markets and the facilitation of trade. Numerous authors investigating the links between oil price changes and product price changes have taken the direction of causation as a given and assumed that the dominant channel is from oil prices to product prices. However, recent evidence suggests that causality may run from product prices to oil prices. Whether there is a causal link running from product prices to oil prices has receivedlimited although increasing attention (Asche et al., 2003; Kaufmann et al., 2009; Kilian, 2010; Bilgin and Ellwanger, 2017; Baumeister et al., 2018). The evidence supporting the first hypothesis rests generally on the analysis of data measured at a monthly or weekly frequency, whereas support for the alternative hypothesis rests generally on the behavior of data measured at a quarterly or longer frequency.One important part of the dialogue about the short-term connection between oil prices and petroleum product prices is the speed and magnitude of product prices' response to changes in oil prices. This response is often referred to as the “rockets and feathers” phenomenon, a phrase coined by Bacon (1991) to describe the fast rise response in gasoline prices to increases in oil prices and the slow fall as oil prices decline. This question forms the basis of a long, ongoing debate about whether gasoline prices (and other product prices) respond more strongly and quickly to oil price increases than to oil price decreases. Prices of refined petroleum products such as gasoline and heating oil have long been a focal point of interest to individual consumers, industrial producers and consumers, as well as public policy makers and academics. When gasoline prices are rising, there is much popular consternation. Allegations of collusion on the part of retail sellers as well as predatory pricing are common. For instance, hearings conducted by the U.S. Senate Comm ittee on Energy and Natural Resources emphasized the mission “Toexplore the effects of ongoing changes in domestic oil production, refining and distribution on U.S. gasoline and fuel prices.” No doubt as a consequence of the regulatory and antitrust attention focused on this industry, a large empirical literature studying gasoline prices has developed.Herein we review the evidence regarding causality and the ways that petroleum product prices respond to increases or decreases in oil prices. As part of our review, we also examine the empirical evidence on which market-determined oil price serves as the principal benchmark for product prices.2. Petroleum product prices2.1. Crude oil prices and product pricesHeating oil, gasoline, and fuel oil are all refined from crude oil. The prices of petroleum products are inextricably linked to the price of crude oil by the technology and economics of refining. Propane is a byproduct of the refining process and is also extracted from natural gas or oil wellhead gas at processing plants.Crude oil is traded in a global market, as is gasoline (Kaminski, 2012; Zavaleta et al., 2015). Indeed, Zavaleta et al. (2015) conclude that “Econometric evidence supports the hypothesis that the U.S. and European markets for oil and re fined products are integrated” (p. 206). A question that has surfaced in recent years is “which oil price is theprimary world benchmark price?” The two benchmark oil prices which receive the most attention are: West Texas Intermediate (WTI) and Brent Blend. In this section, we discuss the empirical evidence regarding the connection between oil prices and product prices, and the evidence regarding whether the WTI or Brent price has the greater influence on product prices, with special emphasis on U.S. gasoline prices.The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimates that, in 2017, the cost of crude oil contributed 50% to the retail cost of a gallon of gasoline in the United States, down from 57% in December 2014. The remaining cost includes 19% taxes, 17% distribution and marketing costs, and 14% refining costs. The corresponding figures for diesel are 45% crude oil, 20% taxes, 17% distribution and marketing costs, and 18% refining costs. State-imposed fuel taxes differ, contributing to differential prices across states.Of course, changes in any of the contributing factors mentioned in the prior paragraph could potentially change gasoline or other product prices. Aside from the crude oil price, several additional factors could cause movements at the state level. Inventories are one factor. The theory of storage (Kaldor, 1939; Working, 1949) predicts that price volatility and price level are inversely related to inventory levels. State and federal requirements can vary regarding blending of reformulated gasoline with ethanol and/or fuels with different levels of low Reid VaporPressure (RVP). These requirements have the potential to create supply bottlenecks. For instance, the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) imposes specific renewable fuel blending standards which increase over time.5 This increase can also cause bottlenecks. A separate but related issue is the cost of ethanol relative to conventional gasoline and reformulated gasoline. Irwin and Good (2014) point out that “The recent drop in gasoline prices has been large enough to potentially threaten the competitiveness of ethanol in gasoline blends.”Another potentially important factor that could affect product prices is the incidence of regional refinery utilization and outages. Planned and unplanned outages can affect supply and cause price disruptions. The data suggest that refiners build inventory in anticipation of planned outages to avoid supply disruptions. Antitrust law prohibits refiners from communicating (and coordinating) outages. However, Section 804 of the EISA required the EIA to prepare a semi-annual analysis of planned refinery outages and their impact on petroleum product supply and price. The EISA further stipulates as follows: “On a determination by the Secretary, based on a report or alert under paragraph (3) or (4) of subsection (b), that a refinery outage may affect the price or supply of a refined petroleum product, the Secretary shall make available to refinery operators information on planned refinery outages to encourage reductions of the quantity of refinery capacity that is out of service at anytime.” Finally, supply can be affected by pipeline disruptions due to natural disasters such as weather-related events. An extreme example followed Hurricane Katrina when the Colonial Pipeline, which includes 5500 miles of pipeline delivering products such as gasoline, heating oil, and aviation fuel, was taken offline because electricity was not available to power pumps. We discuss the empirical evidence about these issues in Part 2 of this survey (Ederington et al., 2018a).A large part of the empirical literature on product prices focuses on gasoline prices and the response of retail or wholesale gasoline prices to oil price changes. Additionally, a segment of the literature has attempted to address geographical variation in gasoline prices and the impact of competition.Although the price series displayed in the figures appear to move together, some authors have presented evidence that movements in product prices follow movements in oil prices when the periodicity of data observations are measured over short horizons (days or weeks), whereas long measurement horizons support the reverse, that product demand drives oil prices. On the short horizon front, many researchers have presented evidence suggesting that the response size and adjustment speed of product prices to changes in oil prices depends upon whether the oil price has increased or decreased. Some have argued that faster product price adjustment in response to oil price increases than to oil pricedecreases is evidence in favor of the so-called “rockets and feathers” (asymmetric response) phenomenon originally studied by Bacon (1991). focuses on whether product price changes (in particular gasoline price changes) follow oil price changes, and whether those prices respond symmetrically to increases versus decreases in oil prices.An alternative hypothesis is that the demand for petroleum products and the resulting prices drive the price of oil. Verleger (1982) has argued that spot market prices for petroleum products are the primary determinants of crude oil prices. Baumeister et al. (2018)describe the economic dynamics as follows: “A common view is that refiners view themselves as price takers in product markets and cut their volume of production when they cannot find crude oil at a price commensurate with product prices. In time, this reduction in the demand for crude oil will lower the price of crude oil and the corresponding reduction in the supply of products will boost product prices (see Verleger, 2011)” (p. 1). In essence, this hypothesis posits that refiners wish to maintain profit margins and therefore adjust their demand for oil in response to changes in the prices of petroleum products. In a study of oil price forecasting predicated on the V erleger thesis, Baumeister et al. (2018) find some evidence in support of the hypothesis, albeit for a model that deviates somewhat from the strict hypothesis. A recent contribution to the literature is Bilgin and Ellwanger (2017), who examine quarterly data andfind evidence that “shifts in the global fuel demand accounted for the bulk of oil price fluctuations over the last decades.” (p. 3). Most studies, however, have tended to emphasize the connection between changes in crude oil prices and wholesale or retail gasoline (or product) prices, under the assumption that changes in oil prices drive changes in product prices. An example of the latter are investigations of the relation between gasoline prices and the two primary oil benchmark prices, the Brent price and the WTI price (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2014), which we comment on later.Controlling for other factors, a $1-per-barrel change in the price of crude oil results in a $0.024-per-gallon change in the price of wholesale and retail gasoline ($0.024 is 1/42 of $1; there are 42 gallons in one barrel). The evidence suggests that the adjustment occurs with a lag and that about half of the change in crude oil price is reflected in retail prices within two weeks of the price change, all other market factors being equal.2.2. Empirical examinations of oil price/product price relations2.2.1. OverviewThe empirical literature on the general relation between oil prices and petroleum product prices documents that gasoline prices and crude oil prices move together in the long-term. Similar results have been documented for heating oil prices and oil prices. The statistical methodsemployed in these analyses typically involve the estimation of bivariate time-series relations. Studies using data observed at different frequencies and for different time periods, as well as for various regions of the world, generally find a long-term relation between an oil benchmark price and product prices. The usual approach has been to associate product prices in the United States with the WTI price and product prices in Europe with the Brent price. In Section 2.3, we discuss recent empirical results concerning the benchmark oil price.2.2.2. Time series behaviorAs we emphasized in Section 1, two alternative hypotheses have emerged regarding oil prices and product prices: 1) oil price changes drive product price changes, and 2) product demand (and prices) drive oil price changes. Although these hypotheses might seem to be mutually exclusive, we are more agnostic. It seems that in the long-term, both oil prices and product prices should be determined by the supply of crude oil and the demand for products. However, the question of which leads in the short-term is partially a question of which tends to shift more in the short-term: supply or demand. But it also depends on speed of adjustment.A change in product demand might result in a change in crude oil demand quickly so that no lag between gasoline prices and crude oil prices would be observed, or conversely, there may be a lag before the demand for crude is affected. Likewise, a change in the supply of crude might affectgasoline prices almost immediately or with a lag.Two (or more) time series are considered to be cointegrated when they each possess a unit root and a linear combination of the variables is a stationary process (Greene, 2008). The studies in this branch of the literature generally do not attempt to test relations using alternative oil price benchmarks to determine the most appropriate benchmark for a given set of product prices. Rather, for example, U.S. data on product prices are related to WTI prices and European data are related to Brent prices. In Section 2.3, we return to the question of the oil price benchmark. The literature is somewhat segmented. Many papers employ the type of model described above. Other studies modify the framework when addressing the question we will take up later regarding whether product prices adjust differently to increases in oil prices versus decreases in oil prices. Still others have adapted the structure to account for stochastic error variances. In addition, many single-equation time-series models of various specifications have been studied.Gjølberg and Johnsen (1999) analyze the relation between monthly prices for the period 1992–1998 (observed on the Northwestern European market) of crude oil (Brent) and six oil products (gasoline, naphtha, jet fuel, gas oil, light fuel oil 1%, and heavy fuel oil 3.5%). They estimate single-equation models treating crude oil as exogenous and conclude that crude oil determines product prices.Lanza et al. (2005) investigate the relation between crude oil and product price dynamics using weekly and monthly data for the period 1994–2002, presenting a comparison among ten price series of crude oils and fourteen price series of petroleum products, considering four distinct market areas (Mediterranean, Northwestern Europe, Latin America, and North America). However, they do not attempt to distinguish which is the appropriate benchmark, assigning the Brent price to the Mediterranean and Northwestern Europe and the WTI price to the Americas. The researchers are primarily interested in models explaining regional oil prices, but they employ models that relate those prices to benchmark “marker” oil prices such as WTI or Brent, as well as t o two product prices, low-sulfur fuel oil and gasoline. After accounting for the benchmark oil price (WTI or Brent), they find only weak evidence of a long-term relationship between product prices and the regional oil prices they study, and only for prices outside the Americas. However, they do not present tests of the relations between product prices and the benchmark oil prices.Chouinard and Perloff (2007) estimate reduced form models for retail and wholesale gasoline prices utilizing monthly observations for the period from March 1989 to July 1997 for all contiguous 48 states and the District of Columbia. The authors examine both factors that may drive gasoline prices across time as well as across geographic areas and also account for factors such as taxes, refinery outages, various regulationeffects, weather, controls for ownership of stations and vertical relations, refinery mergers, and crude oil prices. They draw two conclusions from the results: 1) “virtually the entire variation in national prices was due to changes in the crude oil price and cyclical fluctuations and not to changes in taxes, content requirements, and other factors” (p. 18); and 2) the primary determinants of price differentials across states are taxes, population density, and age distribution of a state's population. The authors also report results consistent with refinery and retail mergers' having an impact on prices across states.Employing a joint vector autoregression (V AR) model of the global market for crude oil and the U.S. market for gasoline, Kilian (2010)estimates differing magnitudes, patterns, and persistence in response to demand and supply shocks in these two markets. The data examined are measured at a monthly frequency. The variables representative of the global market for crude oil are 1) the percent change of crude oil in world product, 2) a measure of global real economic activity (Kilian, 2009), and 3) the real price of crude oil. The U.S. gasoline market variables are 1) the real price of U.S. gasoline and 2) the percent growth rate of U.S. gasoline consumption. The variables are transformed in a variety of ways (Kilian, 2010).Analyzing the impulse response estimates for supply and demand shocks in the global crude oil markets on real gasoline and crude oilprices, Kilian (2010) finds that 1) unexpected reductions in the supply of crude oil cause the real price of crude oil and gasoline to increase insignificantly; 2) an unpredicted expansion in the global demand for industrial commodities causes a persistent increase in the real price of crude oil and gasoline (smaller response); and 3) an unforeseen increase in oil demand is met with an immediate increase in real crude oil and gasoline prices (smaller response) that gradually declines.The impulse response estimates for supply and demand shocks of the U.S. gasoline markets on real gasoline and crude oil prices provide evidence that 1) an unexpected disruption in U.S. refinery output causes real gasoline prices to spike and gradually decline, while real crude oil prices drop and gradually rise; and 2) an unexpected increase in U.S. demand for gasoline does not cause a significant response in real crude oil or gasoline prices. Collectively, demand and supply shocks from the global crude oil market and the U.S. gasoline market have differential implications on price shocks for crude oil and U.S. gasoline.According to Kilian (2010), a shock to gasoline supply (refining shock) accounts for approximately 80% of the variation in gasoline prices in the short-term, and shocks to aggregate demand and oil-specific demand are responsible for approximately 95% of the variation in gasoline prices in the long-term. The supply side of gasoline appears to be the dominant factor in determining fluctuations in real gasoline prices,whereas the U.S. gasoline consumption is only modestly responsive to shocks in gasoline supply.Ederington et al. (2018b) extend the analysis to a study of the relations between Brent oil futures prices and gasoline and heating oil futures prices for contracts traded on the NYMEX.11 Their results show consistent evidence that causality runs from oil futures prices to product futures prices. The results are based upon weekly price data spanning a 28-year period. The authors also find some evidence of a marginally significant relation running from product futures prices to oil futures prices following 2005 when measured at the weekly frequency. However, an analysis of the response of oil futures prices to shocks to product futures prices reveals that the economic significance is small, so they cannot reject the hypothesis that the responses are equal to zero. The results carry through to a model that includes variables measuring fundamental supply and demand, which may themselves be jointly determined with prices. However, in an analysis of daily data during the post-2005 period, the authors also find evidence that product prices caused oil prices, suggesting that causality ran in both directions during that period when measured at the daily frequency.2.3. Oil price benchmarks and petroleum pricesIn testimony before a committee of the U.S. House of Representatives, Medlock (2014) made the case that petroleum productswill be priced based upon the cost of the marginal internationally traded barrel of oil when there is no constraint on the trading of the refined product but there may be a constraint on the trading of the input (oil). If the Brent price is the appropriate proxy for that barrel, we should see that wholesale gasoline prices are more closely aligned with the Brent price. The recent debate about the relaxing of U.S. export restrictions on crude oil and the implications for oil prices and U.S. gasoline prices is intimately linked to whether an increase in the global supply of oil would reduce global oil prices (reflected in the Brent price). This brings us to the two benchmark oils that have received the most attention in the literature, WTI and Brent. Prior to 2010, the two prices were generally of the same magnitude, but a decoupling occurred in 2010 and has since persisted, although the gap has narrowed recently. Many commentators have attributed this to increased production in the United States and falling production in the North Sea, as well as infrastructure constraints in the United States. These developments have led some participants and reporting agencies to adopt the Brent price as the benchmark, including, for instance, the EIA in its Annual Energy Outlook publication. Fig. 3 displays plots of regional U.S. gasoline prices along with the Brent spot price.Recent EIA research (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2014) shows that changes in Brent crude oil prices explain more of the variationin U.S. spot gasoline prices than do changes in WTI crude oil prices. Prior to 2011, the Brent and WTI prices tended to be close. Following 2011, however, there were periods when the WTI price traded at a significant discount to Brent. The price gap has shrunk in recent years. The EIA study examines data from the period January 2000 to June 2014 and uses January 2011 as the breakpoint at which WTI prices first moved to a significant discount relative to Brent prices.The models estimated by the EIA researchers posit a lagged relation between changes in oil prices and changes in spot gasoline prices for four regions: U.S. East Coast, U.S. Gulf Coast, U.S. West Coast, and U.S. Midwest. In addition, the authors control for regional gasoline inventories (specifically deviations from previous five-year averages as well as seasonal effects). Weekly averages of daily price data are examined. An error correction term computed following the convention of linear regression of one price on another price (see Engle and Granger, 1987) is included because the EIA researchers identify that the prices studied are cointegrated.The resulting statistical analysis leads the EIA researchers to several conclusions:1. For both the 2000–2010 and 2011–2014 periods, the equations in which the Brent price was used as the independent variable have more explanatory power than the equations in which WTI was the independentvariable. This holds true for all regional markets, including the Midwest.2. The equations that use Brent as the independent variable lose very little explanatory power from period one (2000–2010) to period two (2011–June 2014), while equations with WTI as the independent variable lose considerable explanatory power from period one to period two.3. Introducing the Brent-WTI spread to equations in which WTI is the independent variable significantly improves the explanatory power of the equations, while introducing this spread to equations that use Brent as the independent variable does not significantly improve the explanatory power.These results provide evidence that Brent crude oil prices are more important than WTI prices in determining U.S. gasoline prices. The recent debate about relaxing U.S. export restrictions on crude oil and the potential impact on U.S. gasoline prices therefore revolves around whether an increase in the global supply of oil would reduce global oil prices (reflected in the Brent price), which the EIA's analysis suggests could lead to a decrease in domestic spot gasoline prices. This same conclusion has been drawn by others, such as the private consultancy IHS (2014), which in a recent study of oil markets concludes that: “The shift of the U.S. crude market to free trade will have the effect of lowering U.S. gasoline prices. That is because as new crude supply is added to the global market the international price of crude will fall,putting downward pressure on U.S. gasoline prices. At the same time, free export of U.S. crude oil would actually increase domestic crude prices, which will rise to meet higher international price levels, generating additional U.S. output and adding to international crude supply”.中文原油价格与石油产品价格之间关系的证据综述路易斯·埃德灵顿摘要我们回顾了大量关于石油产品价格和石油价格之间关系的研究文献，并讨论了关于原油价格和石油产品价格之间因果关系方向的证据。
石油英语汉译语法分析翻译研究
作者简介:郭转环(1986-),女,汉族,MTI 翻译硕士,研究方向:翻译;于艳英(1963-),女,汉族,教授,硕士生导师,研究方向:语言学㊁翻译㊂石油英语汉译语法分析翻译研究以2020年欧佩克年报为例郭转环㊀于艳英(西安石油大学外国语学院,陕西西安710065)摘㊀要:石油是各国生存和发展不可或缺的资源也是一种跨国际资源㊂目前,中国石油对外依存度超过70%㊂充分掌握石油市场及石油行业有效跨文化交流是石油国际合作的重要组成部分㊂石油科技文本具有其独特的文本特征,多使用被动句㊁定语从句㊁非谓语动词等㊂本文在目的论三原则指导下,通过对石油科技文本长难句的分析㊁归纳㊁总结石油科技文本翻译中的长难句翻译的方法和技巧,对长难句翻译提供可参考的解决方案㊂关键词:石油科技英语;目的论;长难句翻译中图分类号:F74㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀文献标识码:A㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀doi:10.19311/ki.1672-3198.2023.08.0160㊀引言石油对国家及民生都有极大的影响㊂由于石油进出口及勘探开采技术仍都需要借鉴并学习发达国家先进技术,所以,石油科技英语类文本的精准性翻译关系到国家及石油相关企业的命脉㊂石油科技英语翻译的精确显得更为重要要,对良好的石油行业发展起着举足轻重的作用㊂本文主要在翻译目的论背景下,对石油科技英语长难句的特点及翻译方法进行探讨㊂1㊀石油科技英语特点石油科技英语文本属于信息类文本,句式具有较强的客观性㊁准确性及严密性㊂从词汇的角度而言,石油科技英语存在大量的术语㊁缩略词㊂从结构上看,长难句㊁深层次的结构较多,大量使用被动语态㊁定语从句㊁分词㊁不定㊁式等㊂深度探究石油科技英语长难句对相关文本的翻译会起到事半功倍的效果㊂2㊀目的论视角下的石油科技英语翻译功能翻译学派认为:译者在翻译过程中的参照的不应是原文及其功能,而应是译文㊂在翻译目的的指引下,应尽量考虑到其他有可能的客观因素㊂因此,译者在翻译的过程中应选择最恰当的行为策略㊂翻译目的决定达到的预期翻译目标方向的策略㊂Ver-meer 提出了目的论三大原则基础:目的㊁连贯与忠实原则㊂石油科技类文本术语较多㊂因此,目的论及三原则非常适用于石油科技文本的翻译㊂目的原则指在科技英语翻译中,为译者指明翻译目标㊂石油科技英语翻译中应将目的原则作为首要原则,在翻译中以目的语受众为核心,接受众不同,翻译目的也会发生变化;这样不仅可以使得译文准确完整得以传递,而且还能使译文很好地被目的语受众接受㊂连贯原则指译文必须符合语内连贯的标准,译文在目的语看来是连贯㊁可读㊂由于石油科技英语翻译过程中涉及的主体包括信息发送者和接受者㊂石油科技文本非常注重逻辑上的连贯,这才能体现石油科技英语译本的连贯性㊂忠实原则,翻译应准确传递原文本信息㊂石油科技文本要求准确㊁严谨㊁完整,整个翻译过程是以准确传达信息这一目的而完成㊂3㊀石油科技英语的句法特点和翻译方法石油科技英语文本多使用复合长句㊁名词短语㊁被动语态㊁非限定动词,定语常常后置㊂因此在英汉翻译中,常把名词性短语转转换成动宾结构,将定语成分转为独立句,将被动转为主动;长句的一般处理方法是长句化短㊂㊃74㊃4㊀目的论背景下以语法为依托的石油英语长难句翻译4.1㊀with的独立主格结构在长难难句中的翻译独立主格,首先它是一个 格 ,而不是一个 句子 ㊂在英语中任何一个句子都要有主谓结构,而在这个结构中,没有真正的主语和谓语动词,但又在逻辑上构成主谓或主表关系㊂独立主格结构 在句中的功能就相当于一个带有自己主语的状语从句㊂非限制性从句通常以主句的某一成分作为自己的逻辑主语,依附于主句㊂有些非限制性从句和无动词从句带有自己的主语,在结构上与主句不产生关系,因此成为独立主格结构㊂从句法上看,独立主格结构依然是一种从属分句㊂如:表原因㊁表条件㊁表方式㊁表伴随㊁表时间等㊂在句中通常起状语作用,有时还可以做定语㊂Eg.原文:Crude oil spot prices witnessed a sharp downward trend in the first four months of2020,with North Sea Dated hitting its lowest point since March 1999in April2020,while the assessment of US crude WTI fell to nega tive territory for the first time on20A-pril.分析:此句中带with的独立主格结构,一般情况下表伴随或原因,此句中表示伴随,独立主格简言之是从句中非谓语动词它有自己的主语且它的主语不可省略,由with引导的独立主格原句应该是:withNo-rth Sea Dated hit its lowest point since March1999in A-pril2020㊂在本句中将with翻译为时间状语从句㊂随着 ㊂译文:自2020年4月及1999年3月以来,随着北海预期价格触及最低点,原油现货价格在2020年前四个月出现大幅下跌趋势,而美国原油WTI的评估于2020年4月20日首次跌至负值区域㊂4.2㊀定语从句在石油科技英语中的翻译-限定性定语从句又分为限定和非限定性㊂英语的定语从句呈右开放状,可以向右无限扩展㊂所以我们在翻译较为复杂的英语定语从句时,一般根据定语从句的长短来决定翻译顺序,方法是将其切分为一个个短句再分别处理㊂定语从句字数小于八词,多将定语从句翻译到被修饰词之前,也就是前置合译法㊂定语从句字数大于等于八词翻译时,一般翻译完主句,从句按照句子顺序翻译,将关系词指明对象即可,定语从句的后置分译法㊂Eg.原文:This article highlights settings in which remote support can increase service quality,reduce expo-sure to wellsite risks and provide cost-effective alterna-tives to onsite personnel.分析:由于in which引导的定语从句较长,将主句和从句切开来翻译,且已经超过八个词,翻译时,使用后置译法㊂顺着主句和从句顺序翻译㊂译文:本文强调,远程支持可以提高服务质量的同时降低井场风险及经济有效地替代方案㊂4.3㊀定语从句在石油科技英语中的翻译-非限定性英语非限制性的翻译方法与限制性译法相似,只是分译法的使用更为频繁一些,有时也可视情况译成汉语的并列句㊁复合句或独立句㊂其次,which引导非限定性定语的关系词分为二种情况㊂第一:引导词代表唯一前面先行词㊂第二:关系词代表整个主句,这时,关系词只用which和as㊂Eg.原文:The implementation of International Mari-time Organization(IMO)2020regulations,which were expected to tighten the supply of low-sulphur bunker fuel in the maritime transportation sector,was totally off-set by the sharp decline in global oil demand and suffi-cient supply of compliant fuels.分析:Which引导非限定性定语从句,which一般引导的定语从句要么是引导词代表前面先行词,要么代表主句,此处代表主句,如果代表主句时,只能用which或as,而as在定语从句中译为作为,此处只能用which㊂在此句中,which代主句里的主语(IMO),不是整个句子,在译时,将其译为国际海事组织㊂译文:国际海事组织(IMO)2020年法规实施,预期收紧海上运输部门低硫船用燃料㊂它受到全球石油需求的急剧下降和合规燃料的充足供应完全抵消㊂4.4㊀定语从句经常在长难句的省略部分定语从句的省略指,当原定于从句动词和逻辑主语是主动关系时,则将从句动词变成现在分词(现在分词表主动)若为被动关系时,去掉从句中的be动词,只保留过去分词表被动,当从句谓语是be+adj 结构时,只需去掉be动词即可㊂Eg.原文:Spot prices fell the most in March and A-pril due to a large overhang in the market,exacerbated by an unprecedented oil demand shock caused by the COVID-19pandemic,which pushed al-most all coun-㊃84㊃tries to take drastic measures to contain the unprecedent-ed health crisis.分析:Caused为过去分词,这个从句全句为oil demand shock which was caused by the COVID-19 pandemic,是一个限定性定语从句,引导词在从句中作为主语出现时,引导词省略,所以此句which省略,引导词都不存在,was也不能存在,原句中caused为过去分词,当原定语从句谓语与逻辑主语为被动关系时,则将动词改为过去分词即可,关系代词和系动词省略,但是翻译时应该指明对象㊂译文:现货价格在3月和4月跌幅最大,原因是市场存在巨大压力,而COVID-19疫情造成史无前例的石油需求冲击加剧了这一趋势,这促使几乎所有国家采取严厉措施来遏制前所未有的健康危机㊂4.5㊀插入语在复杂句中的应用及翻译插入语,指在句子中加安插的一个成分,主要起解释㊁总结㊁态度㊁承上启下等作用㊂一般将其去掉之后,句子结构仍完整㊂在英语语法中,常见的插入语主要有8种形式:分句㊁形容词及短语㊁过去分词短语㊁介词短语㊁副词㊁不定式㊁现在分词短语㊁用标点符号引导插入语㊂Eg.原文:They continued to increase for four con-secutive months to August,amid an easing supply over-hang and gradual mar-ket rebalancing,thanks to strong conformity levels to production adjustments by partici-pating OPEC and non-OPEC producers of the DoC,de-clining non-OPEC supply,specifically from the US,and a gradual recovery in crude demand from refiners.分析:Amid在这里引导的介词做状语,为插入语,中文一般先说 废话(状语) 主句放后面,译时最好放到句首㊂所以我们译时,可先译Amid引导的时间状语从句㊂译文:在供应过剩缓解和市场逐步重新平衡的情况下,由于参与的欧佩克和DoC的非欧佩克产油国对生产调整的严格符合水平,非欧佩克供应下降,特别是来自美国,以及炼油厂的原油需求逐渐复苏㊂4.6㊀被动语态在石油科技英语中的翻译科技英语中被动语态大量使用㊂汉语中的被㊁受㊁等字总是让人觉得含有贬义,所以在英汉译时,将被动转化为主动㊂英译汉被动语态的方法有:英语被动转为汉语的无主句;被动语态保持不变㊂Eg.原文:The recovery in physical market funda-mentals was reflected in the decline in global crude oil stocks,including floating storage,around the world.分析:此句中was reflected是被动语态,英语多用被动,而汉语则多用主动语态,译为汉语时,用有被不译被的方法㊂这里把be reflected被动根据汉语的习惯翻译为由 更符合汉语思维㊂译文:实物市场基本面的复苏由在全球原油库存(包括浮动存储)的下降上反映出来㊂5㊀结语文章在目的论指导下,从石油科技文本句法层面,对石油科技英语的特点进行了分析㊂石油科技文本的翻译是语言之间的转换,译本是技巧和科学翻译的结合体㊂因此应在遵循目的论的基础上,根据石油科技文本的特点,对文本进行翻译㊂文章同时梳理了石油英语中较复杂语法现象㊂英语句式复杂多变,通过对高频长难句中句式语法进行剖析研究,从而对于此类句式翻译方法进行优化,提高石油科技文本的翻译质量㊂参考文献[1]Nord,Christiane.Translating as a Purposeful Activity:func-tionalist approaches explained.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001.[2]Vermeer,Hans J.Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[C].in The Translation Studies Reader.London:Rout-ledge,1989.[3]Reiss,Katharina&Hans J Vermeer.Towards a General Theo-ry of Translational Action[M].Routledge,1984.[4]邹宇.石油英语的语言特点及翻译[J].中国科技翻译, 2007,20(3):10-14.[5]修文乔,徐方赋.石油科技英语的文体特征及翻译策略[J].中国科技翻译,2014,27(4):7-10.[6]张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].中国科技翻译,2004,(01),35-37+13.[7]许建平.英汉互译实践与技巧[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2012.[8]武峰.十二天突破英汉翻译[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2017.㊃94㊃。
2019年中石油职称英语新版选读文章系列(40)
2019年中石油职称英语新版选读文章系列(40)An Introduction to Petrochemicals 石油化工产品概述1. The petroleum era was ushered in by the 1859 findingat Titusville,Pennsylvania,but the flourishing of chemicals from petroleum has been only since the early twentieth century. Natural gas and petroleum are in fact our chief sources of hydrocarbons. Natural gas is quite variable in composition,but the major constituent (>60%) is methane.Other components are the homologousalkanes,ethane,propane,and higher hydrocarbons. In terms of volume,most of the natural gas produced is used forfuel,although a substantial amount is used as raw materialfor the synthesis of various types of chemicals.1、1859宾西法尼亚洲Titusville地区钻出油井，开创了石油时代。
但从石油中成功地提取化学产品，则直到20世纪早期才开始。
实际上,天然气和石油是我们碳氢化合物的主要来源。
天然气在成分上不大稳定，但主要成分(60%)是甲烷。
，其他组分有同系烷、乙烷、丙烷以及高分子碳氢化合物。
从数量看，即使有相当数量的天然气用作各种合成化合物的原料，但所生产的绝大部分天然气用作燃料。
石油及石油产品分析文摘译文
石油及石油产品分析文摘译文石油及石油产品分析文摘译文李岩刘载诗罗远泉(茂名商检局)燃烧残渣的化学分析在所有燃烧残余物中,约有20%被认为源于燃烧质,化学分析试图确定残渣中残留的物质是否已引起或加速燃烧。
样品准备时应十分细心,因为某些物质仍残留有可能的液体助燃剂,这些物质可能会产生大量热解物质。
热解物质中含有的由有机聚合物产生的挥发烃、石油蒸馏物和加速剂(两者可以从C值及主要组分加以区别)可用GC测量。
即使是在蒸发90%以后仍可以将馏分分类。
但这种方法不适用于蒸发后的汽油组成的分析,GC-M S 对烷烃、烷基化苯、环烷烃、1,2-二氢化茚及萘呈现相当均一的响应。
该文对有关燃烧残余物分析的实验室的指导原则作了概述,同时讨论了与实验室间试验程序有关的问题。
(AA,1997,3E58)用傅里叶变换近红外光谱法和傅里叶变换喇曼光谱法判别和量化汽油安砝中的氧饱和物该文研究了氧含量为2%和2.7%(重量)时四种常见氧饱和汽油添加剂-乙醇、甲基叔丁基醚、乙基叔丁基醚和叔戊基甲基醚的标准物质(NIST)。
同时讨论了通过分析每一标准物质未开启安瓿的方式检测外逸物的方法。
红外分析采用钨(W)光源和一台Ge(锗)探测器,扫描范围12000-5500cm-1,得到4cm-1处16co-added 谱图。
为得到安瓿扩散及穿透平均特性,需以600rpm的转速旋转样品。
FT拉曼光谱法使用钕一钇铝石榴石激光器,波长1064nm,在安瓿内聚焦1-2mm。
两种方法均用偏最小2乘式多元统计方法校准。
两种方法均可在0.1%(重量百分比)氧含量范围内识别并量化添加剂。
这一精度足可以将样品排除在外。
分析时也可以将两种方法组合起来使用。
(AA,1997,3E59)原油和水中C0-C3烃基酚的测定将油(0.5ml)用15 g2-萘酚(内部标准)处理,然后直接放入一不带盖C18-硅石(NEC)盒中。
用4.5ml轻石油或己烷洗涤,接着用5m l50%甲醇水溶液洗涤。
石油类英文翻译文献Physical properties of wax deposits on the
Water bath 2
Oil
Reference section
tank
dp2
dp1 Test section
Water bath 1
Mass flowmeter
Buffer tank
Screw pump
Peristaltic pump
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the flow loop system used to measure wax deposition
*Corresponding author. email: huang_qi_yu@ Received May 6, 2008
fixed oil temperature) and oil temperature (at a fixed wall temperature).
In this study, laboratory flow loop experiments are performed to acquire data on the wax content, wax appearance temperature (WAT) under different thermal conditions (oil temperature, wall temperature, difference in temperature between oil and pipe wall), and hydraulic conditions (shear rate or shear stress on pipe wall). Furthermore, a model is established to predict the wax content of the deposit, WAT, shear stress, and concentration gradient of wax molecules on the wall.
首届“中国石化杯”全国石油科技翻译大赛 参赛译文
Passage 1译文石油（又称原油），像许多工业原料一样，在未经提炼、未加工的状态下不会或很少直接投入使用。
它作为工业商品的价值只有在成为畅销产品后才能实现，而市场需求恰恰决定了所需的产品类型。
因此，石油的价值与产品的产量直接相关，取决于市场的需求。
石油提炼，又称石油加工，指的是原油通过蒸馏，或高温高压状态下的化学反应，提炼出一些可利用的物料或成品的过程。
合成原油由焦油砂（沙油）沥青提炼而来，用作部分炼油厂的原料。
在许多炼油厂里，重油转化不属于合成燃料（合成原油）的生产。
从目前的石油价格来看，使用煤炭和其它含碳原料的燃料，如油页岩，提炼液体燃料并不划算。
因此，过去的几年里，合成燃料工业的概念在这一领域逐渐减少。
作为原油的基本元素，氢和碳是冶炼厂的主要原料。
他们相互结合，形成了成千上万种独立的成分。
由于原油本身的质量有所不同，不同冶炼厂的工艺设备又有差异，其产生经济效益自然不尽相同。
一般情况下，提炼后的原油根据其分离成的不同类属可归纳为三个基本类别的产品，但往往也会有一些混合的碎料。
蒸馏条件下产生的碎料的数量取决于原油本身的产地和特性。
Passage 2译文根据2013年国际能源展望参考案例，天然气是世界上增长最快的化石燃料，其消耗量将从2010年的113万亿立方英尺增加到2040年的185万亿立方英尺。
在全世界许多地区，它将继续作为电力和工业部门的首选燃料。
在某种程度上，这是因为与煤和石油相比，天然气具有较低的碳强度，这使得它在一些实施各种政策以减少温室气体排放的国家成为一种具有吸引力的燃料来源。
此外，对于新建的发电厂来说，天然气的投资成本相对较低，热率适宜，是一种极具吸引力的可替代燃料。
关于世界各地的致密气，页岩气，与煤层气资源库，我们还有许多需要学习的地方，但国际环境组织2013参考案例对于这些资源的供应量大幅度增加，尤其是在美国，加拿大和中国。
在美国，水平钻井和水力压裂技术的应用是天然气产量增加的关键，这使得该国庞大的页岩气资源的开发成为可能，也使得过去十年里该国的天然气回收量有了近一倍的提升。
石油类英文翻译文献
Retro fit design of a boil-off gas handling process in lique fied natural gas receiving terminalsChansaem Park,Kiwook Song,Sangho Lee,Youngsub Lim,Chonghun Han *School of Chemical and Biological Engineering,Seoul National University,San 56-1,Shillim-dong,Kwanak-gu,Seoul 151-742,Republic of Koreaa r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received 4October 2011Received in revised form 22February 2012Accepted 23February 2012Available online 27March 2012Keywords:Boil-off gasLNG receiving terminal Retro fit design Cryogenic energy BOG handlinga b s t r a c tGeneration of Boil-off gas (BOG)in lique fied natural gas (LNG)receiving terminals considerably affects operating costs and the safety of the facility.For the above reasons,a proper BOG handling process is a major determinant in the design of a LNG receiving terminal.This study proposes the concept of a retro fit design for a BOG the handling process using a fundamental analysis.A base design was determined for a minimum send-out case in which the BOG handling becomes the most dif ficult.In the proposed design,the cryogenic energy of the LNG stream is used to cool other streams inside the process.It leads to a reduction in the operating costs of the compressors in the BOG handling process.Design variables of the retro fit design were optimized with non-linear programming to maximize pro fitability.Optimization results were compared with the base design to show the effect of the proposed design.The proposed design provides a 22.7%energy saving ratio and a 0.176year payback period.Ó2012Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionRecently,lique fied natural gas (LNG)receiving terminals have been constructed worldwide due to an continuous increase in LNG demand [1].A LNG receiving terminal has the role of transporting the LNG from the carrier and supplying it to industrial or residential customers.Imported LNG is stored in its liquid state in storage tanks at the LNG receiving terminal.In order to deliver LNG to the customer,LNG is vaporized through a regasi fication process [2].Vapor continuously evaporates from LNG since LNG absorbs the heat in the storage tank and in the cryogenic pipelines during unloading and storage.This vapor is called boil-off gas (BOG).It causes safety problems in the LNG facilities since the pressure inside that facility increases with the generated BOG.Over-treatment of the BOG consumes excess energy.Hence,proper handling of BOG is required for an optimal design of an LNG receiving terminal [3].Usual BOG handling methods for LNG receiving terminals are recondensation and direct compression.The recondensation method is shown in Fig.1.BOG is compressed to around 10bar through a BOG compressor and mixed with enough send-out LNG,which is pumped at same pressure in the recondenser so to obtain a liquid mixture.The LNG mixed with the BOG is compressed topipeline pressure in high-pressure (HP)pump and vaporized by seawater.The direct compression method is shown in Fig.1.The BOG in a storage tank is compressed to the pipeline pressure through more than 2compression stages and then,transported to the pipeline with the send-out natural gas [4].Generally,the direct compression method has higher operating costs than the recon-densation method because the gas is directly compressed to a high pressure.Most LNG receiving terminals,which include the Incheon LNG receiving terminal in Korea,use a combined method of recondensation and direct compression [5].As shown in Fig.1,the compressed BOG from the BOG compressor is condensed by mixing with the LNG in the recondenser.If the send-out flow rate of the LNG from the storage tank is insuf ficient to condense all of the BOG,BOG that cannot be condensed accumulates in the recondenser.Thereupon,the remaining BOG in the recondenser is compressed to the pipeline pressure through the HP compressor and is directly transported to the pipeline mixed with the natural gas [2].Since the operation of the HP compressor requires considerable energy and hence,has considerable operating costs,it is desirable to minimize the operation of the HP compressor.In the BOG handling process,high-pressure LNG compressed by HP pump has a useful cryogenic energy.The high-pressure LNG stream,which is maintained around À120 C,should be heated so it can be vaporized at 0 C with the seawater vaporizer.Hence,the cryogenic energy of this high-pressure LNG stream can be used to improve the BOG handling process.*Corresponding author.Tel.:þ8228801887.E-mail addresses:chhan@snu.ac.kr ,xver@snu.ac.kr (C.Han).Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirectEnergyjournal h omepage:w/locate/energy0360-5442/$e see front matter Ó2012Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.energy.2012.02.053Energy 44(2012)69e 78Recently,research on the LNG receiving terminals is usually focused on analyzing the operation of a speci fic facility in the LNG receiving terminal and the utilization of the cryogenic energy of the LNG stream.Lee et al.suggested a reliable unloading operation procedure for a mixed operation of above-ground and in-ground storage tank [6].Kim et al.analyzed mixing drums and heat exchangers as a BOG recondenser [7].Lim et al.developed the methodology for a stable simulation of the LNG pipe [8].Studies on the operation of the BOG compressor at the Pyeoungtaek LNG receiving terminal was performed with industrial data [3,9].Liu et al.optimized a process for the multi-stage recondensation of the BOG based on a thermodynamic analysis [10].Studies on optimal operating conditions for a regasi fication facility have been per-formed [11,12].Various studies have been proposed a power generation plant using cryogenic energy applied to power cycle.Liu and You developed the mathematical model to predict the total heat exergy of LNG [13].Qiang et al.analyzed the power cycle based on the cold energy of LNG [14].Also Qiang et al.carried out the exergy analysis for several power cycles used for recovering the LNG cold energy [15].Sun et al.proposed and analyzed the cryo-genic thermo-electric generator [16].Kim and Hong analyzed the exergy of current LNG receiving terminal and cold power genera-tion plant [17].Szargut and Szczygiel proposed and optimized power plant using LNG cryogenic exergy [18].A cogeneration plant using the BOG and cryogenic energy has been suggested [4,19].Based on a literature survey,few studies on the retro fit design of the BOG handling process has been reported in term of reducing the operating energy.The improvement and optimization of the BOG handling process have the potential to reduce the operating costs of the natural gas facility.The contribution of this paper is development of the retro fit design of a BOG handling process in which the design variables are optimized for total cost minimization.Cryogenic energy of the LNG is used to directly reduce the capital cost and operating cost without additional power generator.In this paper,we used the retro fit method which includes the thermodynamic analysis,process simulation and optimization.This paper describes a general operating line of a BOG handling process based on thermodynamic analysis.In the operating line,the opportunity of design improve-ment and the reasons of energy saving are described by comparing with base case design and retro fit design.Based on the thermo-dynamic analysis,a superstructure of the retro fit design is devel-oped and the design variables,which are in direct relationship withcapital cost and operating cost,are de fined.Since the objective function of optimization problem is calculated using process simulation results,the optimization algorithm of the design vari-ables is based on process simulation.The optimal values of design variables are achieved using Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP)solver in MATLAB.Finally optimal design of the retro fit BOG handing process is veri fied through the sensitivity analysis of external operating conditions.2.MethodologyThe algorithm of the retro fit method is shown in Fig.2in which it aims to minimize the capital cost and operating cost of BOG handling process.Retro fit procedure starts with thermodynamic analysis of BOG handling process.The P e H (pressure-enthalpy)diagram is generated from LNG properties based on Peng-Robinson equation of state.As the operating line of the BOG handling process is presented in P e H diagram,the possibility for improvement of the BOG handling process is investigated.The retro fit opportunity for ef ficient design is obtained from a result of the thermodynamic analysis for the operating line.In the next step,the superstructure of the retro fit design is developed by applying the retro fit oppor-tunity based on thermodynamic analysis.To obtain the optimal design,the optimization problem of retro fit design is formulated,in which the main objective is the minimization of capital cost and operating cost.The design variables,which affect the capital cost and operating cost,are de fined to formulate the objective function based on the superstructure of the retro fit design.In addition,design constraints of the optimization problem are determined using the process simulation of the superstructure.Since the optimization problem of retro fit design is non-linearly constrained problem,it is solved using SQP method.At each iter-ation step,the optimization problem is approximated by quadratic form.Then the quadratic programming subproblem is solved using a combination of active-set strategy and process simulation of retro fit design to calculate the Lagrange multiplier and search direction for next iteration.If the termination criteria of QP solution are met,design variables at current iteration step (x k )are optimal values of the SQP problem and the solver stops.Otherwise,the step length for next iteration is evaluated using line search method.Then,x k is updated by search direction and step length to generate new value x k þ1.In the next iteration,the updated values are used for the next step.In this paper,the process simulation of the retro fitFig.1.A process flow diagram of the LNG handling process.C.Park et al./Energy 44(2012)69e 7870design was conducted by Aspen Plus and the SQP was solved by MATLAB.After the optimal design values of retro fit process are obtained by solving the SQP,sensitivity analysis for the design parameters which have variability,such as LNG demand rate,is performed to verify the pro fitability of the retro fit design.Finally the retro fit design is proposed after veri fication of the pro fitability.3.Case study3.1.Base case design de finitionVarious studies on the practical operation which include the BOG compressor were conducted about the Pyeongtaek LNG receiving terminal.The practical operations of the compressor [3,9]and the recondenser [7,20],operator ’s feedback [21,22],basic design information [23]of the Pyeongtaek LNG receiving terminal were indicated.In this study,base case design of the BOG handling process was determined based on the practical design conditions of the Pyeongtaek LNG receiving terminal.Details of the base case design are presented in Table 1.However,the base case design is not identical to Pyeongtaek LNG receiving terminal due to only one difference,the HP compressor.Most BOG handling processes use HP compressors for BOG handling while Pyeongtaek LNG terminal utilizes BOG as fuel since it is adjacent to other plants.HP compressor in Pyeongtaek LNG terminal is replaced with flare stack and power plant [20].Base case design was determined assuming that the HP compressor is used for the BOG handling.Therefore the process flow diagram of the base case design is identical to Fig.1and design conditions are based on Pyeongtaek LNG receiving terminal in Table 1.The BOG compressor and HP compressor consisted of a 2-stage compression in which the pressure ratio is identical [21].The generation rate of the BOG in the storage tanks was determined by a normal operation case [3]and the send-out rate of the LNG was determined by a minimum send-out case [21].Since this paper proposes an advanced process design,we choose the minimum send-out case,which has dif ficulties in handling the BOG.For the above reason,a retro fit design based on the minimum send-out case can easily handle BOG using recondensation whenever the send-out rate of the LNG changes.Modeling and simulation of the base case was conducted in Aspen Plus in order to calculate the total operating cost of the BOG handling process.The stream data of the process simulation is presented in Table 2.Stream numbers in Table 2correspond with the stream number in Fig.1.Temperature values of the compressor inter-streams,stream 2and 7,are at À49.6 C and À58.1 C,respectively and there is no need to intercool these streams.Therefore,stream 3and 8are identical to stream 2and 7.Operating costs of each unit in the base case are presented in Table 3.The operating costs of the whole process considered 5units,which included the BOG compressor,LP pump,HP compressor,HP pump,and seawater pump.The BOG flow rate,which is a dif ficult variable to measure,is sharply fluctuated in the LNG receiving terminal.To analyze effects of a shift in the BOG flow rate on the result of simulation,the total operating costs of the process model are computed changing Æ10%of the BOG flow rate as shown in Fig.3.If the BOG flow rate is changed in the range of Æ10%,the result of process modelisFig.2.A algorithm for retro fit method.Table 1The design conditions of the base case design.ParametersValue Storage tank pressure,mbarg170Suction temperature of BOG compressor, C À120Temperature of LNG before recondensation, C À155BOG flow rate,ton/h30Minimum LNG send-out rate,ton/h 200Recondensation pressure,kg/cm 210Send-out pressure,kg/cm 276Send-out temperature, CTable 2The stream data of the base case design.1245679101112Temperature, C À120À49.646.8À155.0À122.6À58.129.8À122.6À117.70.00Pressure,bar 1.12 3.439.8113.739.8127.0274.539.8174.5374.53Vapor fraction 1110111001Mass flow,t/h30.030.030.0200.04.74.74.7225.3225.3225.3C.Park et al./Energy 44(2012)69e 7871changed in the range between À13.4%and 14.8%.Thus,the result of process model is greatly affected by BOG flow rate.It is necessary to use the accurate value of BOG flow rate for process simulation in this method.3.2.Thermodynamic analysis of the base case designA P e H diagram of the base design is shown in Fig.4to analyze operations in the BOG handling process.The pressure axis in Fig.4is the logarithmic coordinate.The blue line is the isothermal line,which presents the operation state at a speci fic temperature.The red line is the bubble point and dew point,which yield information on the phase change.The green line is the isentropic line of oper-ation;LNG or BOG is compressed following the isentropic line through the pump and compressor.When the LNG or BOG moves following the isentropic line,the magnitude of the x -axis denotes the operation cost of the related unit.Point 1and 2represent the state of the LNG and BOG in the storage tank.LNG is pressurized to the recondensation pressure with the LP pump at point 3.The BOG is compressed to the recondensation pressure with the BOG compressor (point 4).Although operation of the BOG and HP compressor is shown as 1path in the P e H diagram,the BOG and HP compressor consist of 2stages.In the recondenser,the LNG and BOG are mixed at the recondensation pressure to form a liquid mixture,which becomes saturated LNG (point 5).The liquid mixture from the recondenser is pressurized to the send-out pressure with the HP pump (point 6).The LNG stream at high pressure is heated by seawater so to transport it in the vapor state.However,the BOG,which cannot be condensed in the recondenser,goes through the HP compressor to be directly compressed to the send-out pressure and supplied to the customer mixed with the send-out natural gas (point 7).(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend,the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)3.3.Proposal of the retro fitting design for energy savingIf the BOG from the BOG compressor is cooled with a heat exchanger using the high-pressure LNG stream (point 6in Fig.4),the operating lines of the BOG handling process in the P e H diagram changes as following path 1,2in Fig.4.Since the temperature of the liquid mixture is lower through the path 1,2,the recondensation pressure can be lower;a decrease in the recondensation pressure reduces the operating cost of the BOG compressor.In addition,a larger BOG flow rate can be condensed to reduce the operating cost of the HP compressor.The scheme of this design is shown in Fig.5.A high-pressure LNG stream goes through the BOG cooler to cool down the BOG stream.This method provides a lower operating pressure in the recondenser and a larger BOG rate to be condensed.It can reduce the operating energy of the BOG and HP compressors.The BOG and HP compressors usually consist of 2stages due to a compression ratio of 7e 10.Hence,the cryogenic energy of the high-pressure LNG stream is utilized for intercooling in theTable 3The operating costs of the base design.UnitEnergy costs 1st-stage BOG compressor,kW 1189.912nd-stage BOG compressor,kW 1699.191st-stage HP compressor,kW 144.812nd-stage HP compressor,kW 209.94HP pump,kW 1279.92LP pump,kW 188.39SW Pump,kW 49.07Sum,kW4761.24Fig.3.The result of total operating cost with changing BOG flowrate.Fig.4.A P e H diagram of the BOG handling process.C.Park et al./Energy 44(2012)69e 7872compressors.This method improves the efficiency of the compressors decreasing the temperature of the BOG inter-stream. As shown in Fig.6,the operation paths of the compressors shift to paths that are more efficient.In the proposed paths,the oper-ating costs of the BOG and HP compressors are reduced.The high-pressure LNG stream is utilized for intercooling in the compressors by the compressor intercoolers in Fig.1.The superstructure of the retrofit design was based on the above thermodynamic analysis of the BOG handling operation.As shown in Fig.7,the high-pressure LNG stream from the HP pump splits into3streams.Each streamflows through the BOG compressor intercooler,the BOG cooler,and the HP compressor intercooler to cool down the BOG stream;thereby,the operating costs of the BOG and HP compressors are reduced.After the3branch streams pass through the heat exchangers,these streams combine to become one stream.This single LNG stream then moves to the seawater vaporizer.The retrofit design provides a lower recondensation pressure and a larger condensing rate for the BOG and improves the compressor efficiency for energy savings.3.4.Optimization of design variablesThe design variables of the proposed superstructure need to be optimized to minimize the total operating cost.For this purpose, modeling of the proposed superstructure was done with Aspen Plus.Optimal design and operating variables were obtained with specified constraints to minimize the operating costs.The objective function of this optimization problem was to maximize the venture profit(VP),which measures the profitability of the design for the BOG handling process shown by Eq.(1).The return on investment is 0.2.The saving costs(C S)are obtained to calculate the multiplica-tion of the price of electricity(P e)and the difference between the operating cost of the base design and the proposed design shown by Eq.(2).The capital cost of the retrofit design considers the equipment cost of the additional heat exchanger;the equipment cost of the heat exchanger was calculated by referring to Warren Seider[24].The purchase cost(C P)of the heat exchanger is calcu-lated by multiplication of the pressure factor(F P),the material factor(F M),the tube-length factor(F L)and base purchase cost(C B) shown in Eq.(3).The base purchase costs are correlated in terms of heat-exchanger surface areas(A i),which are calculated by process simulation,in ft2shown in Eq.(4).The material factor is a function of surface area shown in Eq.(5).The parameters a and b are2.70 and0.07,respectively,since stainless steel is used as the material of the shell and tube side.The tube-length factor is1.25for tube length below8feet.The pressure factor is based on the shell-side pressure(P)in psig shown in Eq.(6).VP¼C SÀi min C P(1) C S¼XW BasicÀXW ProposedÂP e(2) C P¼F P F M F L C B(3) C B¼expn11:147À0:9186½lnðA iÞ þ0:09790½lnðA iÞ 2o(4)F M¼aþA i100b(5)F P¼0:9803þ0:018Pþ0:0017P2(6) Fig.5.A scheme of the BOG handling process with the BOGcooler.Fig.6.A P e H diagram of the BOG handling process with the intercooler of the BOG and HP compressors.C.Park et al./Energy44(2012)69e78733.5.Design variablesIn this optimization problem,design variables were divided into 4types.As shown in Fig.8,the first design variable was the recondensation pressure (P R )at which the BOG stream from the BOG compressor and LNG stream from the LP pump is mixed to condense the BOG.If the recondensation pressure is raised,the operating cost of the HP compressor is reduced due to the addi-tional condensation of the BOG.However,the operating cost of the BOG compressor and the LP pump increases as the discharge pressure of the BOG compressor and LP pump increases.Hence,it is necessary to find the optimal recondensation pressure to minimize the operating cost.The second design variable was the heat transfer area of the heat exchangers that are added to the proposed design.The heat transfer areas of the BOG cooler (A 1)in Fig.5,the inter-cooler of the BOG compressor (A 2)and the intercooler of the HP compressor (A 3)in Fig.1need to be determined for an optimal retro fit design.If the heat transfer areas increase,the effects of cooling the BOG consistently increase along with the capital cost of the heat exchangers.For this reason,the optimal heat transfer area of each heat exchanger needs to be determined to maximize the VP.The third design variable was the compression ratio (r Bi ,r Hi )for each stage of the BOG and HP compressors.The total compression ratio of the compressors is determined by the recondensation pressure,but the compression ratio for each stage should be determined to achieve minimum operating costs.In the proposed design,the high-pressure LNG stream is used for the 3heat exchangers.The high-pressure LNG stream splits into 3paths.The fourth design variable was the split ratio of the high-pressure LNG stream to the BOG cooler (s 1),the BOG compressor intercooler (s 2),and the HP compressor intercooler (s 3)shown in Fig.9.For a minimum total operating cost,the split ratio needs to be optimized.The constraints were considered for the feasible design vari-ables,which were obtained by solving the optimization.Constraints on heat and mass balance,on a theoretical model for unit operation,and on phase equilibrium were taken into account using process modeling.The compression ratio of each stage should change in the range from 1.5to 3.5shown by Eqs.(7)and (8).In addition,the discharge pressure of the BOG compressor shouldtheFig.7.The superstructure of the retro fitdesign.Fig.8.The recondensationpressure.Fig.9.The split ratio of the high-pressure LNG stream to the BOG cooler (S 1),the BOG compressor intercooler (S 2),and the HP compressor intercooler (S 3).C.Park et al./Energy 44(2012)69e 7874same the recondensation pressure,which was already determined,and the discharge pressure of the HP compressor should be 76kg/cm 2of the send-out pressure shown by Eqs.(9)and (10).The split of the high-pressure stream should remain in the range from 0to 1shown by Eq.(11).The summation of the split ratio should become one shown by Eq.(12).When the BOG stream moves to the second stage of the compressors,the phase of this stream should remain in the vapor state.The vapor fraction (vf B ,vf H )of the BOG stream,which heads for the second stage of the compressors,should be maintained at one shown by Eqs.(13)and (14).In addition,the temperature difference,which are correlated in terms of heat exchanger area,split ratio,heat capacity of BOG (C BOG )and LNG (C LNG ),between the BOG stream and the high-pressure LNG stream in the BOG cooler (D T 1),in the BOG compressor intercooler (D T 2),and the HP compressor intercooler in (D T 3)should be higher than the minimum approach temperature (D T min )shown by Eq.(15).1:5 r Bi 3:5;i ¼1;2(7)1:5 r Hi 3:5;i ¼1;2(8)1:1Âr B1Âr B2¼P R (9)P R Âr H1Âr H2¼74:53(10)0 s i 1;i ¼1;2;3(11)Xs i ¼1;i ¼1;2;3(12)vf B ðP R ;r B1;A 2;s 2Þ¼1(13)vf H ðP R ;r H1;A 3;s 3Þ¼1(14)D T i ðA i ;s i ;C BOG ;C LNG Þ!D T min ;i ¼1;2;3(15)4.ResultsThe optimization problem formulated in chapter 3was solved with user de fined non-linear programming in order to find the optimal design variables that can maximize the VP of the proposed design.parison to the base designAs presented in Table 4,a decrease in the recondensation pressure (from 9.81bar to 5.56bar)reduced the operating cost of the BOG compressor.Additionally in the proposed design,the BOG stream was totally condensed in the recondenser.Since there was no BOG rate for the HP compressor,the HP compressor was not put into operation,and the operating cost of the HP compressor became zero.Due to the above reason,the split ratio of the HP compressor inter-cooler and heat transfer area became zero in the optimization results.In this study,the proposed design was based on the minimum send-out case.If the BOG stream was totally condensed through the recondenser in the minimum send-out case in which the least amount of the LNG stream is used for the condensation,any case of the proposed design needs not to include the HP compressor.Thus,in the proposed design,the capital costs were reduced by eliminating the HP compressor unit,shown in Fig.10.The operating costs of the base design and proposed design are shown in Fig.11.Due to the decrease in the recondensation pressure and increase in the compressor ef ficiency by intercooling,the operating cost of the BOG compressor was reduced.Since the BOG stream was totally condensed,the HP compressor was not put into operation and the operating cost of the HP compressor became zero.The proposed design totally reduced the energy cost of 36.84%in the minimum send-out case.Table 4A comparison of the design variables.VariableBasic design Proposed design Recondensation pressure (P R ),bar 9.81 5.56Area of BOG cooler (A 1),m 2095.46Area of BOG comp.intercooler (A 2),m 2096.70Area of HP comp.intercooler (A 3),m 20e Pressure ratio of BOG comp.(r B1) 2.86 2.00Pressure ratio of BOG comp.(r B2) 2.86 2.35Pressure ratio of HP comp.(r H1) 2.76e Pressure ratio of HP comp.(r H2) 2.76eSplit ratio to BOG cooler (s 1)00.589Split ratio to BOG comp.intercooler (s 2)00Split ratio to HP Comp.intercooler (s 3)0.411Fig.10.The superstructure of the proposed design.C.Park et al./Energy 44(2012)69e 78754.2.Sensitivity analysisIn order to find the effect of the LNG send-out rate,which changes due to changes in the seasons and time,the optimal LNG split ratio for the BOG cooler was determined by increasing LNG send-out rate from the minimum rate to the maximum rate [23].Table 5shows the operating costs as the split ratio for the BOG cooler and the LNG send-out rate change.At a send-out rate of 400,000kg/h,the operating costs due to the changing split ratio are shown in Fig.12.When the split ratio ranges from 0.2to 0.8,the split ratio had little effect on the operating costs.The optimal split ratio was determined for each send-out rate based on the results of the sensitivity analysis shown in Table 6.The energy saving cost was calculated by subtracting operating cost of the proposed design,in which the send-out rate and split ratio changed,from the operating cost of the base design,in which the send-out rate changed.Fig.13presents the energy saving ratio and cost according to the send-out rate at the optimal split ratio.The energysavingFig.11.A comparison of operating costs.Table 5Total operating cost according to the split ratio and send-out rate.Send-out flow rate (kg/h)Split ratio (for BOG compressor intercooler)0.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9Total operating cost (kW)2,20,0003136.843116.533112.613111.083111.103111.253111.533112.233115.722,40,0003240.403222.243218.653217.333217.333217.453217.693218.283221.192,60,0003346.043329.713326.443325.293325.283325.343325.543326.053328.502,80,0003453.393438.643435.623434.643434.613434.613434.763435.183437.273,00,0003561.803548.383545.623544.863544.903544.973545.103545.433547.223,20,0003671.053658.773656.243655.663655.763655.903656.133656.573658.143,40,0003781.043769.763767.433767.013767.163767.373767.693768.283769.853,60,0003891.753881.353879.203878.933879.113879.383879.793880.513882.243,80,0004003.133993.513991.513991.373991.593991.913992.393993.223995.134,00,0004115.114106.174104.304104.294104.544104.904105.444106.374108.446,00,0005256.245251.265250.645250.905251.245251.735252.495253.825256.718,00,0006416.526413.196413.276413.506413.816414.276414.996416.276419.2310,00,0007584.437582.297582.447582.647582.927583.327583.967585.127587.9212,00,0008756.088754.758754.888755.058755.298755.648756.208757.248759.8314,00,0009929.839929.049929.169929.319929.529929.839930.339931.269933.64Fig.12.The operating costs due to the changing split ratio at send-out rate of 400,000kg/h.Table 6The optimal split ratio according to the send-out rate.Send-out flow rate(kg/h)Optimal split ratio Energy saving ratio (%)2,20,0000.4831.92,40,0000.4631.42,60,0000.4830.92,80,0000.5230.43,00,0000.4329.93,20,0000.4429.43,40,0000.4629.03,60,0000.3928.53,80,0000.4028.14,00,0000.3627.76,00,0000.3824.08,00,0000.2721.310,00,0000.2819.212,00,0000.2517.614,00,0000.2616.3C.Park et al./Energy 44(2012)69e 7876。
石油贸易英语词汇的语篇分析说明书
Open Access Library Journal2023, Volume 10, e10352ISSN Online: 2333-9721ISSN Print: 2333-9705Lexical Features of Oil Trade English from the Perspective of Skopos TheoryYanxia Qin, Xi GengSchool of Foreign Languages, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an, ChinaAbstractOil interacts with the world economy, and oil trade between countries is fre-quent. The guiding theory of this paper is Skopos theory, which is combinedwith the current situation of oil trade development and analyzes the oil tradeEnglish lexical features based on the book Oil Trading Manual. I t is foundthat oil trade English vocabulary has the features of professionalism, concise-ness, numeral and interdisciplinarity. The analysis of oil trade English lexicalfeatures aims to enrich the application field of oil trade English translation,provide a reference for similar text translation, and better promote oil tradeand cooperation.Subject AreasLinguisticsKeywordsSkopos Theory, Oil Trade English, Lexical Features1. 引言当今世界正处于百年未有之大变局中，在经济全球化的时代背景下，有着“工业的血液”之称的石油无处不在，成为不可或缺的存在。
原油文献翻译
原油⽂献翻译橄榄油原油中的酚醛成分对其精炼的影响Aranzazu García, Ma Victoria Ruiz-Méndez, Concepción Romero, and Manuel Brenes*脂肪研究所（⾼级科学研究理事会）41012，塞维利亚，西班⽛摘要：显然，初榨橄榄油会有⼀些损耗，尽管其中很⼤⼀部分橄榄油⽣产需要经过精炼之后,让它可以⾷⽤。
酚类化合物等物质精炼过程中得以消除，现在的⼯作是以采⽤⾼效液相⾊谱法测定为特点，研究了不同的精炼步骤的演化。
完全精炼⼯艺从原油中消除了⼤部分的酚醛，但是在单个化合物的运动中还是能够观测到酚醛。
在碱处理法中，苯⼆酚（羟基酪醇，苯邻⼆酚，醋酸）和类黄酮（⽊樨草素和芹黄素）⾸先被消除，原油中的酪醇和对⼄基苯酚在除臭⼯艺中才会消除。
⼤部分的酚类化合物在精炼副产物中被发现，⽐如油脂和除臭馏分油。
在随后的副产物馏分中，酪醇及对⼄基苯酚的浓度分别达到149mg/kg,3720mg/kg.如此⾼浓度的对⼄基苯酚，它的强烈刺激性⽓味会影响除臭馏分的进⼀步加⼯处理，因此在决定让他们变成什么产物的时候必须考虑这个因素。
通过增加这个新步骤，能够最⼤限度地将羟基酪醇和对羟苯基⼄醇从油⽔中分离出来，使得羟基酪醇的浓度达到1400mg/kg可以实现。
论⽂页码在JAOCS J11011 83,159 - 164(2006年2⽉)。
关键词：对⼄基苯酚，羟基酪醇，橄榄油，酚类化合物，精炼，对羟苯基⼄醇通过机械系统压榨获得的橄榄油是⼀种以其原始形式消耗掉的⾷品。
然⽽，其中很⼤⼀部分橄榄油是产⽣必须被提炼,让它可以⾷⽤。
⽬前，三种类型的橄榄油⽤来精炼：林顿橄榄油、橄榄渣油、⼆次离⼼橄榄油。
林顿橄榄油是通过机械⽅式从⽔果中获取的，但是其含有不可取的结构以及化学特性使得它不适合⽤来使⽤。
同样地，通过光学离⼼系统获取并⽤来抽取橄榄油的橄榄黏胶可以储存数⽉之久，然后⽤来通过化学提取⽅式提取出⼰烷⽤来⽣产传统的橄榄渣油，或者把它经过⼆次离⼼分离获得⼆次离⼼橄榄油。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
石油及石油产品分析文摘译文李 岩 刘载诗 罗远泉(茂名商检局) 燃烧残渣的化学分析 在所有燃烧残余物中,约有20%被认为源于燃烧质,化学分析试图确定残渣中残留的物质是否已引起或加速燃烧。
样品准备时应十分细心,因为某些物质仍残留有可能的液体助燃剂,这些物质可能会产生大量热解物质。
热解物质中含有的由有机聚合物产生的挥发烃、石油蒸馏物和加速剂(两者可以从C值及主要组分加以区别)可用GC测量。
即使是在蒸发90%以后仍可以将馏分分类。
但这种方法不适用于蒸发后的汽油组成的分析,GC-M S 对烷烃、烷基化苯、环烷烃、1,2-二氢化茚及萘呈现相当均一的响应。
该文对有关燃烧残余物分析的实验室的指导原则作了概述,同时讨论了与实验室间试验程序有关的问题。
(AA,1997,3E58)用傅里叶变换近红外光谱法和傅里叶变换喇曼光谱法判别和量化汽油安砝中的氧饱和物 该文研究了氧含量为2%和2.7%(重量)时四种常见氧饱和汽油添加剂-乙醇、甲基叔丁基醚、乙基叔丁基醚和叔戊基甲基醚的标准物质(NIST)。
同时讨论了通过分析每一标准物质未开启安瓿的方式检测外逸物的方法。
红外分析采用钨(W)光源和一台Ge(锗)探测器,扫描范围12000-5500cm-1,得到4cm-1处16co-added 谱图。
为得到安瓿扩散及穿透平均特性,需以600rpm的转速旋转样品。
FT拉曼光谱法使用钕一钇铝石榴石激光器,波长1064nm,在安瓿内聚焦1-2mm。
两种方法均用偏最小2乘式多元统计方法校准。
两种方法均可在0.1%(重量百分比)氧含量范围内识别并量化添加剂。
这一精度足可以将样品排除在外。
分析时也可以将两种方法组合起来使用。
(AA,1997,3E59)原油和水中C0-C3烃基酚的测定 将油(0.5ml)用15 g2-萘酚(内部标准)处理,然后直接放入一不带盖C18-硅石(NEC)盒中。
用4.5ml轻石油或己烷洗涤,接着用5m l50%甲醇水溶液洗涤。
洗出物用相同的溶剂稀释到10m l。
还有一种方法是:用10ml1M NaOH溶液萃取石油(0.5ml),然后分析碱性萃取液。
洗出液或萃取液放到一10 m哈密顿(Ham ilto n)PRP-1柱(15cm×4.1m m内烃)中。
用乙腈/0.1M醋酸钠(1∶5)洗涤(每分钟2m l),用NaOH将pH值调节到11.5,检测是在0.6V的电压下用玻璃C 电极对Ag/Ag Cl电极进行。
烷基酚也是先萃取,然后转换成T MS(四甲基硅烷)衍生物,再在一敷有0.25 mDB-5的比色柱(30m×0.32m m 内径)上用GC进行分析。
用H2作载气,流量2毫升/分。
文中指明了温度编程情况,使用FID。
分析也可以在0.17 m H P-1柱(25m×0. 25mm内径)上进行,采用质谱仪检测。
SPE法比碱萃取法速度快,回收率≤73.7%,而RSD(相对标准误差)为4.3%-8.6%(n=6)。
对于隔离的异构体而言,两种方法呈现的性能都欠佳, HPLC(高效薄层色谱法)适合于筛选种类繁多的样品。
但在各种异构体要分别量化时,以用GC法为宜。
(A A,1997,3E60)蒸气发生傅里叶变换红外光谱法测定汽油中的苯、甲苯和叔丁基甲基醚 汽油(1 l)在90℃时注入一电加热反应器中,产生的蒸汽用400ml/分流量的N2送入IR(红外)多通道汽室,记录下以时间为变量的1600-500cm-2下的FTIR(傅里叶变换红外)谱图。
这样就可以同时确定苯、甲苯及叔丁基甲基醚(I)。
格雷姆—斯密・60・译自(英)Analytical Abstr acts, 周锦帆 校特读数用于算出相应于每一种被分析物在选定的波数下Chemig ram高度及面积大小。
以己烷为溶剂的标准溶液用于确立合适的基准线,而苯和甲苯的干扰忽略不计。
回收是定量的。
检测范围:甲苯0.2-0.5%,苯:0.02-0.08%,I 0.05%-0.06%,所得结果与用GC法及FTIR 参照法相吻合。
(AA,1997,3E61)用GC-M S法测定汽车汽油中MT BE(甲基叔丁基醚) 将油燃料(5m l)与1ml丙二醇混合,摇匀。
取一份0.5 l溶液注入一涂了M S-5 (0.25 m)的色谱柱(30m×0.25m内径)中,温度由40℃(保持5分钟)逐步升到220℃(保持1分钟),升温速度20℃/分。
甲基叔丁基醚的检测在M/Z45和M/Z73.1下,以单离子监测方式进行。
相对误差<1%。
(AA,1997,3E62)用′H核磁共振光谱仪分析汽油 取样品100 l,稀释在400 l0.25M二甲基草酸的三氯乙烷和四甲基硅溶液中。
在励磁量为4.69T或9.39T时记录NM R(核磁共振)谱图。
频率分别是200.13MHZ和399.95M HZ。
可对140种汽油中的甲醇,甲基叔丁基醚,苯及芳烃作定量分析。
确定了12种结构族,并用于从它们的NMR 谱图中的积分值,采用多重线性回归法计算出辛烷值。
结果与GC法及萤光指示剂吸附法结果相当。
本方法可用于设计在法规许可的范围内具有最佳的辛烷值和评烷敏感度特性的汽油组成。
(AA,1997,3E63)石油及其产品试验方法 (第143部分.原油及油产品的戊烷可溶性沥清质的测定) 将样品与戊烷混合,回流1小时,在暗处存放90-150分钟,将混合物过滤,在回流萃取器中用热戊烷洗涤以除去残渣中的蜡质。
沥青质溶解在热戊烷中,从而与无机物分离、用蒸发的方法除去甲苯,称残余物的重量。
本方法适用于沥青含量在0.5-30%的瓦斯油、柴油、燃料油、润滑油、沥青和原油(温度最高可达260℃)。
(AA,1997, 3E64)石油及其产品试验方法*(第4部分.石油产品-灰分的测定) 样品(最多100g,能得到20m g灰分即可)放入坩锅中,点火及加热到只有灰分和C(碳)残存下来为止。
若有必要,可用丙二醇/甲苯混合物除水。
在775℃的隔焰炉上加热,使残余物转化为灰分。
然后冷却,称重。
本方法适用于馏出液、残余燃料油、原油、润滑油、石蜡及其他灰量在0.001-0.18%的石油产品,但不适用于那些含会产生灰分的添加剂的产品。
方法的重现性≤0.007%。
(AA,1997,3E65)石油及其产品试验方法*(第163部分.石油产品—润滑油和添加剂—硫酸盐灰分的测定) 取样品(≤80克)放入坩埚中,点火燃烧直到只有灰分和碳残存在为止,若需要可加入丙二醇/甲苯除去水。
冷却后的残余物在775℃下与硫酸一起加热以使C(碳)氧化。
将生成的灰冷却,用硫酸处理,再在775℃下再加热30分钟,冷却、称重。
本方法适用于含添加剂的润滑油和在调合中使用的添加剂。
最小可检测到0.005%的硫酸盐灰分。
文中介绍了实验室之间试验的精度数据。
(AA,1997,3E66)石油及其产品试验方法*(第413部分,石油产品-液体燃料中的少量钒-灰化后用无焰原子吸收光谱法测定) 样品(2-4克)放入坩埚中,同时放入0.4克S(硫)或1克二甲苯磺酸,然后灼烧,用隔焰炉在500℃的温度下加热1小时以上,冷却到60-70℃后,加入3m l1M盐酸溶液,将样品在60-70℃温度下加热30分钟后冷却,称重。
用无焰雾化器,采用A AS(原子吸收光谱法)即可测定相应溶液中的钒。
合适的分析手续为:在100℃的温度下干燥30秒,700℃的温度下焚烧10秒,作石墨管在2700℃温度下原子20秒,或用碳棒原子器,在2400℃温度下原子3秒。
本方法适用于含钒量为0.4-4mg/ kg的燃气透平燃料和民用燃料油。
(AA,1997, 3E67)石油及其产品的试验方法*(第346部分,测定未使用过的润滑油基础和不含沥青质的石油馏分中的多环芳烃-二甲基亚砜萃取折射指数法) 取样品(3.85-4.15克)与45m l环已烷及100ml事先已用环已烷平衡的DM SO(二甲・61・ 为英国标准(BS)方法。
基亚砜)混和摇动,在23℃温度下摇动萃取1分钟,上层用DM SO再萃取,收集的DMSO萃取液用NaCl水溶液洗涤。
放置于无水Na2SO4上干燥并在真空条件下蒸发干燥。
将残余物称重,测量RI(折射指数)以测定芳香度。
本方法适用于PAH(多环芳烃)含量在1-15%(质量百分比)的新的不含添加剂且常压沸点≥300℃的润滑油基础油。
(AA,1997,3E68)燃料气分析*(第11部分.非制成气方法11.5节.在线分析系统性能评估) 该文描述确定天燃气的一种分析系统是否令人满意的方法,该方法涉及分析试验气体。
试验气体的组成范围比事先给该系统规定的范围更广。
系统效率、重现性、与(被)分析物与浓度间的响应关系,以及组份间干扰也作了评估。
建议试验在至少三种单独的情况下进行。
该文对准确度未作评估。
(AA,1997,3E69)石油及相关产品1997分析和试验标准方法(书) (英国)石油学会出版:John Wileg and Sons有限公司,书作者为W.Sussex Chichester,1997年。
书号(英国):ISBN 0471970948.3122页(两册),定价:275.00英镑。
(AA,1997,3E70)用气敏传感器响应的中枢网各分析方法作燃料鉴别 取2 l喷气式发动机燃料样品通过GC注入口,在约100℃的温度下注入空气流(15 l/m in)中,再注入一装有八个气敏传感器和一个混合器推进器的PVC气室中。
用多通道控制单元监测每一传感器的阻抗,每个传感器的阻抗事先已设定在苯、甲苯、柴油、汽油,JP-4航空燃料、JP-5航空燃料、乙苯和燃料油的合适水平上。
将每一检测器的响应值平均、存储以作为对每种样品的总响应值。
观察每个总响应值即可了解陈列对六种不同燃料类型中的五种燃料的响应的特性模式。
这一点已从对整套的数据的中枢网络分折中得到确认。
起初燃料被分离到五组(即JP-4,JP-5,JP-7,航空燃料和JP-8/Jet A混合组)中的一组。
在第二步中,混合组中的燃料再被分离到JP-8组或Jet A组中。
(AA, 1997,4E43)用在线NIR(近红外)光谱仪对油砂浆作定量分析 在工艺物流线上的某点将油砂与热水及NaOH混合,在混合点下游把一光纤束探头装入一直径为2.5cm的管子的管壁内,探头的蓝宝石窗口与管内壁齐平,扩散反射光谱图被连续自动地记录下来,每一光谱图为十次依次相连的扫描之和与一参考谱图1100-2300nm)之比。
工艺物流的状况由最初两个主组分量的仪器记录来显示。
前两个主分量会根据矿物类型和水含量的不同而被聚集。
同时还能指示工艺过程从稳定状态始的变化以及过程稳定状态之间的变化。
(AA,1997,4E44)用高效液相色谱法对瓦斯油馏分作组成研究 瓦斯油馏分(250-370℃)溶解在正已烷中,分几批(每批40 l)在 -Bondapak氨基分析柱(30cm×3.9mm内径)式半制备柱(30cm×7. 8m m内径)或Porasil(多孔硅胶珠)柱(30cm×7.8m m内径)上以正已烷为流动相(1ml/min)进行分析,,并作分光光度和折射检测。