语言学chapter eight part3
语言学导论第八章
Chapter 8 Language and Society
sociolinguistics社会语言学 --- the study of the relation between language and society
Preliminaries: 1.Find out the differences between male and female languages. 2.Try to discover the distinctions between the language of the younger generation and that of the older generation in China. 3.Think of some examples of code-mixing in the speech of Cantonese.
nguage and age c.jargon: doctor’s language lawyer’s language computational language (Part of a conversation between a judge and a sailor) … The judge: You mean you came into this court as a witness and don’t know what plaintiff means? … The sailor: You mean you came into the court and don’t know where abaft the binnacle is?
speech community言语社区 --- a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms
Chapter8语言学
Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。
语言学第九单元和第八单元
Chapter 8 Language and societySociolinguistics ---- aν sub-field of linguists that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.The relatedness between language and society----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships.ν (e.g. greeting)The use of language is in part determined by the user’sν social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both theν physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)Asνa social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).Speech community and speech varietySpeechνcommunity---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.Speech variety orνlanguage variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.Two approaches to sociolinguistic studiesMacro sociolinguistics, i.e. aνbird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;Micro sociolinguistics,νi.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.Varieties of languageDialectal varietiesνRegisterνDegree of formalityνDialectal varietiesRegional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.). Sociolect is a linguisticν variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation) Language and gender (e.g. intonation, lexicon)νν Language and age (Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----boombox)Idiolect---- a personal dialect of an individualν speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. Hemingway, Luxun).Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of aν language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).RegisterRegister, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety ofνlanguage related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according toνHalliday, “languag e varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three socialνvariables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variablesField of discourse: whatν is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)Tenor of discourse: the role ofνrelationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)Mode of discourse: theν means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)Degree of formality----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)Intimate: Up you go, chaps!νCasual: Time youν all went upstairs now.Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs rightν away, please?Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs atν once.Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor byν way of the staircase.----Note: Different styles of the same language can be characterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological(P121).Standard dialectThe standard variety is aν superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Pidgin and CreoleA pidginνis a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speechν community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.Bilingualism and DiglossiaIn some speech communities, two languages are used side by sideν with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.According to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguisticν situation similar to bilingualism. But in stead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two varieties of a lan guage exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.Chapter 9 Language and cultureWhat is culture?Inν a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the lifeof the human community.In a narrow sense,ν culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.νThe relationship between language and cultureThe same word may stir upν different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’sνattitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.The culture both emancipates andν constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.Culture alsoνaffects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.On the one hand, language as anν integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.Sapir-Whorf hypothesisEdward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structureν of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’sνperception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.Strong version & weak versionStrong version believes that the language patternsν determine people’s thinking and behavior;Weak version holds that theν former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:There is nowadays a recognition thatν language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize howνimportant context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Linguistic evidence of cultural differencesDenotativeν meaning ---- a meaning that can be found in a dictionary.Connotativeν meaning ---- a meaning or idea suggested by a word or thing in addition to the formal meaning or nature of the word or thing.Iconic meaning ---- theν image or icon invoked in mind by a word.For exam ple, “rose”.νSome cultural differences in language useGrThanks and complimentsColor wordsPrivacy and taboosRounding off numbersWords and cultural-specific connotationsCultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphorThe significance of cultural teaching and learningLearning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture.We need to learn enough about the language’s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well.Cultural overlapCultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such as“Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”Cultural diffusionThrough communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion.One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)Intercultural communicationIntercultural or cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.。
英语语言学8.3.3
• Heuristic 2: I-Heuristic related directly to Grice’s second Maxim of Quantity. The underlying idea is that one need not say what can be taken for granted”.
– John came in and the man laughed.
There is still a long way to go before we find a solution to all the problems we have in the study of language in use, and there are new attempts to improve on all these principles.
5
• Heuristic 1: Q-Heuristic “more or less transparently related to Grice’s first Maxim of Quantity” responsible for two types of implicatures: scalar implicatures and clausal implicatures
1.(a) If you mow the lawn, I'll give you $5. (b) If and only if you mow the lawn, I'll give you $5.
2.(a) John said “Hello” to the secretary and then he smiled. (b) John said “Hello” to the female secretary and then John smiled.
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。
英语语言学笔记第八章
第八章语言的使用在语义那一章里，我们谈到"意义"一词可以有不同的意义，并对其中的几种作了讨论。
但是还有一种重要的意义我们没有涉及到。
假定有人对你说"You're a fool（你是个傻子）"，你一般都会反问："What do you mean?（你什么意思）"。
这并不是因为你不知道句子中各词的意思，也不是因为句子的结构太复杂，让你难以理解。
你清楚地知道you指谁，fool是什么涵义，也知道句子的结构。
你不知道的是说话人说这句话究竟是什么意思，有什么意图。
或者，你知道说话人的意图，却想用"What do you mean（你什么意思）？"来反驳对方的说法。
你这里用的并不是句子的概念意义。
这种意义有时称为"说话者意义"、"语句意义"或者"语境意义"。
这种意义与我们在语义学中研究的意义不同，对它的解释更多地依赖于说话人是谁，听话人是谁，什么时候在什么地方说这句话。
总之就是取决于语境。
研究这种意义的学科叫语用学。
因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。
现在如果我们把意义分成两大类：一类与所用的词密切相关，较稳定，是固有意义（语义学研究的意义）；另一类与语境密切相关，不太确定，是附加意义（语用学研究的意义），那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning - semantics（语用学意义= 意义- 语义学意义）。
8.1 言语行为理论这个理论是牛津哲学家奥斯汀（J. L. Austin）提出的，是研究语言使用的第一个重要理论。
奥斯汀从1952年开始讲授他的理论。
1955年，他去美国哈佛大学做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）讲座时，修订了自己的讲稿，把题目从《言与行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。
语言学教程第八章知识点
Chapter EightPragmatics⏹Definition⏹Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, andspecifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.⏹In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced theword “Pragmatics” into literature.⏹莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：⏹句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
⏹Teaching Focus⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 2. Speech act theory⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹ 4. Post-Gricean Developments⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹ 1.3 Context⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹Various definitions:⏹The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.⏹The study of language in use.⏹The study of meaning in context.⏹The study o f speakers’ meaning,utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of language.⏹没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realizationWhat essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.⏹If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditionalsemantics (decontextualized);⏹If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics. (contextualized)⏹Semantics & Pragmatics⏹Peter bought a car.⏹It was Peter who bought a car.⏹It was a car that Peter bought.⏹What peter bought was a car.⏹句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果⏹语义学：这些句子都是同义的。
语言学第八单元
The Cooperative Principle 合作原则） （合作原则）
1. 2. 3. 4. Maxim of Quantity 量的准则 Maxim of Quality 质的准则 Maxim of Relation 关联准则 Maxim of Manner 方式准则
Maxim of Quantity 质的准则
A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论） （行事行为理论）
1. Locutionary act（发话行为） 2. Illocutionary act（行事行为） 3. Perlocutionary act（取效行为）
A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论） （行事行为理论）
Chapter 8
Language in Use
speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning, contextual meaning • Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. • It depends more on the context.
semantics VS atics
• Semantics: more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning • Pragmatics: more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or sth. extra. pragmatics=meaning-semantics
英语专八复习资料3
第三部分：英语语言学一.语言学导论1.design feature of language（语言的定义特征）Defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1)Arbitrariness（任意性）-----the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning.2)Duality(二层性)-----the property of having two levels of structures,such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds>syllables>words>phrases>clauses>sentences>texts/discourses3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性)-----Language can be used to create new meaningsbecause of its duality举例1：/k/,/a:/,/p/----carp or park举例2：England,defeated,FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4)Displacement（移位性）------Human languages enable their users to symbolize somethingwhich are not present at the moment of communication.5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性)------language is passed on from generation togeneration through teaching and learning rather than instinct.4.Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)⏹1)Descriptive（描述性）vs.Prescriptive（规定性）Descriptive:describing how things are.Prescriptive:prescribing how things ought to be举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command,while the second is a descriptive statement.⏹2).Synchronic（共时性）vs.Diachronic（历时性）Synchronic:takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.Diachronic:the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies(共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies(历时研究)⏹3).langue（语言）&parole（言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）,father of modern linguisticsLangue:abstract linguistic systemParole:actual realization of langue举例：汉语系统langue每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语parole⏹4)Competence（语言能力）and performance（语言运用）Theorist:Chomsky(乔姆斯基)Competence:user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.Performance:the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.nguage Families(世界语言分类)3.important distinctions in linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念) langue（语言）&parole（言语）Competence（语言能力）and performance（语言运用）4.scope of linguistics(语言学的研究范围)1）按研究内容来分2）按研究导向来分39.Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?A.Arbitrariness.B.Productivity.C.Cultural transmission.D.Finiteness.40.The distinction between parole and langue was made byA.HallidayB.ChomskyC.BloomfieldD.Saussure38.Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language?A.Arbitrariness.B.DisplacementC.Duality.D.Diachronicity38.Which of the following does NOT belong to the Indo-European Family?A.FrenchB.BengaliC.Vietnamee 属于南亚语系孟-高棉语族越-芒语支D.Polish39.Modern linguistics attempts to describe and analyze the language people actually use,and notto lay down rules for “correct linguistic behavior,so it is supposed to beA.descriptiveB.prescriptivemunicativeD.predictive二.语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别★Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages:how they are produced,transmittedand how they are received.语音学分类●articulatory phonetics(发音语音学):speaker’s production ●acoustic phonetics （声学语音学）:transmission’s medium ●auditory phonetics(听觉语音学):receiver’s reception★Phonology:aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how thesesounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.★区别:meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too 中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea 中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处,音系学不研究2.语音学重要概念:清音和浊音Position of the vocal folds(声带):voicing(浊音)and voiceless(清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart,letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together,letting the air stream vibrates浊音:[b,z,d]1.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.2.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels,the description of the consonants andvowels cannot be done along the same lines.3.音系学重要概念:音子，音位,超音段特征音系学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.音系学重要概念:●phone音子------a phonetic unit;the speech sounds we hear and produce during communicationare all phones举例:too和tea中的/t/发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too和tea中的/t/两个不同的音子●phoneme音位(音系研究的基本单位)-----phonological and abstract unit,a unit of distinctivevalue;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea和sea,/t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morpheme●supra-segmental features超音段特征-----Suprasegmental features:phonemic features that occurabove the level of the segments.●Supra-segmental features(超音段特征)：1.stress（重音）------sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocalfolds.举例:perfect(adj)和perfect(v)tone(声调)/pitch(音高):举例:mā妈,má麻,mă马，mà骂2.intonation（语调）：pitch,stress,and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word inisolation.38.The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is_______A.morphologyB.general linguisticsC.phonologyD.semantics39.Which of the following is a CORRECT definition of a phone?A.It is a phonological unitB.It is a speech soundC.It is an abstract sound featureD.It is an actual realization of a phoneme40.When pitch,stress,and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known asA.toneB.pronunciationC.voicingD.intonationWhat is the point of departure of phonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme(音位)What is the point of departure of phonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme三.形态学1.语素的定义和分类1).morpheme(语素）.The most basic element of meaning in language，a n element that cannot befurther divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：⏹ball⏹football⏹balls2)Types of MorphemesFree morphemes vs.Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves,eg boy,girl,table,nation.Bound morphemes:those that cannot occur alone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.Inflectional morpheme(屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning(number,aspect,case,tense)1.Inflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:2.改变名称的性，数，格：-ess,-s,3.改变动词的时,态，体:-ing,-ed,4.改变形容词的级：-er,-estDerivational morpheme（派生语素）=inflectional affix(派生词缀）:change the lexical meaning1.Derivational morpheme(改变词义):2.改变词义：dis-,un-,multi-,micro-3.改变词性：en-,-full,-mentDis+like+s↓↓↓derivational free inflectional morphemelight+en+ed↓↓↓free derivational inflectional morpheme3.词的分类（classification of words）词的分类-按构词法分⏹如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word):拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。
英语语言学八(8.2.3)
• (1) Calulability • (2) Cancellability • (3) Non-detachability • (4) Non-conventionality
•(1)Calculability
• The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and listeners are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable. They can be worked out on the basis of some previous information. He also lists some necessary datas in his paper.
It means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. In other words,an implicature will not be detached, separated from the utterance as a whole, even thoue changed.
• He suggests there is a general pattern for the working out of a conversation implicature • That is--when somebody says something,which apparently does not make sense at superfical lever,the lever of what is said,you will not simply think that he is taking nonsense and stop thinking about it any more. • If you find there is something supporting your previous assumptions, you will take it as the real point the speaker is trying to get across.
英语专业八级语言学总结（3）
英语专业八级语言学总结（3）I. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances(发声).4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models andconcepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韵学）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(互补分布）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation （语调）.IV. Morphology（词法）1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程）of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(词素）：the smallest unit in terms ofrelationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）：some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix（词缀）and stem（词干）6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性）and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上）indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序）which is semantically（语义上）and often syntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）：the habitual(习惯的）co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序）arrangement of words in a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）：the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）：the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms ofsubjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语）complements （补语）, etc.4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological （心理的）"associative" bond.（相关联系）2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景）in which the speaker utters （说话）it and the response（反应）it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism (功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派）linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩）that meaning could only be interpreted（解释）from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分）analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.VII. Language variation (语言变化）1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.3. Compounding 合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root,or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.5. Abbreviation or clipping (缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.6. acronym 取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰）headword.7. metanalysis (再分化）It refers to a process through whicha division is made where there were note before.8. Back-formation (逆构词）It refers to an abnormal(非正常）type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉）an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明）the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合）of some English verbs.更多信息请访问：/doc/a810751277.html,/10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法）and syntax （句法）are listed under this heading.13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大）narrowing,（语义缩小）meaning shift,（意义转化）class shift（词性转换）and folk etymology.（词源变化）14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.。
语言学教程Chapter 8. Language in Use概述
Groom:
I do.
17
• Features of performatives
• First person singular
• Speech act verbs / performative verbs:
– The present tense – Indicative mood
– Active voice
20
3. Illocutionary Act Theory
• John Searle (1932- ) • Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels: • A locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.
7
• Contextual Meaning: meaning in context
– The meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is , who the hearer is, when and where it is used. – It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.
25
• Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
英语语言学 第八章
dialects, sociolects and registers.
Varieties of language
Language: what the members of a particular society speak Variety: „a set of linguistic items with similar distribution‟ (Hudson): English, French, London English, the English of football commentaries…
蹩脚bilge船底污水引申为肮脏的下三滥的劣质的大兴dashy浮华的华而不实的引申为假的冒牌的劣质的sale二手货贱卖引申为垃圾货形容人的品质低劣瘪三begsir乞丐先生用来形容叫花子难民逃荒者等各式穷人后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一
• Language is not always used to
exchange information as is generally
each of them chooses to use is in
part determined by one’s social background. – When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about
our origin and our background.
language live.
1. The relations between language and society
----There are many indications of the interrelationship between language and society.
考研语言学第八章笔记
考研语⾔学第⼋章笔记笔记Pragmatics:It is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker's meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.* pragmatics and semantics区别1.Pragmatics' interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.= it depends more on the context.2.It takes context into consideration while semantics concentrates on the study of literal meaning without context.3.It can also be defined as the study of language in use.Pragmatics and semantics 联系Semantics: studies the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning. Pragmatics: studies the side more closely related to the context, the more indetermined side, or something extra.Speech Act TheoryPerformatives施为句and constatives叙事句Performatives: the statements which are used to do something. They do not describe a fact and they are not verifiable. (宣布，命名，许诺，打赌）I name this ship the Queen ElizabethI bequeath this watch to my brother.I promise to finish it in time.I find you guilty. You did it. Thank you. I order you to turn right. People are warned to keep off the grass.I state that I am alone responsible.I declare the meeting open.Constatives: the statements are used to state/describe a fact.They are verifiable.First i open the door then i sit next to the door.Though performatives cannot be true or false, there are still conditions for them to meet to be appropriate.----Austin, Felicity Conditions1.There must be a relevant conventional procedure. The relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.2.The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.3.The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.因为适合条件不够完善，只能使⽤于部分情况，所以Austin放弃了他最初对叙事句和施为句的区分，建⽴了另外⼀套模式来解释如何通过语⾔事实⾏为。
语言学教程 第三版 第八章 语用学
官方总站：圣才学习网
8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act
Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels: ■A locutionary act（发话行为/言内行为）: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”. ■An illocutionary act（行事行为/言外行为）: an act performed in saying something. To say sth is to do sth.
■Conclusion: ■The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintained. ■All sentences can be used to do things.
中华英语学习网
■In saying X, I was doing Y. ■In saying “I will come tomorrow”, I was making a promise. ■Illocutionary force: equivalent to speaker's meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning, and may be
■John Austin (1911-1960) ■How to Do Things with Words (1962) ■speech acts: actions performed via utterances
8.1.1 Performatives vs. Constatives（施为句与叙事句） ■Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe
语言学 第八章
Chapter 8
Language and Society
8.2 Varieties of language
Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers 8.2.1. Dialectal varieties 8.2.1.1 Regional dialect : is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. The change from one dialect to another is very often a gradual process Reason:1 geographical barriers 2 loyalty to one’s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change
Speech Community:
For general linguistics: speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language For sociolinguistics: speech community is a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes towards linguistic norms
新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society
新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-soc ietyChapter 8 Language and society语⾔和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regionaldialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核⽬标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应⽤：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应⽤：Halliday’s register theory⼀、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语⾔学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语⾔学是语⾔学中的⼀个次领域，它研究语⾔与社会的关系，以及语⾔的运⽤和语⾔使⽤者所在的社会结构之间的关系。
《八级备考语言学》word版
Chapter 1 IntroductionLinguistics，Core of linguistics, Important distinctions, Language, Design features of language, Functionsof languageLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languagesin general. Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of social science.It includes general (theoretical) linguistics and applied linguistics.General linguistics－the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.Applied Linguistics:In a narrow sense, it refers to the aapplication of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, esp. the teaching of foreign and second languages.In a broad sense, it refers to the fact that findings in linguistic studies are applied to the practical problems. For example, lexicology, translation, speech pathology, recovery of speech ability; sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, biolinguistics, computational linguistics, stylistics, information theory, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc…Main branches of linguistics: Phonetics 语音学, Phonology 音位学, Morphology 形态学, Syntax 句法学, Semantics 语义学, Pragmatics 语用学Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.Prescriptive vs. descriptive: 规定性和描写性A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay d ow n rules for “correct and standard” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive while modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronic:共时和历时The description of a language at some point of time is a synchronic study (synchrony). The descriptionof a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachrony).An essay entitled “On the Use of THE” may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.Speech and writing: 口语和书面语•The two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is primary because: 1. It existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write; 2. Written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds.Writing gives language new scope and uses that speech does not have:1. Messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other;2. Messages can be carried though time so that we can read the books in the past;3. Oral messages are readily subject to distortion while writing messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century. Langue and parole:语言和言语F. de Saussure (Swiss linguist) refers langue to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue: the set of conventions and rules language users have to abide by, abstract, relatively stable. Parole: the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, concrete, variable. Saussure: a linguist should abstract langue from parole (to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language).Competence and performance:语言能力和语言应用According to N. Chomsky (American linguist), competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the act realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication. competence: stable; performance: influenced by psychological and social factorsChomsky: a linguist should study the competence instead of performance.Saussure: a sociological view of languge langue=a matter of social conventionsChomsky: psychological point of view competence=a property of the mind of each individualTraditional grammar and modern linguisticsF. de Saussure 1916 Course in General LingusiticsTraditional grammar: prescriptive, priority of written word, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics: descriptive, priority of spoken, a universal frameworkLanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a system, because linguistic elements are arranged according to rules, rather than randomly.It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books” and also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” –Romeo and JulietIt is vocal because the sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children can only learn to speak before they write also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writing.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.Design Features (识别特征): arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.” By Bertrand Russell.Arbitrariness: 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性 Different languages have different ways to construct the words into a sentence (syntax).Duality: 双层性 two sets of structure or patterningAt the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, meaningless by themselves. Secondary units (sounds) 底层结构The sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (morphemes, words) , which are found at the higher level of the system. Primary units (meaning)上层结构Productivity/creativity:能产性、创造性 It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Partially originating from its duality; and in another sense, language has the potential to create endless sentences.Unique to human language.Productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky).Displacement: 不受时空限制性 It refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moments of communication. (Hu) It gives human beings the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.Cultural transmission: 文化传递性 While we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system is not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned. Interchangeability：互换性 Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand messages. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.Functions of LanguageDescriptive function, or cognitive / referential / propositional function is assumed to be the main function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.Expressive function, or emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s fe elings, preferences, prejudices and values.Social function, or interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Speech Elements and FunctionRussian-born structural linguist Roman Jakoson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific function.addresser---emotive 感情功能addressee---conative 意动功能context---referential 指称功能message ---poetic 诗意性功能contact ---phatic communion 应酬功能code --metalinguistic 元语功能addresser---emotive 感情功能 The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.e.g. I hate what they are planning for me.addressee---conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.e.g. Why not go and see another doctor?context---referential 指称功能 The addresser conveys a message or information.e.g. As far as I know, the earth’s resources are being astonishingly wasted.message---poetic 诗意性功能 The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. e.g. poetrycontact ---phatic communion 应酬功能 The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. e.g. Good morning. // 吃饭了吗？God bless you. Nice day. code ---metalinguistic 元语功能 The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.e.g. Let me tell you what the word “water” means.Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics, 3 branches of phonetics, Classification of English consonants and vowels, Phonology, Difference between phonetics and phonology, Suprasegmental featuresPhonetics is the the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages. It studies how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.3 branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics. Articulatory: how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. This branch has the longest history and is the focus of this chapter.Auditory: how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic: the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Organs of Speech:The pharyngeal cavity the throat 咽腔 the lungs, the windpipe, the glottis, the vocal cords(vibration of which→voicing, voiceless)The oral cavity the mouth 口腔 the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate(the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lipsThe nasal cavity the nose 鼻腔Voicing: the vibration of the vocal cords when speech sounds are articulated. The sounds are voiced. Voiceless: the lack of vibration of the vocal cords when the sounds are produced. The sounds are voiceless.The first version of International Phonetic Alphabet (国际音标) came into being in August 1888, which was revised recently in 1993, and updated in 1997.IPA’s basic principle: one letter from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式/严式标音Diacritics(附加符号): another set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only; Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.English Sounds: They are divided into consonants and vowels, according to the obstruction whatsoever. If the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction, the sound produced is a vowel; otherwise, it is a consonant.ConsonantsIn terms of manner of articulation:stops: [p] [b], [t] [d], [k] [g] fricatives: [f] [v] [s] [z] [∫] [З] [θ] [ð] [h] affricatives: [t∫] [dЗ] liquids: [l] [r] nasals: [m] [n] [ŋ] glides: [w] [j]In terms of place of articularionbilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w] labiodental: [f] [v] dental: [θ] [ð] alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]palatal: [∫] [З] [t∫] [dЗ] [j] velar: [k] [g] [ŋ] glottal: [h]Vowels: monophthongs, diphthongsMonophthongs are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth; the openness of the mouth; the shape of the lips; the length of the vowels.כ] [a:][ ]:[i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a] [∂:] [∂] [^] [u:] [u] [כDiphthongs: [ei] [ai] [i∂] [e∂] [u∂] [au] [∂u]Phonology and phoneticsSsimilarity: the study of sounds Ddifference: different approaches and focusesPhonetics: all the speech sounds used in all human languages; 语音研究的方法 [s], [i], [t] Phonology: how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication; 语音使用的模式(发现语言中语音的组成规则并解释发生的变化). [s] [i] [t]怎样组合Phone, Phoneme, AllophonePhone: a phonetic unit or segment. 音素The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. Some do, some don’t.Phoneme: a phonological unit of distinctive value .音位 An abstract unit, not any particular sound, represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. e.g. /l/Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets and phonemes in slashes. e.g. Phone [t]---Phoneme /t/The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. 音位变体.Phonological Analysis 音位分析Principle: Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. Minimal pairs(最小对立体): When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, they form a minimal pair. For example: [tin] [din], [bi:t] [bit]All these sound combinations together constitute a minima set. 最小对立集This also applies to the vowels.Minimal pair test is used to find the important sounds in language. It leads to the identifications of over 40 important units in English, which are called phonemes(音位).Phonetically similar sounds related in two ways: pphonemic contrast and ccomplementary distribution pphonemic contrast: two distinctive phonemes. 音位对立 /p/-/b/, /t/-/d/ccomplementary distribution: the allophones of the same phoneme which do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. (音位变体的)互补分布 spit-pit, little,Free variants (音位的)自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound causing by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. either [i:ð∂], [aið∂]Rules in phonologyIn what way the phonemes are combined.Sequential rules (序列规则): the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.e.g. spring, book, snake, ...Assimilation rule(同化规则): the rule assimilating one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. e.g. incorrect, indiscreetDeletion rule(省略规则): the rule that tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. sign-signatureSuprasegmental features 超音段特征Suprasegments are the units of language which are larger than the phonemes---the sound segments, such as syllables, words, phrases and sentences.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology, Word-formation processes, Closed class words and open class wordsDefinition 形态学,词法The branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morpheme, morph, allomorphMorpheme(语素/词素): the smallest unit of meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. box+es, desire+ableIn view of word-formation, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. Syntactically, it is the minimal form of grammatical analysis. e.g. studies, studying, studied (study+, -es, -ing, -ed)Morphemes are abstract units, realized by discrete units known as morphs.Morph (语素形式/形素): The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are morphs.The morph to a morpheme what a phone is to a phoneme.Most morphemes are realized by one morph like bird, cat, tree, sad, want, etc. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph in relation to their phonological context in a word. e.g. The morpheme of plurality {s}: cats, bags, matches // The past tense of the morpheme {be} : was, wereAllomorph(语素变体): alternate shapes or phonetic forms of the same morpheme . An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph allomorph/wud/ /w∂d/ /∂d/ /d/Types of morphemes: free vs. bound, derivational vs. inflectionalFree morpheme(自由语素): a morpheme that constitu tes a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree”, “dog”, …They can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with words. They are all roots. Bound morpheme(粘着语素): a morpheme that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-er” in “teacher”.They are mainly found in derived words. They consist of both roots and affixes.Derivational morphemes(派生语素): those morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach. e.g. ccomputerize, multimediaIn English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折语素): For the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case,…word (part of speech unchanged) e.g. He was reading a letter then.In English, most inflectional morphemes are suffixes.Morphology and Word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A root can be free or bound. All free morphemes are free roots such man, earth, ... A bound root is a form that cannot stand alone but has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Stem is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added. It can be a root or a form bigger than a root. E.g. friends, friendshipsBase is alternative to root or stem.Affix are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.All of them are bound morphemes. They can be divided into inflectional and derivational affixes according to the functions.In view of their distribution, they can be classified as prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes in English are all derivational whereas suffixes are both derivational and inflectional.Word-formation Processes: compounding, affixation or derivation, shortening:/blends混成词(smoke +fog—smog), acronyms(缩略语)( laser, dinky), abbreviations(缩略语)(UN, P.R.A., RMB), clippings(缩写词)(fridge, gym, math), backformation (逆构词法)(editor--- to edit)Types of Words:variable words(可变化词): follow, mat, ... invariable words(不变词): since, when, seldom,... grammatical word(语法词)/function word: conj., prep., art., pron. lexical word(词汇词)/content word 实义词: n., v., adj., ...Open class(开放词类)/content words: n., adj., v., adv. closed class(封闭词类)/functional words: conj., prep., art., pron.Chapter 4 SyntaxSyntax, Category, Phrase, Phrase structure rule, Deep structure and surface structureSyntax(句法): a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Categories(范畴）: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Word level categories: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories. Three criteria(meaning, inflection and distribution) are employed to determine a word’s category.Phrase categoriesA phrase is a syntactic unit that is built around a certain word category, a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Phrase types:NP: the hardworking people VP: buy a book AP: very excited PP: behind the tablePhrase structure rulePhrase structure rule（短语结构规则): a special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. NP → (Det) N (PP) ... VP → (Qual) V (NP) ... AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ... PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...Phrase ElementsHead (中心成分）：the word around which a phrase is formed;Specifier（标志成分）: the words on the left side of the heads; They can be deterniners, qualifiers, degree words, ... .Complement（补充成分）: the words on the right side of the heads.Modifier (修饰语): the words specifying optionally expressible properties of heads. AP proceeding the head ( a very careful girl), PP following he head ( open with care), and AdvP proceeding or following the head ( read carefully, carefully read).A moving story about a sentimental girlspecifier modifier head complementXP Rule: a single general phrasal structural rulethe XP rule →(specifier)X(complement)Coordination rule（并列规则）: Coordination: the phenomenon where the structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Subcategorization(次范畴化) The information about a word's complement is included in the head. A certain lexical itemrequires a certain type of complement. e.g. to appear, to cut a tree, to give him a bookA sentence-like construction=a complementMiss Hebert believes that she will win.complementizer, complement clause, complement phrase, matrix clauseThe expanded XP rule: XP→ (spec)((Mod) X (complement﹡)(Mod)SentenceStructuralist view: (Bloomfield) It is a maximum free form; it is an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form.A sentence is similar to a phrase, with Infl. as its head, NP its specifier and VP its complement. So it has the same internal structure as other phrases and is consistent with the XP rule. Transformations: It refers to the syntactic movement. It can help explain such language phenomena as yes-no question, wh-question and passive voice.Auxiliary movement: Inversion; Do insertion, Wh movement → Move aInversion (Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. → Move Infl to C.) The train will arrive. → Will the train arrive?Trace(语迹): records of the movement of a word.Do Insertion: Used to form a yes-no question without an overt Infl. E.g. Birds fly. Step 1: Birds do fly. (Insertion of Do)Step 2: Do birds fly? (Inversion of Do)D-structure and S-structureDeep structure: The syntactic structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties.Birds fly.Surface structure: The final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Do birds fly? Birds do fly. Birds didn't fly.Organization of the Syntactic Componentthe xp rule↓deep structure←subcategorization restrictschoice of complement↓transformations↓surface structureWh MovementDeep structure of Wh questions. E.g. You can speak what language.Wh movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. E.g. What language you can speak. Inversion occurs to can. E.g. What language can you speak?Move the wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.Move a 移动a规则: A general rule for all the movement rules.a: any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints on movement: a. Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. b. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 SemanticsSemantics, Some views concerning the study of meaning, Major sense relations, Sense relations betweensentences, Analysis of meaning, Two-place, one-place, and no-place predicationSemantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.Different Views: the naming theory, the conceptualist view, conceptualism, behaviorismThe naming theory (命名论): Proposed by PlatoThe linguistic forms or symbols (i.e. words) used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. They are just names or labels for things.Limitations: applicable to nouns but not to verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.; Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the worldThe conceptualist view（概念论）There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Ogden and Richards’ semantic triangle or triangle of significance thought/referencesymbol/form……………………..referentContextualism（语境论）: (1930-1960)Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---elements closely linked with language behavior.J.R. Firth (British linguist): We shall know a word by the company it keeps. Wittgenstein (German philosopher): the meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism（行为主义论）The meaning of a language form is: the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (Bloomfield 1933)Jill JackS…………..r………..s…………….RLexical Meaning: Sense (意义) and reference (语义）Sense: the inherent meaning of a linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized; the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. e.g. Dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form. (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979)Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.Major Sense RelationsSynonymy 同义关系 It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.Dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects e.g. autumn---fall, flat---apartment Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style e.g. start, begin, commence Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning e.g. famous---notorious Collocational synonyms e.g. to accuse …of…/to charge …with…Semantically different synonyms e.g. gaze --- glarePolysemy 一词多义While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than meaning. This is what we call polysemy.Homonymy 同音异义It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. E.g. sun, sonWhen two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. E.g. wind n., wind v.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. e. g. break n., v. Hyponymy 下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.animal (dog, duck, tiger,…)superordinate hyponyms co-hyponymsAntonymy 反义关系It refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Gradable antonyms 等级反义关系 old-youngComplementary antonyms 互补反义关系 alive-dead, male-femaleRelational opposites 反向反义关系 husband-wife, father-sonSense relations between sentencesX is synonymous with Y. E.g. X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. X is inconsistent with Y. E.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.hX entails Y. E.g. X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe.X presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike.X is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.X is semantically anomalous. E.g. The table has bad intentions.Meaning AnalysisComponential analysis 成分分析: a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. It is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. (语义特征)–Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALE–Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, -MALE–Boy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALEPredication analysis (Sentence meaning)Some basic points: The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning (grammaticality) and semantic meaning (selectional restrictions)The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制), which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Predication analysis (述谓结构分析） Proposed by British linguist G.LeechPredication: the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. It consists of argument(s) and predicate. Argument:the logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element or elements in a sentence.Predicate: something said about an argument or it states the logical relations linking the arguments in a sentence.Examples: TOM (SMOKE) Tom smokes. Tom is smoking. Tom has been smoking. Tom, smoke! Does Tom smoke? KID, APPLE (LIKE): Kids like apples.Two-place, one-place, and no-place predication ( It is hot. (BE HOT))Chapter 6 PragmaticsPragmatics vs. semantics; Some basic notions: pragmatics, context, sentence meaning; utterance meaning; Important theories of pragmatics: Speech act theory, Principle of conversation/conversational implicature Definition of Pragmatics: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful。
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Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
The presumption of its own optimal relevance The three definitions of relevance
An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in that context.当且仅当一个设想在一种语境中具有语 境效应时，这个设想 在这个语境中才具有关联 性。
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
The presumption of optimal relevance
a. The set of assumptions ｛I｝ which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressee’s while to process the ostensive stimulus.发话者意欲向听话者显现的这
Cooperative Principle and The Principle of Economy
Quantity: 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required . 2. Do not make you contribution more informative than is required. Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true. 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Relation: Be relevant Manner: Be perspicuous. 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be Brief. 4. Be orderly.
firstly
Extent conditions
Extent condition 1: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large. Extent condition 2: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.
On the other hand, the effort required will never be more than is needed to achieve these effects. In comparison to the effects achieved, the effort needed is always the smallest. 一方面，所要达到的效应永远不会小的不值得处理；
The R-principle (Speaker-based):
MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION NECESSARY (cf. Relation, Quantity2, Manner) SAY NO MORE THAN YOU MUST (given Q)
The hearer-based Qprinciple is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to provide. For example, (a) below implicates (b): (a) Some of my friends are linguists. (b) Not all of my friends are linguists. none < some < many < all
某个设想在某一时刻，在某人可及的一种或多种语境中具有关 联性时，这个设想才在当时与那个个体相关联。
thirdly
A phenomenon is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him.当且仅当某个现象显映的一个或多 个设想与某个体相关时，这个现象才与该 个体有联系。
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
1. Relevance theory
Proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986.
George has a big cat. George has a tiger, a lion, a jaguar, etc. George has a tiger. George has a tiger or a lion, I'm not sure which. George has a felid.
Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.每一个明示交
际行为,都传递一种假设：该行动本身 具备最佳关联性。
Principle of relevance
Chapter 8 Language in Use
能用来传递{I}的关联性最大的信号。
Summary:
Every utterance comes with a presumption of the best balance of effort against effect.每个话语都假定努力和 效应能取得最佳平衡。
On the one hand, the effects achievable will never be less than is needed to make it worth processing.
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. communication From the speaker’s side From the hearer’s side
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUng aim
Make the students know of post-Gricean development.
Teaching points
1. the relevance theory. 2. the Q-and R-principle. 3. the Q-,I- and M-principle.
个设想集{I}，具有足够的关联性， 值得受话者花时间去处理其明示性 刺激信号。
b. The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate ｛I｝.这一明示刺激信号，是发话者可
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
secondly
An assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time.当且仅当
An ostensive act to make clear one’s intention to express something.
An inference act to infer the speaker’s intention.
Ostensive-inferential communication
The R-principle:
But the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.
The Q-principle (Hearer-based):
MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION SUFFICIENT (cf. Quantity1) SAY AS MUCH AS YOU CAN (given R)