新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1-3章课后练
新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1-3章课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版 第1-3章练习题 参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language ？答：答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe observe language language language facts facts facts first, first, first, which which which are are are found found found to to to display display display some some some similarities, similarities, similarities, and and and generalizations generalizations generalizations are are are made made made about about about them; them; them; then then then he he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed observed facts facts facts to to to fully fully fully prove prove prove their their their validity. validity. validity. In In In linguistics, linguistics, linguistics, as as as in in in any any any other other other discipline, discipline, discipline, data data data and and and theory theory theory stand stand stand in in in a a a dialectical dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：答： The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) (4) syntax: syntax: syntax: it it it studies studies studies the the the rules rules rules which which which govern govern govern how how how words words words are are are combined combined combined to to to form form form grammatically grammatically grammatically permissible permissible permissible sentences sentences sentences in in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, Then, modem modem modem linguistics linguistics linguistics differs differs differs from from from traditional traditional traditional grammar grammar grammar also also also in in in that that that it it it does does does not not not force force force languages languages languages into into into a a a Latin-based Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. arises. Even Even Even in in in today's today's today's world world world there there there are are are still still still many many many languages languages languages that that that can can can only only only be be be spoken spoken spoken but but but not not not written. written. written. Then Then Then in in in everyday everyday communication, communication, speech speech speech plays plays plays a a a greater greater greater role role role than than than writing writing writing in in in terms terms terms of of of the the the amount of amount of information information conveyed. conveyed. conveyed. And And And also, also, also, speech speech speech is is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from from everyday speech, everyday speech, which they regard as authentic. 6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence andperformance?答：答： Saussure's Saussure's distinction distinction distinction and and and Chomsky's Chomsky's Chomsky's are are are very very very similar, similar, similar, they they they differ differ differ at at at least least least in in in that that that Saussure Saussure Saussure took took took a a a sociological sociological sociological view view view of of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. 8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? （2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家 C. Hockett 提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1-3章课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1 IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences inlanguages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?（2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家C. Hockett提出了人类语言的12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
《戴炜栋 新编简明英语语言学教程 第2版 笔记和课后习题 含》读书笔记PPT模板思维导图下载
4.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第5章 语义学
5.2 课后习题详 解
5.1 复习笔记
5.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第6章 语用学
6.2 课后习题详 解
6.1 复习笔记
6.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第7章 语言变化
7.2 课后习题详 解
7.1 复习笔记
7.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第8章 语言与社会
《 戴 炜 栋 新 编 简 明 最新版读书笔记，下载可以直接修改 英语语言学教程
第2版 笔记和课后 习题 含》
思维导图PPT模板
01 第1章 导 言
目录
02 第2章 音位学
03 第3章 形态学
04 第4章 句法学
05 第5章 语义学
06 第6章 语用学
目录ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
07 第7章 语言变化
08 第8章 语言与社会
8.2 课后习题详 解
8.1 复习笔记
8.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第9章 语言与文化
9.2 课后习题详 解
9.1 复习笔记
9.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第10章 语言习得
10.2 课后习题 详解
10.1 复习笔记
10.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
第11章 第二语言习得
11.2 课后习题 详解
11.1 复习笔记
11.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
第12章 语言与大脑
12.2 课后习题 详解
12.1 复习笔记
12.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
读书笔记
谢谢观看
第1章 导 言
1.2 课后习题详 解
1.1 复习笔记
1.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（音位学）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（⾳位学）【圣才出品】第2章⾳位学2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech Organs发⾳器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅⾳和元⾳的区别、分类及描写规则3. Phonemes and Allophones⾳位和⾳位变体4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features⾳系规则和区别特征5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation⾳节结构、重⾳和语调本章考点：1. 语⾳学语⾳学的定义；发⾳器官的英⽂名称；英语辅⾳的定义、发⾳部位、发⾳⽅法和分类；英语元⾳的定义和分类、基本元⾳；发⾳语⾳学；听觉语⾳学；声学语⾳学；语⾳标记，国际⾳标；严式与宽式标⾳法。
2. ⾳系学⾳系学的定义；⾳系学与语⾳学的联系和区别；⾳素、⾳位、⾳位变体、最⼩对⽴体、⾃由变体的定义；⾃由变体；⾳位的对⽴分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段⾳位学；⾳节；重⾳(词重⾳、句⼦重⾳)；⾳⾼和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The phonic medium of languageII. Phonetics1. The definition of phonetics2. Three research fields3. Organs of speech▼4. Voiceless sounds▼5. Voiced sounds6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions7. Classification of English speech sounds(1) Definition(2) Classification of English consonants(3) Classification of English vowelsIII. Phonology1. Relationship between Phonology and phonetics2. Phone, phoneme3. Allophone4. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rules(2) Assimilation rule(3) Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation(1) Stress(2) Tone(3) IntonationI. The phonic medium of language（语⾔的语⾳媒介）II. Phonetics（语⾳学）1. The definition of phonetics（语⾳学的定义）Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语⾳学被定义为对语⾔的语⾳媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语⾔中的声⾳。
戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记 英文版1
戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记英文版1Chapter 1What is language?[A]The origins of language Some speculations of the origins of language：①The divine source The basic hypothesis：if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language,then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language.Actually,children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.②The natural-sound source The bow-wow theory：the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The"Yo-heave-ho"theory：the sounds produced by humans whenexerting physical effort,especially when co-operating with other humans,may be the origins of speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds③The oral-gesture source It is claimed that originally aset of physical gestures was developed as ameans of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement；hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④Glossogenetics(言语遗传学)This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactions Physical adaptation：Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing,thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains avery flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered,creating alonger cavity called the pharynx,and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food,but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized.Those analytic functions(tool-using and language)are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language：Interactional：a social function of language.Transactional：a function involving the communication of knowledge and information[B]The properties of language Language is asystem of arbitra ry vocal symbols used for human communication.a)System：combined together according to rules b)Arbitrary：no intrinsic connection between the word"pen"and the thing in the world which it refers to c)Vocal：the primary medium is sound for all languages d)Human：language is human-specific(交际性与信息性)Communicative rmative：Communicative：intentionally using language to communicate something Informative：through/via anumber of signals that are not intentionally sent Design features(unique properties)：the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication①Displacement(跨时空性，移位性)Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker(refer to past and future time and to other locations)②Arbitrariness(任意性)There is no logical or natural connection between alinguistic form(either sound or word)and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature,it is not entirely arbitrary.a)echo of the sounds of object sor activities：onomatopoeic wordsb)some compound words③Productivity(能产性，创造性)Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Creativity or open-endedness)④Cultural transition(文化传递性)While human capacity for language has agenetic basis(everyone was born with the ability to acquire alanguage),the details of anylanguage system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤Discreteness(可分离性)Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥Duality(双重结构性，两重性或二元性)Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously.The lower or basic level is astructure of sounds which aremeaningless.The higher level is morpheme or word(double articulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.Vocal-auditory channel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,or rapid fade,these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language,but not as am eans ofdistinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C]The development of written language①pictograms&ideograms(象形文字和表意文字)Pictogram：when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in aconsistent way,we can begin to describe the product as aform of picture-writing,or pictograms.Ideogram：the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of asystem of idea-writing,or ideogram Hieroglyph：古埃及象形文字②Logograms(语标书写法)When symbols come to be used to represent words in alanguage,they are described as examples of word-writing,or logograms."Arbitrariness"-a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.Cuneiform--楔形文字-the Sumerians(5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages：two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.Disadvantages：vast number of different written forms.③Syllabic writing(音节书写法)When awriting system employs aset of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables,it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians：the first human beings that applied the full use of asyllabic writing system(ca 1000 BC)④Alphabetic writing(字母书写法)Semitic languages(Arabic and Hebrew)：first applied this rule The Greeks：taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the Romans Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet(Slavic languages)⑤Rebus writing Robus writing evolves aprocess whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2What is linguistics?[A]The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Process of linguistic study：①Certain linguistic facts are observed,generalization are formed；②Hypotheses are formulated；③Hypotheses are tested by further observations；④A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.[B]The scope of linguistics General linguistics：the study of language as awhole Phonetics：the general study of thecharacteristics of speech sounds(or the study of the phonic medium of language)(How speech sounds are produced and classified)Phonology：is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in alanguage.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology：the study of the way in which morphemes are arrangedto form words(how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax：the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences(how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics：the study of meaning in abstraction Pragmatics：the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics：the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics：the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Appliedlinguistics：the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropologicallinguistics,neurological linguistics；mathematical linguistics；mathematical linguistics；computational linguistics[C]Some important distinctions in linguistics①Prescriptive vs.Descriptive②Synchronic vs.Diachronic The description of alanguage at some point in time；The description of alanguage as it changes through time.③Speech and writing Spoken language is primary,not the written④Langue and parole Proposed by Swiss linguists F.deSausse(sociological)Langue：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community Parole：refers to the realization of langue in actual use⑤Competence and performance Proposed by the American linguist N.Chomsky(psychological)Competence：the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language Chapter 3Phonetics and phonology[A]The definition of phonetics Phonetics：the study of the phonic medium of language：it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.Articulatory phonetics：the study of how speech sounds are made,or articulated.Acoustic phonetics：deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.Auditory(or perceptual)phonetics：deals with the perception,via the ear,of speech sounds.Forensic phonetics：has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.[B]Organs of speech Voiceless：when the vocal cords are spread apart,the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced：when the vocal cords are drawn together,the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through,creating avibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced(voicing).The important cavities：The pharyngeal cavity The oral cavity The nasal cavityLips,teeth,teeth ridge(alveolus),hard palate,softpalate(velum),uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back oftongue,vocal cords[C]Orthographic representation of speech sounds Broad and narrow transcriptions IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription：the transcription with letter-symbols only Narrow transcription：the transcription with diacritics E.g.：[l]à[li：f]--àa clear[l](no diacritic)[l]à[bild]--àa dark[l](~)[l]à[helW]--àa dental[l]()à[pit]--àan aspirated[ph](h)à[spit]--àan unaspirated(no diacritic)[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal[n](7)[D]Classification of English consonants In terms of manner of articulation(the manner in which obstruction is created)①Stops：the obstruction is total or complete,and then going abruptly/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]②Fricatives：the obstruction is partial,and the air is forced through anarrow passage in the month[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V],[h](approximant)③Affricates：the obstruction,complete at first,is released slowly as in fricatives[tF]/[dV]④Liquids：the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]àa lateral sound；[r]àretroflex⑤Glides：[w],[j](semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+[h]àapproximants⑥Nasals：the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m],],n[By place of articulation(the place where obstruction is created)①bilabials：upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions/[b],[w]à(velar)②labiodentals：the lower lip and the upper teeth[f]/[v]③dentals：the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth[W]/[T]④alveolars：the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]⑤alveo-palatals(palato-alveolars)：tongue and the very front of the palate,near the alveolar ridge[F]/[V],[t]/[d]⑥palatal：tongue in the middle of the palate[j]⑦velars：the back of the tongue against the velum[k],[g],[N]…[w]⑧glottals：the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx[h][E]Classification of English vowels Front i：Central Back Close i`u：u Semi-close eE：Semi-open EC：Open AB QR B：①The highest position of the tongue：front,central,back；②The openness of the mouth：close,semi-close,semi-open,open；③The roundness(shape)of the month(the lips)：All the front,central vowels are unrounded vowels except[B]All the back vowels,except[A：]are rounded vowels④The length of the sound：long vowels&short vowelsLarynx(tense)or(lax)Monophthongs,diphthongs Cardinal vowels[F]The definition of phonology Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages；how they are produced,how they differ from each other,what phonetic features they possess,how they can be classified,etc.Phonology,on the other hand,is interested in the system of sounds of aparticular languages；it aims to discover how speech sounds in alanguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.[G]Phone,phoneme,and allophone Phone：the different versions of the abstract unit– phoneme Phoneme：the mean-distinguishing sound in alanguage,placed in slash marks Allophone：a set of phones,all of which are versions of one phoneme[G]Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair Phonemic contrast：when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning,they're in phonemic contrast.E.g.pin&binà/p/vs./b/rope&robeà/p/vs./b/Complementary distribution：two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time,or occur in different environment,besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair：when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same plac ein the strings,the two sounds are said to form aminimal pair.When agroup of words can be differentiated,each one from the others,by changing one phoneme(always in the same position),then all of these words constitute aminimal sets.[H]Some rules in phonology①sequential rules Syllable Onset rime Nucleus coda[Consonant]vowel[consonant(s)]Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset：No1：_/s/_voiceless stops：/p/,/t/,/k/_approximants：/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/No2：The affricates[tF]/[dV]and the sibilants[s],[z],[F],[V]are not to be followed by another sibilants.②assimilation rules Co-articulation effects：the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation&elision effects Assimilation：two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g.nasalize avowel when it is followed by anasal sound.③deletion rule-Elision Definition：t he omission of asound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of awordin isolation E.g.delete a[g]when it occurs before afinal nasal consonant[I]Suprasegmental features①Stress Word stress&sentence stress The stress of the English compounds always on the first element②Tone Definition：Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone language,like Chinese,has four tones.Level,rise,fall-rise,fall③Intonation When pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.English：the four basic types of intonation,or the four tones The falling tone,the rising tone,the fall-rising tone,and the rise-fall tone Chapter 4Morphology[A]The definition of morphology Morphology is abranch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are forme d.Inflectional morphology Derivational morphology(lexical morphology)Morpheme：the smallest meaningful components of words(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)[B]Free morphemes&bound morphemes Free morphemes：can stand by themselves as single wordsàLexical morphemes[n.a.v]&functionalmorphemes[conj.prep.art.pron.]Bound morphemes：can not normally stand alone,but which are typically attached to another formàDerivational morphemes--àaffix(suffix,infix,prefix)+rootàInflectional morphemesà8 8types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+-'s,-s[possessive；plural]Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rd person present singular；present participle；past tense,past participle]Adj+-er,-est[comparative；superlative][C]Derivational vs.inflectional Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of aword Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category；Derivational morphemes are opposite Order：root(stem)+derivational+inflectional[D]Morphological Rules N.+lyàa.；A.+lyàadv.；guard overgeneralization[E]Morphs and allomorphs Morphs：the actual forms used to realize morphemes Allomorphs：a set of morphs,all of which are versions of one morpheme,we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.[F]Word-formation process①Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms②Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages Loan-translation(Claque)àa direct translation of the elements of awordinto the borrowing language Stand alone to be the opposite of word-formation③Compoundingàa joining of two separate words to produce asingle form Features of compounds a)Orthographically,a compound can be written as one word,with or without ahyphen in between,or as two separate words.b)Syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.c)Semantically,the meaning of acompound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.d)Phonetically,the stress of acompound alw ays falls on the first element,While the second element receives secondary stress.④Blendingàtaking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word⑤Clippingàa word of more than one syllable reduced to ashorter form⑥Back formationàa process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Hypocorismsàclipping or+ie⑦Conversionàcategory change,functional shift⑧Acronymsànew words are formed from the initial letters of aset of other words⑨Derivationàthe new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots,stems,or words⑩Abbreviationàa shortened form of aword or phrase which represents the complete form Analogy Chapter 5Grammar[A]Types of grammar The study of grammar,or the study of the structure of expressions in alanguage,has avery long tradition.①Mental grammar：a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriatelystructured expressions in that language.àPsycholog ist②Linguistic etiquette：the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in alanguage.àSociologist③The study and analysis of the structures found inalanguage,with the aim of establishing adescription of the grammar of English,e.g.as distinct from the grammar of Russia or French.àLinguist[B]The parts of speechNouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositions,pronouns,conjunctionsàthe grammatical categories of words in sentences[C]Traditional grammar(Categories and analysis)Other categories：number,person,tense,voice and gender Agreement：English languagenatural gender Grammatical genderàFrench[D]Types of grammar concerning analysis The prescriptive approach：The view of grammar as aset of rules for the proper use of alanguage The descriptive approach：analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used,not according to some view of how it should be used.[E]Structural and immediate constituent analysis(IC Analysis)Structural analysis：to investigate the distinction offorms(e.g.morphemes)in alanguage IC Analysis：how smallconstituents(Components)in sentences go together to form larger constituents[F]Labeled and bracketed sentences Hierarchical organization of the constituents in asentence Label each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art.N.NP Chapter 6Syntax[A]The definition of syntax Asubfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language[B]The basic components of asentence Sentence Subject Predicate Referring expression comprises finite verb or averb phrase and says something about the subject[C]Types of sentences Simple sentence：consists of asingle clause which contains asubject and apredicate and stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate(Compound)sentence：contains two clauses joined by alinking word called coordinating conjunctions,such as"and","by","or"…Complex sentence：contains two,or more,clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other Embedded clauseàmatrix clause①subordinator②f unctions as agrammatical unit③may be complete[D]The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences When asentence is uttered or written down,the words of the sentence are produced one after another in asequence,which suggests the structure of asentence is linear.But the superficial arrangement of words in alinear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured；sentencesare organized with words of the same syntactic category,such as NP or VP,grouped together.Tree diagram of constituent structure Brackets and subscript labels[E]Some categories Syntactic categories：refer to aword or aphrase that performs aparticular grammatical function,such as the subject or the predicate Lexical categories：(parts of speech)Major lexical categories(open categories)：N.V.Adj.Adv.Minor lexical categories(closed categories)：Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.Phrasal categories：NP,VP,PP,AP[F]Grammatical Relations The structural and logical functional relations of constituents It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb Subject of and direct object of Structural subject,structural object Logical subject(the doer of the action),the logical object(the recipient of the action)These two groups of subjects and objects may have different positions[G]Combinational rules Are small in numberàYield all the possible sentences Rule out the impossible ones①phrase structure rules(rewrite rules)SàNP VP(A sentence consists of,or is rewritten as,a noun phrase and averb phrase)NPà(Det.)(Adj.)N(PP)(S)An optional determiner….and obligatory noun,VPàV(NP)(POP)(S)APàA(PP)(S)PPàP NP②the recursiveness of phrase structure rules Significantly,the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences,and sentences with infinite length,due to their recursive properties.③X-bar theory Headàan obligatory word that givers the phrase its name XP or X-phrase XPà(Specifier)X(complement)Formula：X"àSpec X'X-bar theory(X-bar schema)X'àX compl Tree diagram X"Specifier X'X complement[H]Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement：occurs when aconstituent in asentence moves out of its original place to anew place Transformational rules①NP-movement and WH-movement NP-movement：active voiceàpassive voice Postposing,preposing WH-movement：affirmativeàinterroga tive Leftward matter to the sentence initial-position②Other types of movement Aux-movement：the movement of an auxiliary to the sentence-initial position③D-structure and S-structure Two levels of syntactic representation of asentence structure：One that exists before movement takes place The other that occurs after movement takes place Formal linguistic exploration：D-structure：phrase structure rules+lexicon Sentence at the level of D-structure The application of syntactic movement rules transforms asentence from D-structure level to S-structure level Transformational-generative line of analysis④Moveα– ageneral movement rule Move any constituent to any place Certain constituents can move to only certain positions[I]Universal Grammar(UG)Principles-and-parameters theory：UG is asystem of linguistic knowledge and ahuman species-specific gift which exits in the mind or brain of anormal human being and which consists of some general principles and parameters aboutnatural languages.①general principles of UG Case condition principle：a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by Vor Pto the object position or by Aux to the subject position Adjacency condition or Case assignment：a case assignor and acase recipient should stay adjacency to each other.It is strictly observed in English well-formed sentences,not other languages(no other phrasal category can intervene between averb and its direct object)The Adjacency condition must be subject to parametric variationin order to explain the apparent adjacency violations such as in French.②The parameters of UG Parameters are syntactic options of UGthat allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.[+strict adjacency]Adjacency parameter[-strict adjacency][Rightward directionality]The Directionality Parameteràinvolves word order[Leftward directionality]En：VP word order VPàV NP Jp：VP word order VPàNP VNatural languages are viewed to vary according to parameters set on UG principles to particular values.Chapter 7Semantics[A]The definition of semantics Definition：the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view[B]Some views concerning the study of meaning①the naming theory：The linguistic forms or symbols,in other words,the words used in alanguage are taken to be labels of theobjects they stand for；words are just names or labels for things.②the conceptualist view：There's no direct link betweenalinguistic form and what it refers to(i.e.between language and the real world)；rather,in the interpretation of meaning,they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Thought/referenceàconcept Symbol/Form(words)Referentà(real object)Proposed by Ogden&Richards③contextualism：John Firth The situational context：inaparticular spatiotemporal situation Linguistic context(co-text)：the probability of aword's co-occurrence or collocation with another word④behaviorismàBloomfield based on contextualist view Behaviorists define meaning of alanguage form as the situation in which thespeaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer S：stimulus r：response Jill Jack S---r…s---R(the small letters r,sàspeech)(the capitalized letter R,Sàpractical events)[C]Sense and reference Sense：is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form,abstract and de-contextualized.Reference：means what alinguistic form refers to in thereal,physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience Moving star Ionce was bitten by adog.Morning star Mind you.There is adog over there.[D]Major sense relations①synonymyàthe sameness or close similarity of meaninga.dialectal synonyms--synonyms used in different regional dialectsb.stylistic synonyms--synonyms differing in stylec.synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd.collocational synonymse.semantically different synonyms②polysemy--one word that has more than one related meaning③homonymy Homophones：when two words are identical in sound Homographs：when two words are identical in spelling Complete homonyms：when two words are identical both in spelling and in Sound Etymology④hyponymy--inclusiveness The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinator.The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.Co-hyponym⑤antonymy--oppositeness Gradable antonyms Complementary antonyms Relational opposites：pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of arelationship between items⑥metonymy Meaning based on aclose connection in everyday experience,of which can be based on acontainer-contents relation,a whole-part relation,or arepresentative-symbol relationship⑦collocation Organize the knowledge of words in terms of frequently occurring together。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(形态学)【圣才】
Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which
2 / 32
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台Байду номын сангаас
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
第 3 章 形态学
3.1 复习笔记
本章要点： 1. Open class and closed class
开放词类与封闭词类 2. Morpheme
语素 3. Analyzing word structure
分析词语结构 4. Derivational and inflectional morphemes
words are formed, including inflection and word formation. 形态学研究词的内部结构以及构词规则，包括屈折变化和构词法两个领域。
II. Open class and closed class（开放类和封闭类） 1. Open class words: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language. 开放性词类：在英语中，名词、动词、形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。它们是一门语 言中的实义词，经常有新词产生。 2. Closed class words: The other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of relatively few words and new words are not usually added to them. 封闭性词类：其他的句法范畴包括“语法性的”或者“功能性的”词。连词、介词、冠 词和代词相对较少，通常不会增加新词。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版)_戴炜栋(word文档良心出品)
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can notbe found in animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to writtenlanguage in modern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程, 戴炜栋ContentsChapter 1 Introduction (1)Chapter 2 Phonology (5)Chapter 3 Morphology (8)Chapter 4 Syntax (9)Chapter 5 Semantics (12)Chapter 6 Pragmatics (16)Chapter 7 Historical linguistics (19)Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics (24)Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics (29)Chapter 10 Language Acquisition (32)Chapter 1 Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
戴炜栋《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter_3_Morphology320
3.2 Morphemes 1. word: a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.2 Morphemes Discussion: Try to study the internal structures of the following words to find out the smaller meaningful components. internationalization blackboard worked tourists
2) Bound morphemes Free root: (free morpheme) a root which has a clear and definite meaning and which can be used as a word; All the root words are free roots.
3.1 Introduction Morphology: a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. predict: pre: before dict: speak Can pre- and dict be structurally and semantically further analyzed?
Alter the meaning or derivational affixes: grammatical category of the base
戴伟栋 新编简明英语语言学教程笔记【精选文档】
戴版语言学Chapter One——--IntroductionPart one——-—What is linguistics？1. Definition-——-linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。
Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure。
No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists’ task： basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built。
I nterest of linguists is “what is said”2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics--—-the study of language as a whole--—--the core of linguisticsPhonetics-—-—the study of sounds used in linguistic communication。
Phonology--——the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology-———the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》章节题库(导言) 【圣才出品】
第1章导言I. Multiple choices:1. Which of the following does NOT state how the linguist discovers the nature and the rules of the underlying language system?A. He has to collect and observe language facts.B. He has to display and then generalize some similarities of the language facts.C. He has to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.D. He has to deal with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models andmethods applicable in any linguistic study.【答案】D【解析】语言学家为了找出潜在的语言系统中的实质和规则，须要收集和观察语言事实，找出某些语言事实的相似性并对其作出概括；然后，对语言结构进行某种假设，再对照所观察到的事实进行反复验证以充分证明它们的有效性。
因此，本题的正确答案为D。
2. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?A. Arbitrariness.B. Productivity.C. Cultural transmission.D. Finiteness.【答案】D【解析】语言的区别性特征有五个：arbitrariness（任意性），productivity（多产性）或creativity（创造性），duality（二重性），displacement（移位性），cultural transmission （文化传递性）。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第1章 导 言——第3章
第1章导言1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2. 有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的识别特征(任意性、能产性、二重性、移位性、文化传递)；语言的功能。
本章内容索引：I. The definition of linguisticsII. The scope of linguistics1. Micro-linguistics2. Macro-linguisticsIII. Some important distinctions in linguistics1. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic3. Speech vs. Writing4. Langue vs. Parole5. Competence vs. Performance6. Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Linguistics IV. The definition of languageV. The design features of language1. Arbitrariness2. Productivity3. Duality4. Displacement5. Cultural Transmission6. InterchangeabilityVI. Functions of language1. Main functions2. Basic functions3. MacrofuntionsI. The definition of linguistics（语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言学通常被定义为对语言进行科学性研究的学科。
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版(word文档良心出品)
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
戴伟栋语言学 简明语言学教程
戴版语言学Chapter One----IntroductionPart one----What is linguistics?1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguistics理论语言学Phonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.语音学Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.音韵学Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.形态学Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formation句法学Semantics-----the study of meaning.语义学Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.语用学Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.社会语言学Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.心里语言学Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptiveprescriptive----the linguistic stud y aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 规定性Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 描写性Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.共时性Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.历时性A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writing言语和文字Two major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing:(1)writing syste m is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech.(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while w riting language is only the ―revised‖ record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.语言Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied话语(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言能力Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言应用(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguistics传统语法和现代语言学The beginning of modern linguistics-- the publication of Saussure‘s ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.Part Two----What is language?1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.V ocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.2. Design features识别性特征----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12) Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.任意性Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.能产性(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaning双层性(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doe sn‘t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.移位性(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through t eaching and learning, rather than by instinct.文化传承3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the ―content‖ of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those ―Phatic language‖, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‘t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‘s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‘s babbles and chanter‘s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use ―book‖ to ref er to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use ―the word book‖ to stand by the concept ―book‖ as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLinguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two: Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker use s his speech organs to articulate the sounds. -------speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.-----heareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.-----physical properties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavity----throat.2 the oral cavity-------------mouth.------tongue: most flexible.3 the nasal cavity-----------nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η]. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].Affricates: [t∫],[d3]Liquids: [l], [r].Nasals: [m], [n], [η]Glides: [w], [j].------semi-vowels2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].Labiodental: [f], [v]Dental: [θ], [ ]Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].Velar: [k], [g], [η]Glottal: [h].Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English V owels.1 the position of the tongue:front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a]central: [з:], [з], [/\]back: [u:], [u], [o], [o:], [a:]2 the openness of the mouth.Close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u],Semi-close: [e], [з:]Semi-open: [з], [o:]Open vowels: [æ], [a], [/\],[o], [a:]3 shape of the lips:unrounded: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з:], [з], [/\],[a:]rounded: [u:], [u], [o], [o:].4 length of the sound:long vowels: [i:], [з:], [u:], [o:], [a:]short vowels: [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з], [/\],[u], [o].5 monophthong : the individual vowel.-----above vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. [ei], [ai], [oi], [iз], [au], [зu], [eз], [uз]----eight diphthongs.Part Three: Phonology1. Phonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-----how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear [l] and dark [l]:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [l] of the same [l], aspirated [p] and unaspirated [p] of the same [p] in different phonetic environments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.E.g. [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] form phonemic contrast.complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don‘t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear [l] and dark [l] respectively in thepronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 5. Suprasegmental Features----stress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. ‗impott (n)----im‘port (v), ‗record (n)-----re‘cord (v)‗blackbird (compound)-----‗black‗bird (noncompound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns. E.g. ‘dining room(compound)----sleeping ‘baby (noncompound) Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.------He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. ------four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tone------what is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tone-------make a question of what is said.The fall-rise tone----indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordsthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‗take (v), in‘action (n), up‘lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‗redcoat, ‗greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means forforming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, VWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word‘s category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‘s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2 Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different categories take different inflection.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word‘s c ategory, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3 Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion: Thus, a word‘s distributional facts together with inf ormation about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify is syntactic category.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P < ---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Part Three Phrase Structure Rulephrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP----- > (Det) N (P P)…. AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) v (NP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)….1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.2. X▔ TheoryX▔theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X▔. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:a. XP----- > (specifier) X▔b. X▔----> X (complement)3. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con XPart Four: Phrase elements1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make m ore precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, they ty pically make a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.subcategorization: the information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.XP ----- > (Specifier) X (Complements*)― * ‖ means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.―that‖ ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.―she will win‖ ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.―that she will win‖ ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.―Miss Hebert believes‖ ---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.XP------ > (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)1 The S rule : S ----> NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a complement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence‘s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.1 Infl realized by a tense label-----The boy found the book.2 Infl position realized by an auxiliary----A boy will find the book.Part Six : Transformations1. Auxiliary movementtransformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.The yes-no question structures are built in two steps :1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.2 In forming a yes-no question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.2. Do InsertionHow to form a yes-no question that does not conta in an overt Infl such as ― Birds fly.‖Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.3. Deep structure and surface structuredeep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.The XP rule---> Deep structure ---> Transformation ---> Surface structure. (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements.)4. Wh MovementWh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement. 【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:She has finally found the man who she loves.5. Moveａand constraints on transformationsmove α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‗alpha‗ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more didtant C position.E.g.: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题考研真题
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
全国547所院校视频及题库全收集
考研全套>视频资料>课后答案>往年真题>职称考试
第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版),戴炜栋
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can not be foundin animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to written language inmodern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》章节题库(形态学) 【圣才出品】
第3章形态学I. Multiple choices:1. ______ is the study of the way how morphemes, representation of sounds, are arranged and combined to form words.A. LexicologyB. MorphologyC. PhonologyD. Morphological rule【答案】B【解析】题干是对形态学的解释，形态学是研究词素如何组合构成词的学科。
A项为词典学，C项为音位学，D项为词素音位规则。
因此，本题的正确答案为B。
2. Which of the following is CORRECT?A. Content words of a language are sometimes called closed class words.B. New words can be added to content words regularly.C. Open class words consist of “grammatical” or “functional” words.D. The number of such words as conjunctions, prepositions, articles andpronouns is large and unstable, since many new words are added.【答案】B【解析】因为经常有很多新词能增加进入实义词范畴，它们有时也称为开放性词类，B项正确；而连词、介词、冠词和代词等由“语法性的”或“功能性的”词构成，而此类词相对量少，由于通常不添加新词，所以它们也被称为封闭性词类。
因此，本题的正确答案为B。
3. What is the minimal unit of meaning?A. Phoneme.B. Morpheme.C. Allophone.D. Allomorph.【答案】B【解析】词素是最小的意义单位。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1-3章课后练习题答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1 IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to formwords;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences inlanguages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysisare mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially2．2语言的识别性特征）different from animal communication system?（美国语言学家C. Hockett提出了人类语言的12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。