跨文化交流Communication

CommunicationIt is a process of transferring information from one entity to another. Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules.Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs".Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channeled and imparted by a sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. All forms of communication require a sender, a message, and an intended recipient; however the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication in order for the act of communication to occur.Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speech, song, and tone of voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, through media, i.e., pictures, graphics and sound, and writing.Human communicationHuman spoken and written languages can be described as a system of symbols and the grammars can be described as rules by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" is also used to refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. There are thousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions.Non-Verbal communicationNon-Verbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, as well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral communication. Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person's day to day life, from employment to romantic engagements.Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress.Likewise, written texts have Non-Verbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols, such as :), used to convey emotional content in written or message form.Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel from person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can communicate directly in this way without body language, voice tonality or words.Categories and Features of Non-Verbal CommunicationG. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:∙Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.∙Aesthetic.This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.∙Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.∙Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols.Static Features∙Distance.The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a Non-Verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.∙Orientation.People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.∙Posture.Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or erect? Are our legscrossed or our arms folded? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.∙Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.Dynamic Features∙Facial Expressions.A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.∙Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned and idiosyncratic.∙Looking.A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.Visual communicationVisual communication is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two dimensional(See also Three dimensional) images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, color and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through visual form.Understanding the Field of CommunicationThe field of communication is typically broken into three distinct camps: human communication, mass communications, and communication disorders.Human Communication or Communication Studies is the study of how individuals communicate. Some examples of the distinct areas that human communication scholars study are:∙Interpersonal Communication∙Organizational Communication∙Oral Communication∙Small Group Communication∙Intercultural Communication∙Nonviolent Communication∙Conflict∙Rhetoric∙Public Speaking∙Media and Communications PsychologyExamples of Mass Communications include:∙Mass communication∙Graphic communication∙Science communication∙Strategic Communication∙Superluminal communication∙Technical communication∙Public relations∙Broadcast Media∙Journalism∙Media and Communications PsychologyExamples of Communication Disorders include:∙Facilitated Communication∙Impairment of Language Modality∙Speech DisordersOral communicationOral communication is a process whereby information is transferred from a sender to receiver; in general communication is usually transferred by both verbal means and visual aid throughout the process. The receiver could be an individual person, a group of persons or even an audience.There are a few of oral communication types: discussion, speeches, presentations, etc. However, often when you communicate face to face the body language and your voice tonality has a bigger impact than the actual words that you are saying. "Communication is 55% body language, 38% tone of voice, 7% content of words", the so-called "7%-38%-55% rule”. For example, a person saying "I'm delighted to meet you" while mumbling, hunched over, and looking away will be interpreted as insincere.You can notice that the content or the word that you are using is not the determining part of a good communication. The “how you say it” has a major impact on the receiver. You have to capture the attention of the audience and connect with them. For example, two persons saying the same joke, one of them could make the audience die laughing related to his good body language and tone of voice. However, the second person that has the exact same words could make the audience stare at one another.In an oral communication, it is possible to have visual aid helping you to provide more precise information. Often enough, we use a presentation program in presentations related to our speech to facilitate or enhance the communication process.Written CommunicationW ritten communication is writing the words which you want to communicate. Good written communication is essential for business purposes. Written communication is practiced in many different languages. E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some of the ways of using written communication in business. The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is communicated to the second party to whom the communication is intended. This is one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of communication in business activity. Written communication is used not only in business but also for informal communication purposes. Mobile SMS is an example of informal written communication.。