英语语言学教程Chapter5
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第五章笔记和习题
Chapter 5 Semantics⏹Semantics----the study of language meaning.⏹Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studiesmeaning.⏹Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis ofconventional meanings in words and sentences out of context.⏹Meaning is central to the study of communication.⏹Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist)⏹ 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part ofwhat language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.⏹ 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embracesthe properties of the referent, peripheral⏹ 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of alinguistic expression⏹ 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writertowards what is referred to⏹ 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ⏹Taboos⏹ 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words whichtend to co-occur with it⏹(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, lessstable, more culture-specific )7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order⏹What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.Some views concerning the study of meaning⏹Naming theory (Plato)⏹The conceptualist view⏹Contextualism (Bloomfield)⏹BehaviorismNaming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things.The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things⏹Limitations:1) Applicable to nouns only.2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…The conceptualist view⏹The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.⏹⏹The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;⏹Thought or reference refers to concept.⏹The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.⏹Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:⏹Situational context: spatiotemporal situation⏹Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s c o-occurrence or collocation.⏹For example, “black” in black hair& black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.calls forth in the hearer⏹Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.⏹The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________RLexical meaning⏹Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.⏹Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.⏹Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between thelinguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.⏹Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspects of meaning.⏹Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world. But the referentialtheory fails to account for certain kinds of linguistic expression.⏹Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the real world, such as the words dragon, phoenix,unicorn, and mermaid.⏹It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.⏹Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round triangle although there is no such graph.⏹Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mental representation, the association withsomething in t he speaker’s or hearer’s mind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called the representational approach.Note:⏹Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star, rising sun in the morning and the sunset at dusk.Major sense relations⏹Synonymy, Antonymy, Polysemy, Homonymy, HyponymySynonymy⏹Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline，lift/elevator, flat/apartment…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence; gentleman/guy…3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice, attract/seduce4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,…◆Synonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesive device. In order to avoidrepetition the writer/speaker needs to use a synonym to replace a word in the previous co-text whenhe/she wants to continue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to create cohesion ofthe text.Antonymy◆Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.⏹Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …⏹Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …⏹Relational/ Reversal opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, … Gradable antonyms⏹Gradable antonyms ----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …Complementary antonyms⏹Complementary antonyms ----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …⏹Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use. Oxymoron and antithesis based onantonymy. Gradable antonyms may give rise to fuzziness.Polysemy⏹Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean:⏹A piece of furniture⏹All the people seated at a table⏹The food that is put on a table⏹A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.⏹Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.Homonymy⏹Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.⏹Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …⏹Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …⏹Complete/full homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …⏹Note: Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.⏹A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word (the etymology of the word); while complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.Hyponymy⏹Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.⏹Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.⏹Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.⏹Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.Hyponymy⏹Superordinate: flower⏹Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, …⏹Superordinate: furniture⏹Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …⏹This kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchical work.Sense relations between sentences⏹(1) X is synonymous with Y⏹(2) X is inconsistent with Y⏹(3) X entails Y⏹(4) X presupposes Y⏹(5) X is a contradiction⏹(6) X is semantically anomalousX is synonymous with Y⏹X: He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never got married all his life.⏹X: The boy killed the cat.Y: The cat was killed by the boy.⏹If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.X is inconsistent with Y⏹X: He is single.⏹Y: He has a wife.⏹X: This is my first visit to Beijing.⏹Y: I have been to Beijing twice.⏹If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.X entails Y⏹X: John married a blond heiress.⏹Y: John married a blond.⏹X: Marry has been to Beijing.⏹Y: Marry has been to China.⏹Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.⏹If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y⏹X: His bike needs repairing.⏹Y: He has a bike.⏹Paul has given up smoking.⏹Paul once smoked.⏹If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.X is a contradiction⏹*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.⏹*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.X is semantically anomalous⏹*The man is pregnant.⏹*The table has bad intentions.⏹*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.⏹Analysis of meaning :⏹Componential analysis⏹Predication analysis⏹Componential analysis⏹Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⏹Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⏹Father: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT →PARENT⏹Daughter: +HUMAN –MALE 0ADULT ←PARENTPredication analysis⏹1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g “The dog bites the man”is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.⏹2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g.⏹*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.⏹*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.⏹Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.⏹Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).⏹Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.⏹An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence. ⏹A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.⏹According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:⏹One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …⏹Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,…⏹Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …⏹No-place predication: It is hot.Predication analysis⏹Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE)⏹The tree grows well.→ TREE (GROW)⏹The kids like apples.→ KIDS (LIKE) APPLE⏹I sent him a letter.→ I (SEND) HIM LETTERSupplementary Exercises to Chapter 5 SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.13. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD.behaviourism23. Which of the following is not true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.24. “Can I borrow your bike?” _______ “ You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis26. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world ofexperience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense28. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresIV. Define the following terms:31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homophones 38. Homographs39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy 41.antonymy 42 componential analysis43.grammatical meaning 44. predication45. Argument 46. predicate47. Two-place predicationV. Answer the following questions:48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values?51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values?52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?Suggested answers to supplementary exercises:IV. Define the following terms:31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised.33. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience34. Synonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.37. homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones38. homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided intomeaning components, which are called semantic features.43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.44. predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.45. argument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.46. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.Answer the following questions:48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example;(A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog.If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings.As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another.49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.Componential analysis, proposed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man” is ana lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE]50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values?Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y:X: He has been to France.Y: He has been to Europe.In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe.If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France.If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France.Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X.The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows:Suppose there are two sentences X and YX: John' s bike needs repairing.Y: John has a bike.If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike.If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values?In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, thereforeX is synonymous with Ye.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never married all his life.Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Ye.g. X: John is married.Y: John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups.i. Dialectal synonymsThey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. For examples:British English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorThen dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect.ii. Stylistic synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still others are neutral in style. For example:old man, daddy, dad, father, male parentchap, pal, friend, companioniii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningThey are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For example, “collaborator”and “accomplice”are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in doing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act.iv. Collocational synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different prepositions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonymsSemantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. "53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ?One of the oldest was the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context.For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs:The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.(seal meaning an aquatic mammal)The seal could not be found. The king became worried.(seal meaning the king's stamp)Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it。
《语言学教程》 chapter 5 Meaning
The meaning of utterances:
– The cheque fluttered to the floor like a bird with a broken
wing…
Definition
Semantics is the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
(5) Reflected meaning
Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.
When you hear „click the mouse twice‟, you think of Jerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.
Key points
Learn:
– The seven different meanings of meaning – Difference between reference and concept
语言学教程Chapter5-Semantics
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5.2.2 The conceptualist view
Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning Connotative meaning Social meaning Associative Affective meaning Meaning Reflected meaning Collocative meaning Thematic meaning
(2) Connotative meaning
The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.
The philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real world which they refer to, and in
Involving the ‘real world’ experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it. Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.
英语语言学五课件
Associative Meaning （联想意义）
• Thematic meaning （主位意义）
英语语言学五
1) Conceptual meaning——central part of meaning
英语语言学五
One problem of this theory is that when we explain the meaning of desk by pointing
to the thing it refers to, we do not mean a desk must be of the particular size, shape, color and material as the desk we are pointing to at the moment of speaking. We are using this particular desk as an example, of something more general. That is, there is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our
英语语言学五
5.1 Meanings of “meaning”
One difficulty in the study of MEANING is that the word “meaning” itself has different meanings.
英语语言学教程课后答案第五章
英语语言学教程课后答案第五章1、E-mail is _______ than express mail, so I usually email my friends. [单选题] *A. fastB. faster(正确答案)C. the fastestD. more faster2、I hope Tom will arrive _______ to attend the meeting. [单选题] *A. in timesB. on time(正确答案)C. at timesD. from time to time3、We’re proud that China _______ stronger and stronger these years. [单选题] *A. will becomeB. becameC. is becoming(正确答案)D. was becoming4、72．I really don’t know how to thank you , but for your help, I （）my lost necklace．[单选题] *A.couldn’t have found(正确答案)B.mustn’t have foundC.couldn’t findD.wouldn’t find5、______ visitors came to take photos of Hongyandong during the holiday. [单选题] *A. ThousandB. Thousand ofC. ThousandsD. Thousands of(正确答案)6、I’ve _______ a job interview today. [单选题] *A. haveB. had(正确答案)C. hasD. have gone to7、82．—Is there a bookshop near here?—Yes. Walk ________ the road for five minutes and you'll see one near a big tree. [单选题] *A．toB．along(正确答案)C．ofD．about8、John suggest _____ anything about it until they found out more facts. [单选题] *A not to sayB. not sayC to say notD not saying(正确答案)9、He doesn’t feel well. He has a _______ nose. [单选题] *A. runingB. rainingC. runny(正确答案)D. rainy10、His handwriting is better than _____. [单选题] *A. mine(正确答案)B. myC. ID. me11、—______ Tom play the piano?—Yes, very well. （）[单选题] *A. Can(正确答案)B. MayC. MustD. Should12、Our teacher was very happy because _______ failed the exam. [单选题] *A. somebodyB. anybodyC. nobody(正确答案)D. everybody13、We got up early this morning and took a long walk after breakfast. We walked _____ the business section of the city. [单选题] *A. amongB. betweenC. through(正确答案)D. upon14、--Do you have a _______?--Yes, I _______ at a clothes store. [单选题] *A. work; workB. work; jobC. job; jobD. job; work(正确答案)15、( ). I’m _____ in that ______ film [单选题] *A. interesting interestedB. interested interesting(正确答案)C. interested interestedD. interesting interesting16、The teachers don't make us wear a school uniform and we can wear _____ we like. [单选题] *A. anyB. thatC. asD. what(正确答案)17、Study hard, ______ you won’t pass the exam. [单选题] *A. or(正确答案)B. andC. butD. if18、89．The blackboard is ________ the classroom. [单选题] *A．nextB．betweenC．in front ofD．in the front of(正确答案)19、22．______ is convenient to travel between Pudong and Puxi now. [单选题] * A．It(正确答案)B．ThisC．ThatD．What20、The book is very _______. I’ve read it twice. [单选题] *A. interestB. interestedC. interesting(正确答案)D. interests21、25．A watch is important in our life. It is used for ______ the time. [单选题] * A．telling (正确答案)B．sayingC．speakingD．holding22、This seat is vacant and you can take it. [单选题] *A. 干净的B. 没人的(正确答案)C. 舒适的D. 前排的23、I couldn’t find Peter,_____did I know where he had gone. [单选题] *A.nor(正确答案)B.eitherC.neverD.as24、Nowadays schools should care for the full _______ of a student’s talents. [单选题] *A. satisfactionB. development(正确答案)C. communicationD. preparation25、What’s your _______ for the coming new year? [单选题] *A. playB. plantC. plan(正确答案)D. plans26、We had a party last month, and it was a lot of fun, so let's have _____ one this month. [单选题] *A.otherB.the otherC.moreD.another(正确答案)27、During the Spring Festival, people in Northern China usually eat _______ as a traditional Chinese food. [单选题] *B. dumplings(正确答案)C. hamburgersD. noodles28、The traffic jams often happen in _______ hours. [单选题] *A. lunchB. workC. leisureD. rush(正确答案)29、一Mary wants to invite you to see the movie today. 一I would rather she（B）me tomorrow. [单选题] *A.tellsB. told (正确答案)C. would tellD. had told30、Could you please ______ why you can’t come to attend the meeting? [单选题] *A. explain(正确答案)B. understandD. reach。
语言学chapter5Grammar
语言学chapter5GrammarChapter 5 Grammar: ClauseI. Teaching aims: Ss are to know the following from this lecture1. How to use immediate constituents (IC) analysis to analyze sentences2. Clause types3. Grammatical categories4. Semantic roles of clause elementsII. Time distribution: two periods.III. Addressees: the third-year English majors.IIII. Teaching procedure5.1 IntroductionGrammar: syntax and morphology that deals with inflections.Syntax: the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.5.2 Word classes and word order5.2.1 Word classWord class: the formal classification of words that is based on their possible positions in a clause.e.g. nouns, verbs, adverbs (traditionally parts of speech)5.2.2 Word orderPossible positions of words of various classes in a clause are controled by the syntactic rules.e.g. 1) The children slept peacefully.2) *Slept children peacefully the.3) The ideas sleep furiously.4) *Ideas the furiously sleepImmediate constituents (IC) analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. It may be carried out with brackets or vertical bars and shown with tree diagrams.5.3 Clause typesFunctional categories:OBJECTS (O): DIRECT OBJECT (Od)INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi)COMPLEMENT (C):SUBJECT COMPLEMENT(Cs)OBJECT COMPLEMENT (Co)ADVERBIALS (A):SUBJECT-RELATED ADVERBIAL (As)OBJECTED-RELATED ADVERBIAL (Ao)A clause usually belongs to one of the seven major types:SV, SVO, SVCs,SV As, SVOiOd,SVOC, SVOAo.1)The sun is shining. (SV)2)The film bored her. (SVO)3)The house looks nice. (SVCs)4)My room is on the second floor. (SV As)5)His father gives him a birthday gift. (SVOiOd)6)The girl painted the box blue. (SVOCo)7)Your brother put your book on the shelf. (SVOAo)5.4 Grammatical categoriesFor nouns and adjectives:Number◆The English verb also inflects for number, e.g. He speaksEnglish. Inlanguages like French, adjectives and articles have numbers too.◆Two terms of number: singular and plural. Some languages like classicalGreek and Arabic have a third number: dual(双数), which means “both”. And Fijian(斐济语)has a fourth: trial(三数). Chinese is said to have none. 们limited usageGenderGender(性)is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. In English the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature, e.g. actor, actress; hero, heroine. In some languages like French the gender distinctions are grammatical. They may have nothing to do with the sex of the real world entities at all. And all nouns have gender distinctions whether they refer to animate entities or not.CaseCase(格) is prominent in the grammar of Latin. It has six distinctions of nominative(主格), vocative(呼格), accusative(宾格), genitive(属格), dative(与格)and ablative(离格). In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative(I, he, she), accusative(me, him, her) and genitive(my, your, his). Nouns have two cases: general(普通格)and genitive(John’s, boy’s).For verbs:Tense: it is deictic(指别的), which indicates time relative to the time of utterance. Aspect: it is not deictic, the time indicated is not relative to the time of utterance, but relative to the time of another event described in the narrative.MoodMood involves a choice between indicative, imperative,subjective forms of the verb.e.g. He is quiet. (indicative)Be quiet. (imperative)I demanded that he be quiet. (subjective)5.5 Half-clauseHalf-clauses are not complete in that the verbs in them do not have tense, mood, person and number differences.Half-clause: nonfinite clause and verbless clauseNonfinite clause1. To-infinitivee.g. It’s all right for me to be here.2. Bare infinitivee.g. Rather than you do the job, I’d prefer to leave it undone.3. -ing participlee.g. My son having left for school, I sat down at the computer to work.4. -ed participlee.g. The project completed, the team moved to another construction site.Verbless clauseVerbless clauses don’t have verbs of any forms and they are more compressed than nonfinite clauses.e.g. Too nervous on the stage, I forgot all I was supposed to say.5.6 Semantic rolesAgent: the animate doer of the actione.g. The terrorist killed the minister.Patient: the participant who is directly affected by the action.e.g. The terrorist was killed.Recipient or beneficiary: the participant who benefits fromthe action.e.g. The terrorist had a gun.Experiencer: the animate participant who experiences a mental state or process.e.g. The terrorist liked guns.。
新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter-5-semantics
16
Note:
Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star,
用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思 维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。 从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。
9
Contextualism (语境论)
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context — elements closely linked with language behavior.
3
Naming theory (Plato)命名论
Words are names or labels for things.
词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。
Limitations:
1) Applicable to nouns only.
2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…
英语语言学教程Chapter5
30
4. Some important figures in the conceptualist view
1. Aristotle（亚里斯多德）: 事情有本质，但 只有语言形式才有意义。本质是能从对象中 分离出来的、又能与词语相结合的东西，本 质即意义。（《解释篇》） 2. Locke（洛克）：文字不是本身就具有意义 的，而在于他们所表示的观念。 3. Frege（弗雷格）（现代语义理论的开创 者）：意义有系统意义（sense）和外指意义 （reference）之分。词语与现实世界不是直 接的关系，还有“系统意义”这一心理表征 的层面，语句的意义就是它所表达的思想或 概念，这是更为基本的意义，是外指意义的 基础。（1892: On Sense and Reference） 31
8
Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or „propositions‟) within a single language. The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Chomsky: A sentence, while grammatical, can be meaningless. A good sentence has to be well-formed not only in nature, but in meaning and logic as well.
戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第5章课件 _Syntax
4.2 Categories范畴
4.2.1 Word-level categories Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language e.g. a sentence a noun phrase a verb
4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structure短语范畴及结构
Definition: Phrases refer to the syntactic units which are built around a certain word category. 围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, called parts of speech) .
Here, word-level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.
Noam Chomsky [ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski] (1928--)
---- He is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician,political commentator and activist, the most influential linguist of the 20th century,and was voted the "world's top public intellectual"(世界顶级公共知识分子) in a 2005 poll. Chomsky has spent most of his career at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he is currently Professor Emeritus.
语言学Chapters5
语言学Chapters5Units 5 SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.F2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.F3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.T4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.F5. Contextuallism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.T6. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.T7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meaning of all its components.F8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.T9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.T10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1. S emantics_______ can be defined as the study of meaning.2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d_irect______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.3. R __eference______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Words that are close in meaning are called s_ynonyms________.5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__omophones________.6. R _elational________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.7. C_omponential________ analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.8. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s_electional______ restrictions, which are constrains on what lexical items can go with what others.9. An a _rgument_______ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.10. According to the n_aming_________ theory of meaning,the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. Multiple Choice1. Which of the following is NOT the concern of “sense”?BA. It is the study of the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. It is the study of what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world.C. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.D. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.2. The meaning relationship between the two words “sheep”and “ewe”is __C______.A. AntonymyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Polysemy3. X: They are going to have another baby.Y: They have a child.The relationship of X and Y is ___D__________.A. synonymousB. inconsistentC. X entailing YD. X presupposing Y4. According to the componential analysis, the words “girl” and “woman” differ in the feature of _______D_____.A. HUMANB. ANIMATEC. MALED. ADULT5. According to predication analysis, the predication of the sentence “It is hot.” is a _____A____.A. no-place predicationB. one-place predicationC. two-place predicationD. three-place predication6. The relationship between “voilet” and “tulip” is _A_______.A. co-hyponymsB. superordinateC. hyponymsD. antonyms7. The relationship between “begin” and “commence” is _B_________.A. Dialectal synonymsB. Stylistic synonymsC. Collocational synonymsD. Semantically different synonyms8. Predication analysis is a way to analyze __D____ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentence9. What is the relationship between the words “color” and “red”? DA. SynonymyB. AntonymyC. PolysemyD. Hyponymy.10. “Fall” and “autumn” are ____A_____ synonyms.A. dialectalB. stylisticC. evaluatively differentD. semantically different11. The four major modes of semantic change are __A______.A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradationB. extension, generalization, elevation and degradationC. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradationD. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation12. The semantic features of the word “girl” can be expressed as ___D___.A. + animate, -human, + adult, + male.B. + animate, + human, -adult, + male.C. +animate, + human, + adult, -male.D. + animate, + human, -adult, -male.13. What is the sentential relation between “He likes skating.” And “ He likes sports.”? BA. Presupposition.B. Entailment.C. Contradiction.D. Hyponymy.14. The pair of words “borrow/lend” is called _A______.A. relational oppositeB. synonymsC. complementaryD. gradable opposites15. “Yellow”has different meanings to Chinese or to western people, that is its ____C_____.A. conceptual meaningB. cognitive meaningC. associative meaningD. stylistic meaning16. X: He has been to France.Y: He has been to Europe.The relationship of X and Y is ___C________.A. synonymousB. insonsistentC. X entailing YD. X presupposing Y17. The ambiguity in “ pass the port” is caused by ___D________.A. lexical itemsB. a grammatical structureC. homonymyD. polysemy18. Componential analysis is a method in the field of ____C___.A. phoneticsB. syntaxC. semanticsD. pragmatics19. “ Big” and “small” are a pair of __B____ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. converse20. We call the relation between “ animal” and “ horse” as ___D____.A. synonymyB. polysemyC. homonymyD. hyponymy21. The word “pen”originally meant “feather used for writing with ink”. Now it refers to any devise used for writing with ink. This is an example of B________.A. degradation of meaningB. broadening of meaningC. narrowing of meaningD. elevation of meaning22. “ Buy” and “sell” form a pair of ____A______.A. converse antonymsB. gradable antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. marked antonyms23. For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology and specifically of the brand of psychology known as ______A____.A. behaviorismB. structuralismC. competenceD. performance24. _____B____ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.A. SenseB. ReferenceC. SymbolD. Thought25. Knight originally meant youth, but now it means a medieval gentlemen soldier. BA. broadeningB. narrowingC. meaning shiftD. class shift26. The classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance mainly illustrates the view of __A________.A. conceptualismB. contextualismC. behaviorismD. structuralism27. The words “rain” and “reign” are _____C______.A. homographsB. complete homonymsC. homophonesD. allophones28. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of ____B____.A. word functionB. word meaningC. word formationD. word system29. _A______ is the major concern of semantics.A. MeaningB. wordsC. Sentence structuresD. Phrase structure rules30. The contexualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from _______B____.A. functionB. contextC. instinctD. observation31. The naming theory is advanced by _____A_______.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth32. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______B______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism33. Which of the following is NOT true? DA. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are not interested in.34. X: Can I borrow your bike?Y: You have a bike.The relationship between X and Y is that _________D__.A. X is synonymous with YB. X is inconsistent with YC. X entails YD. X presupposes Y35. ____B_____ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis36. “ alive” and “dead” are ____C________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above37. __C________refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy38. Words that are close in meaning are called _____D_____.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms39. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _____A_______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features40. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of__D__________.A. referenceB. meaningC. antonymyD. contextIV. Define the following terms1. semantics2. sense3. reference4. synonymy5. homonymy6. homographs7. hyponymy8. antonymy9. componential analysis10. argumentV. Answer the following questions1. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?2. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.3. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values?4. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymousrelation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values?5. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. 1-5 FFTFT 6-10 TFTTTII. 1. Semantics 2. Direct 3. reference 4. synonyms 5. homophones 6. relational 7. Componential 8. selectional 9. argument 10 namingII. 1---5 BCDDA 6-10 ABDDA 11-15 ADBAC 16-20 CDCBD21-25 BAABB 26-30 ACBAB 31-35 ABDDB 36-40 CCDAD。
语言学chapter5
5.2.2 Meaning as concept
Def.: Expressions actually mean the concept or idea associated with them. Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept. [chair]→{chair}(signifier vs signified)
5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions
The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776.(true) The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1976.(false)
Physical
physical/linguistic
linguistic/physical
physical
Problems: the practical stimulus S is not always obvious, so how to identify it?
5.2.4 Meaning as context
I was near that bank yesterday. (near a river or in the Wall Street) seal The context determines the meaning. we can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, the observable context. (5)I don’t like her. She’s tall and thin and moves like a crane. (6)I do like her. She’s tall and thin and moves like a crane. Two kinds of context : a linguistic context and a situational context. the situational context: (i) the setting (formal, informal, …) (ii) the speaker and hearer (relationship, position,…) (iii) the activities they are engaged in at the time (iv) the presence or absence of other participants (relationship, position,…) (v) the presence of various external objects and events British linguist J. R. Firth advanced a contextual view of meaning embodying both linguistic and situational contexts. “we shall know a word by the company it keeps”. Like Bloomfield, he was concerned with reducing meaning to a set of observable features. Unlike Bloomfield, he chose to focus on a more sociological view rather than a psychological one. Problems: what are we actually observing in a context? How many factors are relevant and how many of those are internal to the participants that cannot be easily observed?
语言学Chapter 5
Collocative meaning搭配意义
It refers to the associations a word acquires on account of its mutual expectancy with some other words which tend to occur in its environment. Example: pretty and handsome pretty {girl, boy, woman, flower, etc.} handsome {boy, man, car, vessel, etc.} cows may wander, but may not stroll. one trembles with fear, but quiver with excitement.
Social/stylistic meaning社会/文体意 义
It refers to what language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. It relates to people’s recognition of different dimensions and levels of style with the same language steed (poetic) residence (formal) horse (general) abode (poetic) nag (slang) home (general) gee-gee (baby language) domicile (very formal, official)
thereferentialtheory?古希腊哲学家柏拉图认为语言形式是语言中的一个词语义是它所代表所指示所表示的世界上的实体指称referent
语言学教程Chapter 5
Chapter 5 Meaning5.1 Meanings of “meaning”1. Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in orany possible or imaginary world.2. Connotation: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its centralmeaning.3. Denotation: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomenain the real world or in a fictional or possible word.4. Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974)(1) Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content.(2) Associative meaninga. Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what languagerefers to.b. Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances oflanguage use.c. Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of thespeaker / writer.d. Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with anothersense of the same expression.e. Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with wordswhich tend to occur in the environment of another word.(3) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message isorganized in terms of order and emphasis.5. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.5.2 The referential theory1. The referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word tothe thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.2. The semantic triangle theoryOgden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram, in which the “symbol”refers to the linguist elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent”refers to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought”or “reference”refers to concept or notion. Thus the symbol of a word signifies “things”by virtue of the “concept,” associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The concept thus considered is the meaning of the word. The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made possible only through “concept.”Concept / notionThought / reference----------------------Symbol objectWord stands for realitySignifier referentCode signified5.3 Sense relations5.3.1 SynonymySynonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.5.3.2 AntonymyAntonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.1. Gradable antonymyGradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly adjectives, e.g. good / bad, long / short, big / small, etc.2. Complementary antonymyThe members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic filed completely. Not only theassertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertionof the other, e.g. alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc.3. Converse antonymyConverse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition.They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy / sell, parent /child, above / below, etc.5.3.3 HyponymyHyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is thehyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. Two or more hyponyms of thesame one superordinate are called co-hyponyms, e.g. under flower, there are peony,jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc.,peony is the hyponym of flower,and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. areco-hyponyms.5.4 Componential analysisComponential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. That is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalyzable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. E.g.Boy: [+human][-adult][+male]Girl: [+human][-adult][-male]Son: child (x, y) & male (x)Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x)Take: cause (x, (have (x, y)))Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y)))。
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 5 Semantics
Conceptualist/ Mentalism View(概念论)
• Conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in our mind.
• Mentalism or Conceptualism follows Saussure’s “sign ” theory ,and considers the linguistic sign to consist of a signifier and signified, i.e., a sound image and a concept ,linked by a psychological “associative” bond
新编简明英语语言学教程ch5PPT课件
The inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; It’s abstract and de-contextualized. It’s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.
Jill
Jack
S_________r--------s_________R
When Jill sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical Stimulus, ….
5.3 Lexical meaning
5.3.1 Sense and reference Sense
i. Dialectal synonyms — synonyms used in different regional dialects
British English autumn lift luggage lorry petrol flat windscreen torch
英语语言学Chapter5Meaning6.5Chapter5
英语语言学Chapter5Meaning6.5Chapter5Chapter 5 Meaning1. Define the following terms1) conceptual meaning2) connotation3) sense4) synonymy5) antonymy6) semantic components2. What are the major semantics schools?3. What are the possible categories of synonyms?4. How do you understand semantic change?5. Explain antonyms in details.KEYS TO CHAPTER 51. Define the following terms1) Conceptual meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.2) Connotation is the properties of the entity a word denotes.3) Sense is the abstract properties of an entity.4) The sameness relation is called the sameness relation.5) Antonymy refers to the oppositeness relation.6) Semantic components are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word.2. What are the major semantics schools?1) The naming theory: One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names orlabels for things.2) The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3) Contextualism: It is based on the presumption(假定) that one can derive推导) meaning from or reduce meaning to observable可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context .For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in whichthe sentence occurs:4) BehaviorismThe contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield. He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer". This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism. It is linked with psychological interest.3. What are the possible categories of synonyms?Synonymy can be divided into the following groups:Dialectal synonyms (地域性同义词): Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English. Dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect.Stylistic synonyms文体同义词): Stylistic synonyms are wordswhich have the same meaning but differ in style, or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual , and still others are neutral in style, for example, old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent.Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning :感性或评价方面不同的同义词They are words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about, such as thrifty and miser.Collocational synonyms搭配上的区别的同义词): Some synonyms differ in their collocation. That is, they go together with different words, for example: accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. .-for.Semantically different synonyms(语意上的差别): They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, "astound" implies difficulty in believing.4. How do you understand semantic change?Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. The major types of semantic change are as follows: (1) Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. For example, the word “holiday” was originally used to mean a day of religious significance because it was a “holy day”. T oday everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not. (2) Semantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, the word“liquor” in contemporary English is an alcoholic drink, but it was once synonymous with “liquid”, be it alcoholi c or not. (3) Semantic shift refers to the process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning, e.g. the word “silly”. Quite surprisingly, a “silly” person was a happy person in Old English, and a naive person in Middle English, but a foolish person in Modern English.5. Explain antonyms in details.Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.1) Gradable antonyms渐进性关系反义: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair such as old/young, hot/cold.2) Complementary antonyms完全反义: a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.3) Relational opposites相关对立反义: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.。
语言学教程Chapter 5
Chapter 5 Meaning5.1 Meanings of “meaning”1. Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in orany possible or imaginary world.2. Connotation: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its centralmeaning.3. Denotation: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomenain the real world or in a fictional or possible word.4. Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974)(1) Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content.(2) Associative meaninga. Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what languagerefers to.b. Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances oflanguage use.c. Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of thespeaker / writer.d. Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with anothersense of the same expression.e. Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with wordswhich tend to occur in the environment of another word.(3) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message isorganized in terms of order and emphasis.5. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.5.2 The referential theory1. The referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word tothe thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.2. The semantic triangle theoryOgden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram, in which the “symbol”refers to the linguist elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent”refers to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought”or “reference”refers to concept or notion. Thus the symbol of a word signifies “things”by virtue of the “concept,” associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The concept thus considered is the meaning of the word. The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made possible only through “concept.”Concept / notionThought / reference----------------------Symbol objectWord stands for realitySignifier referentCode signified5.3 Sense relations5.3.1 SynonymySynonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.5.3.2 AntonymyAntonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.1. Gradable antonymyGradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly adjectives, e.g. good / bad, long / short, big / small, etc.2. Complementary antonymyThe members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic filed completely. Not only theassertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertionof the other, e.g. alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc.3. Converse antonymyConverse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition.They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy / sell, parent /child, above / below, etc.5.3.3 HyponymyHyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is thehyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. Two or more hyponyms of thesame one superordinate are called co-hyponyms, e.g. under flower, there are peony,jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc.,peony is the hyponym of flower,and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. areco-hyponyms.5.4 Componential analysisComponential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. That is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalyzable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. E.g.Boy: [+human][-adult][+male]Girl: [+human][-adult][-male]Son: child (x, y) & male (x)Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x)Take: cause (x, (have (x, y)))Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y)))。
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2. Linguistic model of naming theory
Form
object
1. 唯名论（nominalism）：人们用来表示事物的 词，其形式和词所指的事物之间并没有内在的联 系，是约定俗成的。 2. 唯实论（realism）/自然论（naturalism）：在 词和所表示的事物之间存在着一种根本的联系， 词只不过是人们给外部事物所起的自然名称。也 就是说，一个物体叫什么名称，是物体本身具有 某种实际属性决定的。
1. 形式与意义直接相关， 用实线连接。意义通过 符号形式来表达，形式 是语义的载体。 2. 意义是在各观事物的 基础上概括而成的，是 客观事物在头脑中的概 括反映，两者也有直接 联系，用实线连接。 3. 形式和所指之间没有 必然的联系，故而两者 间用虚线连接，所以同 一事物可以用不同的形 式来表示。（王寅 2001： 28 36-37）
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
13
What is meaning?
Pavlov (巴甫洛夫) Meaning is Stimulus-response
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M is flexible and imitational
元芳，你怎么看？
且行且珍惜
15
附：哲学与语义学
如果我们的兴趣在于哲学语义学，可以基 本上不考虑语言学家的研究。但是如果我 们的兴趣在于语言学中的语义学，则非得 了解哲学家、逻辑学家的语义研究不可。 语言学家的工作很大程度上以哲学家的概 念和框架为基础，为出发点。（徐烈炯 1990：前言）
6
What is meaning?
Theories of meaning
Meaning relations
7
What is meaning?
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.
1.冬天：能穿多少穿多少；夏天：能穿多少穿多少。
2.剩女产生的原因：一是谁都看不上，二是谁都看不上。
3.单身人的来由：原来是喜欢一个人，现在是喜欢一个 人。
4.女致电男友：我到西直门了，你快往地铁站走。如果 你到了，我还没到，你就等着吧。如果我到了，你还没 到，你就等着吧！
请考生写出以上两句话的区别在哪里？
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Theories of meaning
Meaning relation
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Warm-up questions
What does the following words mean? Dog Moon Ghost Happy Morning star Evening star 救火 晒太阳 吃火锅
2
汉语考试8级试题
领导：“你这是什么意思？”小明：“没 什么意思。意思意思。”领导：“你这就 不够意思了。”小明：“小意思，小意 思。”领导：“你这人真有意思。”小明： “其实也没有别的意思。”领导：“那我 就不好意思了。”小明：“是我不好意 思。”——问：以上“意思”分别是什么 意思?
3
The conceptualist view（概念论） is one concerning meaning. According to this view, there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The symbol or a word signifies “things” by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word. It is also called ideational theory（观念论）.
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5. Answers from the supporters
Chase: 凡是找不到“所指者”的抽象词句 都应划归语义学的废话异类，因为他们仅 仅是没有意义的瞎嚷嚷。（The Tyranny of Words）
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5.2.2
The conceptualist view
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1. Definition
5
语义学
Semantics is the study of meaning in language.
5.1-5.2 什么是意义？古今中外对意义的研究有哪些切入点 和视角？意义有哪些类型？(5.2.1-5.2.4) 5.3 语义关系：词和词之间在意义上有什么联系？ 5.4 句子和句子之间可能体现什么样的语义关系？ 5.5 语义分析：在句法层面，可以对句子进行成分划分，那 么对句子的意义是否可以进行类似的描述呢？ Componential analysis (成分分析) & predication analysis （述位分析）
Chapter Five Semantics
1
Language has two basic systems. One is sound system, the other is meaning system. The two system are related. Then, what is meaning?
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2. Linguistic model of the conceptualist view
SEMANTIC TRIANGLE THOUGHT/REFERENCE
SYMBOL/FORM
REFERENT
(Ogden and Richards 1923: The meaning of meaning)
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3. Important figures in the naming theory
1. Plato（柏拉图）：词义就是事物、行为 和属性的名称，或者说词语有指义或命名 的功能。（《对话录》） 2. Russell（罗素）：一个词的意义就是一 个对象，即一个词意指着某客体，也就是 代表着一个客体。（《数学原理》）
Sense and reference
Sense: abstract and de-contextualized. Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real world. (p. 66) Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.
4
Teaching Objective
Critical Thinking
Present and Solve Problems
Understand Macroscopically
Study of meaning from different perspectives
Understand Microscopically
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5.2
Some views concerning the study of meaning
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5.2.1
The naming theory
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1. Definition
The naming theory（命名说） According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. It is also called reference theory（指称论）.
airplane
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3. The strong points of the conceptualist view
概念论解决了指称论留下的两个难题： 1. 同一物体可以有不同的名称，可以表达 不同的意义。（如“启明星the morning star”和“长庚星the evening star”同指一物， Venus金星 vs Venus 太白星，表达的意义 却不同）
2. 有的语言符号形式有意义，而没有所指， 例如虚词。
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4. Some important figures in the conceptualist view
1. Aristotle（亚里斯多德）: 事情有本质，但 只有语言形式才有意义。本质是能从对象中 分离出来的、又能与词语相结合的东西，本 质即意义。（《解释篇》） 2. Locke（洛克）：文字不是本身就具有意义 的，而在于他们所表示的观念。 3. Frege（弗雷格）（现代语义理论的开创 者）：意义有系统意义（sense）和外指意义 （reference）之分。词语与现实世界不是直 接的关系，还有“系统意义”这一心理表征 的层面，语句的意义就是它所表达的思想或 概念，这是更为基本的意义，是外指意义的 基础。（1892: On Sense and Reference） 31