Categories and Categorization类别与分类
文本分类方法总结
文本分类方法总结李荣陆(复旦大学计算机与信息技术系，上海，200433)E-mail: lironglu@一、Swap-1方法1，特点：特征选择：将只在某一类中出现的词或短语作为这一类的特征，词频作为权重。
二、n-gram方法1，N-Gram-Based Text Categorization（1）特点：n-gram项的生成：为了得到字符串中结尾部分的字符串，对不够n的字符串追加空格。
如：Text的3-gram项为_Te、Tex、ext、xt_、t__。
类的表示：先计算类别中所有训练文本的n-gram项的词频，然后按词频对其由大到小进行排序，最后保留从第n（实验中等于300）项开始的k个n-gram项作为此类的特征值。
相似度计算：（2）优点：容错性强，可以允许文本中有拼写错误等噪声。
（3）用途：区分测试文档是何种语言，即语言分类；自动文本分类2，CAN Bayes(Chain Augmented Naive Bayes)Bayes 分类器是一个性能很好的线性分类器，但是它假设文档的每个分类特征属性间是相互独立的，这显然是不成立的。
假设d i ={w i1,w i2,…,w in }为一任意文档，它属于文档类C ={c 1, c 2,…, c k }中的某一类c j 。
根据Bayes 分类器有：)()|()()()|()|(j j i i j j i i j c P c d P d P c P c d P d c P ∝=，其中∏==rk j ik j i c w P c d P 1)|()|(。
如果使用Bayes 网络来描述特征属性间的联系，则失去了Bayes 模型的简单性和线性特征。
我们使用了统计语言学中的N-Gram 模型，它假设一个词在文档中某个位置出现的概率仅与它之前的n-1个词有关，即：)|()|(11121--+--=i n i n i i i i w w w w P w w w w P 。
英语词典的分类与微观结构
英语词典的分类与微观结构林明金孔子曰：“工欲善其事，必先利其器。
”（《论语·卫灵公》）器者，工具也。
英文词典就是英语学习者案头必备的一种工具。
词典是一代又一代的学者长年埋头于蝇头小字，呕心沥血、勤奋砥砺而得来的精神产品。
人称词典为“无声的老师”，其功用价值毋庸置疑。
一部词典所包容的信息量是相当大的，而我们的读者往往缺乏词典编纂学的基础知识，也就谈不上充分利用词典所提供的大量信息为自己的学习与实践服务。
在目前的工具书市场，鱼龙混杂，良莠难分。
大量粗制滥造的英语工具书充斥市场，大多数的英语学习者又不懂得如何正确地选择和使用适合自己的词典，这样就使一些优秀的词典备受冷遇，没能发挥其应有的社会作用。
词典的英文对应词dictionary，其英文释义为：A dictionary is a book that gives a list of words in alphabetical order and explains their meanings in the same or another language.(LDOCE1)。
笔者以为词典可定义为：词典是一种汇集语言、科学文化和日常生活等方面的词语(或词语的某些成分)，提供一定数量较为科学的信息，依据一定的编纂原则，并按一定的方式编排，可供查检参考、释疑解惑的工具书。
一、词典的分类由于词典的分类标准和依据是多种多样的，词典的分类体系也是相当复杂。
以下介绍的几种词典类型也是从不同角度来划分的：1. 规定型词典与描写型词典(Prescriptive and descriptive)规定型词典恪守正统的、规范的、正确的、符合经典作家用法的传统并以此为标准对语言进行规定。
一般说来，学生词典是规定型的词典，如LDOCE，CIDE2，OALD3等。
描写型词典主张以对语言全面的、系统的、客观的描写资料为依据真实地反映语言的客观变化。
大多数百科型词典可以看作是描写主义色彩较浓的词典，如Web34等。
CategoriesorClassification类别或分类
Climactic – from least to most important Inverted pyramid (for journalism only) – from most important
information to less important details
Why should students become involved in volunteer efforts? (Persuasion)
7th Grade Lesson: Volunteerism III: Categories and Order of Importance
information to less important details
Why should students become involved in volunteer efforts? (Persuasion)
Winter School food drive School adopt-a-family
Categories / Classification
Ideas are organized by category. Sometimes categories are further broken down into subcategories (classification).
What are some of the volunteer opportunities available to middle school-age kids in this community? (Exposition) Local
Mentoring Reading buddies for the elementary school
主要分类方法介绍【VIP专享】
分类(Categorization or Classification)就是按照某种标准给对象贴标签(label)，再根据标签来区分归类。
分类是事先定义好类别，类别数不变。
分类器需要由人工标注的分类训练语料训练得到，属于有指导学习范畴。
最常用的分类算法就是贝叶斯分类算法，（贝叶斯分类器）用到的知识就是概率的东西不准确的说，就是给它一些已经知道分类的例子作为样本，让它自己“找到”分类标准。
说概念就太抽象，我给你举一些例子吧比如程序是区分大豆和绿豆的。
我们输入的数据是比如颜色值、半径大小，属于黄豆还是绿豆等等（当然这是个简单的例子）。
首先我们需要拿出一些“豆子”的数据给程序，并告诉它是黄豆还是绿豆，然后通过自己的算法，让程序“计算”出区分两种东西的“边界条件”，或者简单说就是提取特征（一般用的比较多的就是距离）。
这就相当于训练/学习等概念。
主要分类方法介绍主要分类方法介绍解决分类问题的方法很多[40-42]，单一的分类方法主要包括：决策树、贝叶斯、人工神经网络、K-近邻、支持向量机和基于关联规则的分类等；另外还有用于组合单一分类方法的集成学习算法，如Bagging和Boosting等。
（1）决策树决策树是用于分类和预测的主要技术之一，决策树学习是以实例为基础的归纳学习算法，它着眼于从一组无次序、无规则的实例中推理出以决策树表示的分类规则。
构造决策树的目的是找出属性和类别间的关系，用它来预测将来未知类别的记录的类别。
它采用自顶向下的递归方式，在决策树的内部节点进行属性的比较，并根据不同属性值判断从该节点向下的分支，在决策树的叶节点得到结论。
主要的决策树算法有ID3、C4.5（C5.0）、CART、PUBLIC、SLIQ和SPRINT算法等。
它们在选择测试属性采用的技术、生成的决策树的结构、剪枝的方法以及时刻，能否处理大数据集等方面都有各自的不同之处。
（2）贝叶斯贝叶斯（Bayes）分类算法是一类利用概率统计知识进行分类的算法，如朴素贝叶斯（Naive Bayes）算法。
categorization语言学定义
categorization语言学定义【categorization 语言学定义】“嘿，朋友们！在我们的日常交流和学习中，经常会遇到各种各样的分类问题，比如整理书架时把书按类型摆放，或者区分不同风格的衣服。
今天呀，咱们就来聊聊 categorization 这个在语言学中有点特别的概念。
”其实，categorization 简单来说就是把事物按照一定的标准或特点分成不同的类别。
就像我们把水果分为苹果、香蕉、橙子等，这就是一种 categorization 。
比如在超市里，货物被分类摆放，方便我们快速找到想要的东西。
但是要注意哦，有些人会误以为 categorization 只是简单的分组，其实它更强调依据明确的规则和特征来划分。
比如，不能因为苹果和香蕉都是黄色的，就把它们归为一类，而应该根据它们本质的特征，像形状、味道等来分类。
接下来咱们看看它的关键点。
核心特征或要素：1. 明确的分类标准：这是 categorization 的基础。
比如把动物按照食性分为食草动物、食肉动物和杂食动物，食性就是明确的分类标准。
2. 系统性：分类要有条理和逻辑。
像把书籍按照文学、历史、科学等大类，然后再细分，这就是系统性的体现。
3. 可变性：分类不是一成不变的。
随着新事物的出现或者我们对事物认识的深入，分类可能会改变。
比如说以前对于音乐的分类比较简单，现在随着音乐风格的多样化，分类也更加细致和丰富了。
容易混淆的概念：Categorization 和 classification 这两个词很相似，但也有区别。
Categorization 更侧重于基于事物内在的本质特征进行分类，比较细致和深入。
而 classification 则更侧重于从宏观的角度进行大致的分类，相对来说没有那么细致。
比如说在生物学中，对物种的 categorization 会非常详细，考虑到基因、生态等多个方面；而 classification 可能只是简单地分为动物、植物、微生物等大类别。
SCI分类中英文名称翻译
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Limnology[lɪm'nɑlədʒi] 湖沼生物学Logic逻辑学Marine & Freshwater Biology海洋和淡水生物学Materials Science, Biomaterials材料科学，生物材料Materials Science, Ceramics[sə'ræmɪks] 材料科学，制陶业Materials Science, Characterization & Testing 材料科学，表征和测试Materials Science, Coatings & Films材料科学，涂料与薄膜Materials Science, Composites[kəm'pɑzɪt]材料科学，复合材料Materials Science, Multidisciplinary材料科学，多学科Materials Science, Paper & Wood材料科学、纸张和木材Materials Science, Textiles['tekstaɪl] 材料科学、纺织品Mathematical & Computational Biology数学与计算生物学Mathematics数学Mathematics, Applied应用数学Mathematics, Interdisciplinary Applications数学，跨学科的应用Mechanics[mə'kænɪks]力学Medical Ethics[‘ɛθɪks]医学伦理学Medical Informatics 医学信息学Medical Laboratory Technology医学实验室技术Medicine, General & Internal普通内科学Medicine, Legal法医学Medicine, Research & Experimental医学研究与实验Metallurgy & MetallurgicalEngineering['mɛtəlɝdʒi]冶金和冶金工程Meteorology & Atmospheric Sciences[,miːtɪə'rɒlədʒɪ] [,ætməs'fɛrɪk] 气象学和大气科学Microbiology微生物学Microscopy显微镜学Mineralogy[,mɪnə'rælədʒi]矿物学Mining & Mineral 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Categories and Categorization类别与分类
– Window size – Aspect ratio – Translation/scale step size – Non-maxima suppression
• Rowley-Baluja-Kanade (2019-2019) : ~2700 citations
– “Parts” at fixed position, non-maxima suppression, simple cascade, rotation, pretty good accuracy, fast
P(parr|otbj)ect
r P(parr|ntonobj)ect
• Estimate P(part|object) and P(part | nonobject) by counting over examples
P(pa|ortbj) eccot u (pna& trotbj)ect cou (onbtj)ect
• Dalal-Triggs (2019) : ~400
– Careful feature engineering, excellent results, HOG feature, online code
• Felzenszwalb-McAllester-Ramanan (2019)? 8 citations
• 17 types of parts • Discretize wavelet coefficient to 3 values • E.g., part with 8 coefficients has 3^8 = 6561
values
对事物分类和划分的英语作文
对事物分类和划分的英语作文英文回答：Categorization and Division of Things.Categorization and division are fundamental cognitive processes that humans use to organize and understand the world around them. Categorization involves grouping similar objects or concepts together, while division involves splitting a larger group into smaller, more specific subsets. Both categorization and division play a crucial role in our ability to make sense of the complex world we live in.One of the most important functions of categorization is that it allows us to quickly and efficiently identify and respond to objects in our environment. When we encounter a new object, our brains automatically compare it to existing categories in our memory. If the object matches a category, we can quickly access the information we havestored about that category and use it to guide our behavior. For example, if we see a dog, we can quickly categorize it as a "dog" and access our knowledge about dogs to know howto interact with it.Division, on the other hand, allows us to break down complex concepts or objects into smaller, more manageable parts. This can help us to understand the structure and organization of things in a more detailed way. For example, if we are studying the human body, we can divide it into smaller parts such as the head, torso, limbs, and organs. This division makes it easier for us to understand the function and interrelationship of the different parts ofthe body.Categorization and division are closely related processes that work together to help us organize and understand the world around us. Categorization allows us to quickly identify and respond to objects, while division allows us to break down complex concepts into smaller, more manageable parts. Both processes are essential for ourability to make sense of the world and to interact with iteffectively.中文回答：事物的分类和划分。
categorize单词拆分记忆
categorize单词拆分记忆一、单词拆分记忆“categorize”可以拆分为“cate - gor - ize”。
“cate”可能让我们联想到“category”（类别），这是这个单词的核心概念；“gor”部分可以当作一个辅助记忆的部分；“ize”是常见的动词后缀，表示“使……化”，所以“categorize”的意思就是“使……归类，将……分类”。
二、单词释义“categorize”是动词，意思是把……分类，归类（将事物、人等按照特定的标准或特征划分到不同的类别中）。
例如：We need to categorize these books according to their genres.（我们需要根据书籍的类型将这些书分类。
）三、单词用法1. 它通常是及物动词，后面直接跟宾语。
例如：The librarian will categorize all the new arrivals.（图书管理员将对所有新到的书籍进行分类。
）2. 可以用于被动语态。
例如：These products are categorized by their functions.（这些产品按照它们的功能被分类。
）四、近义词1. classify：这是和“categorize”最接近的近义词。
例如：Scientists classify animals into different groups.（科学家将动物分类成不同的群组。
）2. group：更强调将事物聚集在一起形成组，虽然有分类的意味，但没有“categorize”那么明确按照特定标准分类。
例如：We group the students by their ages.（我们按照学生的年龄将他们分组。
）3. sort：和“categorize”用法相似，侧重于按照某种顺序或者性质排列。
例如：Sort these papers alphabetically.（按照字母顺序将这些文件分类。
词块的定义及分类探究
国内对词块的研究自 2000 年开始逐渐增多，研究内容主要强调词块在英语教学中的重要性，一般为 思辨研究和经验介绍(濮建忠，2003 [6]；刘晓玲，阳志清 2003 [7]；常晨光，2004 [8])；自 2005 年以来，
DOI: 10.12677/ml.2021.91034
244
现代语言学
吴小琴
词块的定义及分类探究
吴小琴
江苏开放大学，外国语学院，江苏 南京
收稿日期：2021年1月11日；录用日期：2021年2月16日；发布日期：2021年2月26日
摘要
本文对国内外二十多年的词块定义及分类进行了系统评述，发现学者对于词块的定义未形成统一的说法， 词块的分类标准不一，分类种类繁多。本研究认为，对词块的定义关键在于多维度(形式、功能、意义、 结构等)描述其特点。当前词块分类体系并没有完全将功能和结构完全分开，而在强调某一单项标准时， 又忽略了其他的标准，应该从多个方面，如结构、功能、成分词数、出现频率、开放程度对词块进行分 类。
Bolinger (1976 [4])认为，语法规则固然可以帮助人们表达新的想法和观点，生成前所未有的话语， 但过分强调了语言的规则性。事实上，语言使用者更多时候是使用大量储存在记忆系统里的词块，大多 数交际涉及的都是可预见的生活平常事，人们所使用的语言大多数是在重复自己或别人曾经使用过的， 并非特别具有创造性。比如我们可以说“anyhow”、“anywhere”，却不能说“anywhen”。在跨文化交 际中，经常会有这样的情况发生：中国英语学习者运用语法规则产出一个英语句子，却不能被来自英语 国家的人所接受。在英语这种语言体系里，存在着大量游离于语法规则之外的语言现象。这正是英语学 习者学习的难点所在。纯粹依靠语法规则生成的句子表达却不一定是地道的表达，如何使自己的书面和 口语表达更接近英语本族语使用者的表达习惯，这正是词块可以发挥的作用。
Categorization-and-idealized-cognitive-models教学教材
科知识的基础，是人类认识发展的历史产物，既
是以往认识成果的总结，又是认识进一步发展的
起点。范畴是在社会实践基础上概括出来的成果，
又反过来成为人们认识世界和改造世界的工具。
有了范畴，就可使得认知得以实现，也降低了认
知的复杂性。
（王寅 ）
2 Definitions of Categorization
• Wikipedia :Categorization is the process in which experiences and concepts are recognised and understood.
• 德国古典哲学家康德的范畴观念来自于亚里士多 德。他对范畴定义为：“知性先验地包含于自身 的那种本源的纯粹综合概念，因有这些概念，知 性才是纯粹的知性。因为只有通过这些概念，知 性才能理解直观杂多中的某物，即才能思想直观 的客体。” 康德把范畴分为四大类：
(1)量的范畴(统一性、多样性、全体性)； (2)质的范畴(实在性、否定性、限制性)； (3)关系的范畴(依附性与存在性、因果性与依附 性、交互 性)； (4)模态的范畴(可能性与不可能性、存在性与非存 在性、必然性与偶然性)。
• The ‘classical theory’ of categorisation was the prevalent model since the time of Aristotle and holds that conceptual and linguistic categories have definitional structure. This means that an entity represents a category member by virtue of fulfilling a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for category membership.
语言学——精选推荐
Chapter 6Cognition（概念，选择题）I n psychology, it is used to refer to the mental processes and can be understand as information processing.Another definition of”Cognition”is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment.There are three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach, and the conceptual approach.Psycholinguistics（概念，选择题）Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspect of language; it is usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences.Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the rules they play in our thinking.It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within Psycholinguistics: Acquisition, Comprehension, Production, Disorder, Language and Thought, Neurocognition.Cognitive Linguistics （名词解释）Cognitive Linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It’s an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.Construal and Construal Operations （名词解释，三种分类）Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation.Construal Operations are conceptualizing processes applied in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.1)Attention/ SalienceThe operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that salience to us.We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.2)Judgment/ComparisonThe Construal Operations of Judgment/Comparison have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. This is quit a fundamental cognitive capacity and the cognitive operations of judgment are also very fundamental to the human experience.3)Perspective/SituatednessWe view a scene in terms of our situatedness. Perspective generally depends on two things. Firstly, it depends on where we are situated in relation to the scene we are viewing. Secondly, itdepends on how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.Categorization （名词解释、三种分类）Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. It is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, and it allows us to relate present experiences to past one.1)Basic levelThe categories at the Basic Level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the most.2)Superordinate levelSuperordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.3)Subordinate levelThey have clearly identification gestalts and lots of individual specific features. At this level, we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.Image Schemas （名词解释、各个分类的特点-选择题）Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.1) A center-periphery schema2) A containment schema3) A cycle schema4) A force schema5) A link schema6) A part-whole schema7) A path schema8) A scale schema9) A verticality schemaMetaphor （名词解释）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.1）ontological metaphorsHuman experiences with physical objects provide the basic for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, ect, as entities and substances.2）structural metaphorsIt allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.3）orientional metaphorsIt gives a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in our experience.Metonymy （名词解释）Metonymy, in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.Chapter 7Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis （重点-大题）Our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different language may probably express speaker’s unique wayside of understanding the world.Linguistic Determinism, language may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic Relativity, language is relative in similarity. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Firth-theory of context of situation（重点-大题）1)The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.The verbal action of the participants.The non-verbal action of the participants.2)The relevant objects.3)The effects of the verbal action.That is, who speaks what to whomever and when for what.Culture in language teaching classroom（重点-大题）To get the students familiar with culture differences;To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will;To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture though various classroom practices.Chapter 8Pragmatic （名词解释）Pragmatic is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of meaning in speaker’s meaning.Speech act theory （名词解释）It was proposed by John Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question” What do we do when using language?”1.Performatives and Constatives （大题举例子）Performatives are statements which are used to do something, which do not state or describe a fact and not verifiable.Performative verbs: mane, bet, ect.Constatives are statements that state or describe a fact and are thus verifiable.2.Felicity ConditionsThere must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants andcircumstances must be appropriate;The procedure must be executed, correctly and completely;Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thought, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.A theory of the Illocutionary act （大题）The theory of the illocutionary act was set up by Austin. There are three acts, locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act.locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.Illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is to say something is to do something. It is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.Conversational implicature: （大题or名词解释）It is the use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.in order to avoid the logical use of implication (in the section on logical semantics), Grice coined the term implicature.The characteristics of Conversational implicature:CalculabilityThe fact that speakers try to convey conversation implicature and hearers are able to understand them indicates that implicature are calculable.CancellabilityIf the linguistic or situational contexts change, the implicature will also change.Non- detachabilityIt means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact.Non- conventionalityConversational implicature is by definition different from the conversational meaning of words. It is indeterminate and it varies with context.The Cooperative Principle （大题）A speaker can mean more than what is said and the hearer can understand the speaker’s meaning. Grice argues that there is a set of assumption guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls The Cooperative Principle. CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required; do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Quality: try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Relation: be relevant.Manner: be perspicuous. (avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly)Relevance Theory （名词解释）This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance, Communication and Cognition in 1986. They believe that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to single principle of relevance, which can be define d as: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.Chapter 9（名词解释）Literary StylisticsThe branch of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and literature is Literary Stylistic, which focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.StylisticsStylistics is the study of varieties of language which properties position that language in context.ForegroundingOriginally coming from usual arts and in contrast with back grounding, the concept of foregrounding, a popular term in stylistics, was applied in literary studies by the Prague School, modern stylisticians. It is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”. This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language, sound, syntax, meaning, etc.RegisterIn linguistic, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.。
句法学 名词解释
Syntactic category句法类包括单词语类和短语语类。
其中单词语类包括实义语类（content category）和功能语类(function category)。
实义语类有名词、动词、形容词、副词和介词。
功能语类有限定词（determiner）、助动词（auxiliary）、代词、标句词（complementizer）和连词(conjunction)。
短语语类包括名词短语NP、动词短语VP、介词短语PP、形容词短语AP和副词短语AdvP。
句法结构的三种表达式：括号加标记，改写规则和树形图。
句子成分间的三种基本结构关系：支配关系、居前关系和管辖关系。
支配（dominance）：树形图上，如果节点A的位置高于节点B，且只有沿着树枝向下行才能从A到达B，则节点A支配节点B。
居前(precedence)：树形图上，如果节点A居于节点B之左，且两者间互无支配关系，则A 居前于B。
管辖(government)：如果节点A是管辖语，且A和B是姐妹节，则节点A管辖节点B。
管辖语为中心语。
论元(argument):谓词所涉及的对象。
每个谓词都有一个论元结构（argument structure）。
论元结构信息既表示谓词所要求的最少论元数量，又表示论元由什么短语语类充当承担。
共有四个语类带有论元结构：动词，名词，形容词和介词，都是实义语类。
注意助动词没有论元结构，不参与题元角色分派。
题元关系（thematic relation）:动词与论元之间的语义关系。
题元角色（thematic role）:论元承担的角色。
论元结构规定句中的论元和谓词的要求论元必须数量相等。
题元结构（thematic structure）要求谓词给论元分配题元角色。
关于题元角色分派的理论叫做题元理论（theta theory）。
题元准则（theta criterion）:每个论元都必须充当一个题元角色，每个题元角色都必须分派给一个论元。
语言学重点 名词解释
名词解释Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是任意的有声符号系统，人们可以借助它来达到交流的目的。
Arbitrariness(任意性）: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning 语言符号的形式与意义之间没有必然联系bear(具有）Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological concept, an abstract unit. It refer to the smallest unit of sound which is used to distinguish between words. 是一个音韵学概念，是一个抽象单位，它是用来区分单词的声音的最小单位。
Back-formation（逆构词法）refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.是构词法中一种不规则的类型，即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀，由此造出一个较短的单词Coordination (并列关系）is a common syntactic（语法的）pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction（结合）such as and, but and or .并列是英语以及其他语言中一种常见的句法关系，由同类型的两个或两个以上的范畴，借助连词and,but或者or组合而成。
统计学中categorical
统计学中categorical在统计学中，categorical是一个重要的概念，它是指非数值型的数据或变量。
这些数据或变量通常是被分类的，包括性别、民族、婚姻状况、职业、教育程度等等。
在本文中，我们将从几个方面详细介绍categorical的定义、特点、应用和分析方法等方面。
一、定义Categorical在中文中的意思是“分类的”，在统计学中，它表示被分类的数据或变量，与连续型或数值型的变量相对。
比如，性别、教育程度、职业等都是categorical数据，它们不能被直接度量或计算，而是要通过分类和统计的方式进行分析和处理。
二、特点与连续型或数值型的变量相比，categorical变量有以下几个特点：1. 非数值型的：categorical变量的值通常不是数值，而是文字、符号、代码等。
2. 分类的：categorical变量的取值是有限的，它们可以被分为若干个类别，如“男”和“女”两个分类。
3. 无序的：categorical变量的取值通常是无序的，如“男”和“女”两个分类没有大小之分。
4. 可以被编码：categorical变量可以被编码为数字，用于存储、处理和分析。
三、应用Categorical变量在统计学中的应用非常广泛，例如：1. 描述性统计：可以用来描述不同类别之间的差异和相似性，如男女在身高和体重上的差异和相似性。
2. 探索性数据分析：可以用来探索变量之间的关系和模式，如教育程度和收入之间的关系和模式。
3. 假设检验：可以用来检验不同类别之间的差异是否显著，如男女在某项测验成绩上的差异是否显著。
4. 回归分析：可以用来建立和预测变量之间的关系，如教育程度和收入的回归方程。
四、分析方法在分析categorical变量时，需要使用不同的技术和方法，如：1. 整体比较：对不同类别之间的整体差异进行比较，如男女的平均身高和体重之间的差异。
2. 单因素ANOVA：用于比较三个或三个以上类别之间的差异，如教育程度和收入之间的差异是否显著。
categorized(分类)according
1. Q: I have never seen a movie as good as this one. A: A. This is the best movie I have ever seen. 2. Q: Daniel is taller than any other student in our class. A: B. Daniel is the tallest of our class. 3. Q: Tom caught more birds than I had expected. A: B. I thought Tom would catch fewer birds. 4. Q: It takes less time to go there by subway than by bus. A: B. If you take a subway, you’ll arrive there sooner. 5. Q: I like nothing better than go fishing with my children. A: C. I like going fishing with my children most.
Unit Six
Fashion
Part One Listening and Speaking
●Listening Scripts and Keys ◆Activity 1 Comparatives
Directions: In this part you will hear 10 statements. Listen carefully and choose A, B, C or D which is the closest in meaning to the statement you have heard. The statements will be read only once.源自Conversation 3
不同的分类标准
不同的分类标准Different classification standards are often used in various fields and disciplines to categorize and organize information or objects. These standards help create order and make it easier to understand complex concepts. For example, in biology, organisms are classified based on their physical characteristics, genetic makeup, and evolutionary history. This enables scientists to study and compare different species more effectively.在不同的领域和学科中经常使用不同的分类标准来对信息或对象进行分类和组织。
这些标准有助于创造秩序，并使复杂概念变得更容易理解。
例如，在生物学中，生物体根据其外貌特征、基因组成以及进化历史进行分类。
这使科学家能够更有效地研究和比较不同的物种。
Similarly, in library science, books are often classified using the Dewey Decimal Classification system or the Library of Congress Classification system. These systems help library staff and patrons locate specific books easily and efficiently. By organizing books into categories based on subject matter, authors, or genres, users can quickly find the information they need.同样，在图书馆科学中，图书通常使用杜威十进制分类系统或美国国会图书馆分类系统进行分类。
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A Statistical Method for 3D Object Detection Applied to Faces and Cars
Henry Schneiderman and Takeo Kanade
Rapid Object Detection using a Boosted Cascade of Simple Features
Back to recognition
Cascade for Fast Detection
Examples
Yes Stage 1 H1(x) > t1?
Stage 2 …
H2(x) > t2?
Yes
Stage N
HN(x) > tN?
Pห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ss
No
No
No
Reject
Reject
Reject
• Choose threshold for low false negative rate • Fast classifiers early in cascade • Slow classifiers later, but most examples don’t get
Adaboost as feature selection
• Create a large pool of parts (180K) • “Weak learner” = feature + threshold + parity
• Choose weak learner that minimizes error on the weighted training set
• Schneiderman-Kanade (2019-2000,2019) : ~1150
– Careful feature engineering, excellent results, cascade
• Viola-Jones (2019, 2019) : ~4400
– Haar-like features, Adaboost as feature selection, very fast, easy to implement
Integral Images
• “Haar-like features”
– Differences of sums of intensity – Millions, computed at various positions and scales
within detection window
-1 +1
• How to make it fast • How to deal with different viewpoints • Implementation details
– Window size – Aspect ratio – Translation/scale step size – Non-maxima suppression
Training multiple viewpoints
Train new detector for each viewpoint.
Testing
1) Processing:
a) Lighting correction (optional) b) Compute wavelet coefficients, quantize
• Margin maximization (Schapire et al. 2019)
– Ratch and Warmuth 2019 do this more explicitly
Adaboost: Margin Maximizer
Test error Train error
margin
Interpretations of Adaboost
Goal: Detect all instances of objects
Influential Works in Detection
• Sung-Poggio (1994, 2019) : ~1260
– Basic idea of statistical template detection (I think), bootstrapping to get “face-like” negative examples, multiple whole-face prototypes (in 1994)
• 17 types of parts • Discretize wavelet coefficient to 3 values • E.g., part with 8 coefficients has 3^8 = 6561
values
Part Likelihood
• Class-conditional likelihood ratio
• Adaboost tunes weights discriminatively
Training
1) Create training data
a) Get positive and negative patches b) Pre-process (optional), compute wavelet
2) Slide window over each position/scale (2 pixels, 21/4 scale)
a) Compute part values b) Lookup likelihood ratios c) Sum over parts d) Threshold
3) Use faster classifier to prune patches (cascade)… more on this later
• Rosset Zhu Hastie 2019
– Early stopping is form of L1-regularization
– In many cases, converges to “L1-optimal” separating hyperplane
– “An interesting fundamental similarity between boosting and kernel support vector machines emerges, as both can be described as methods for regularized optimization in high-dimensional predictor space, utilizing a computational trick to make the calculation practical, and converging to margin-maximizing solutions.”
• Reweight
Sidebar: Adaboost
Adaboost
Adaboost
“RealBoost”
Important special case: ht partitions input space:
alphat
Figure from Friedman et al. 2019
Adaboost: Immune to Overfitting?
– Excellent template/parts-based blend
Sliding window detection
What the Detector Sees
Statistical Template
• Object model = log linear model of parts at fixed positions
Test error Train error
Interpretations of Adaboost
• Additive logistic regression (Friedman et al. 2000)
– LogitBoost from Collins et al. 2019 does this more explicitly
coefficients, discretize c) Compute parts values
2) Learn statistics
a) Compute ratios of histograms by counting for positive and negative examples
b) Reweight examples using Adaboost, recount, etc. More on this later
there
Viola-Jones details
• 38 stages with 1, 10, 25, 50 … features
Two-rectangle features
Three-rectangle features
Etc.
Integral Images
• ii = cumsum(cumsum(Im, 1), 2)
x, y ii(x,y) = Sum of the values in the grey region
How to compute B-A? How to compute A+D-B-C?
Paul Viola and Michael Jones
Presenter: Derek Hoiem CS 598, Spring 2009 Feb 24, 2009
Some slides/figures from /~efros/courses/AP06/presentations/Schneiderman-Kanade%20Viola-Jones%20presentation.ppt