外文文献原稿和译文
毕业论文外文文献原文及翻译
北京联合大学毕业论文外文原文及译文题目：网络口碑营销策略研究专业：工商管理指导教师：吴印玲学院：管理学院学号： 2010110404332 班级： 20101104043 姓名：杨倩一、外文原文Traditional media and word of mouth is always intertwined——Sanofi Wizz, (U.S.) The past, often produced media advertising professionals, these elements arewritten by the reporter, edited revision last beautifully packaged and then. Now, wehave moved away from the presentation of this refined and processed. Now, we havelost the patience to watch the beautiful advertising audience, after all, the advertisingsales media, exhibition, broadcast, very difficult to have as in the past, forcing theaudience had watched.Now, people can search engines and blog, like la carte as on-demand news. Peopledo not always read the story of the original, on the contrary, people can go deep intothe intermediate links, links, reading these stories. You are free to enter into a certainperson's blog, the three of you search the contents of the things this person involved inthe blog, but for such content, you know nothing about this person's blog, you canalso link more blog to other content. Now posted on the website's content is often raw,authentic things, the search engine provided by the consumer to capture thisinformation, these unrestrained, not veiled, to the point of thinking they unfoldedbefore our front. Bloggers have become a thinking experts, they are full-text excerpts,after re-arrangement and combination, and then offer to the general audience,dedicated to those willing to receive such information.Even the norms of the kind of news articles, can not get rid of the threat of thevoice of the customer. Now, many traditional media have chosen a new way, theirstories and popular blog title link to completely break the news editor of the shacklesof the wall and the ring caught. Although the official news story is statically publishedon a web page, however, the side of the page link will automatically displayinformation from the blog - the content is no editorial filter. Soon, we will be from thehand of the newspaper to see the contents of this form.Let us look at the work in public relations representative. The public relations onbehalf of young, hard-working, newspapers high in a gesture to see a fictional story,the story with his client. So he give colleagues sent an e-mail related things to tellthem, and then turned around and walked into the boss's office, told the boss the news. However, when he reach the boss's office, when his boss to remove the page, the story has long been endemic - the next in the story, already appeared threatening the blog title.Therefore, you have to do is: to ensure a true, reliable reputation. We can not control the customer comments, so be sure to keep in mind, the finished article, does not mean the end of the public relations. Our goal is to continue to win the good reputation on the basis for sustainable development.For those who do not keep their promise to businesses, the search engines so that they feel especially frightened. Let us take a look, if you spend a lot of money, engine marketing activities, there will be what kind of situation. Designed some very fine small ads on the bottom of the page that says: "click here, great." Of course, web pages, more links are from real consumers, you'd better is to make consumers happy, satisfied, otherwise, they released post will overwhelm any other paid advertising posts.We take a look at the practice and suffered a large cable company, not to mention its name, the companies often do not fulfill their service contract, the customer service very poor quality, often offensive to customers, so repeatedly, so that customersvery angry. If you have online access to this company, you will see what kind of information? We see expensive advertising, news stories from the official reports - as well as messages posted by thousands of angry customers. We are pleased to see that this company do a little hands and feet, and consumer reviews changes to their advertising and they put together, they are never likely to again spend money on online advertising.Why is there such a result? Blog written by those who complain, blame or words of praise, how will have a big impact, far more than the influence of the "Times" or "Newsweek"? The reason is that the blogger is a member of our team - and the team search for the information, the team members concerned about them through word of mouth to share these views and opinions. If certain members of the team rant, saying that a piece of software suddenly, inexplicably, on the hard drive removed, his criticism and scolding will be hundreds of other sites excerpt, and every one website has its own followers. In this way, everyone, whenever you see one such comments will immediately Click to view details - so they can know in the end destroy that personal computer which software company.Each of a traditional newspaper or magazine, has 1 000 sites corresponding to In today's media than traditional media have more freedom and an independent voice. Moreover, it can be more convenient, fast and cheap to see some new comments, so these remarks spread more widely.Must learn to adapt to such a complex, chaotic world. Must know, people have been talking about you, their words positive and profound content of the speech, and everywhere.Marketing staff ignored these remarks will be seen as cold and incompetent, and will not be able to attract attention and attention. Marketers learned how to interact with clients, learn how to participate in customer reviews, learn how to make people's comments play an active role in the learning will flourish.二、译文传统媒体和口碑永远交织在一起——(美)塞诺威兹过去，往往是专业人员为我们制作媒体广告，这些内容都是由记者撰写、经过编辑校订，最后经过精美包装而后提供的。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿MechanicalandRegenerativeBrakingIntegrationforaHybridElectricVehicleAbstract,namelyanelectricmotorandinternalcombustionengine,whichallowtheelimina tionofidling,,theaddedcostofthehybridelectricsystemhashinderedthesalesofth esevehicles.JapanNorth America automotive companieshavedevelopedandreleasedforsaletheirownhybridelectric unpredictablegasprices,thesalesofhybridelectricvehicleshaveincreaseddramat ically inrecentyears.2.1.1HybridConfigurationsForthepast100yearstheobjectiveofthehybridhasbeentoextendtherangeofelec tricvehiclesandtoovercometheproblemoflongrechargingtimes35.Therearethree ,par allelhybridsandseries/parallelhybrids.Eachconfigurationhasitsadvantagesanddisadvantageswhichwillbediscussedi nthefollowingsections.SeriesHybridsInserieshybridsthemechanicaloutputfromtheinternalcombustionengineisuse dto driveageneratorwhichproduceselectricalpowerthatcanbestoredinthebatteriesor highpowersystemssuchaslargetrucksorlocomotivesbutcanalsobeusedforlowerpowe rpassengervehicles18.2.1.2‘degreeofhybridization’toquantifytheelectrica lpowerpotentialofthesevehicles.ThedegreeofhybridizationrangesfromDOH=0foraconventionalvehicletoDOH=1f oranallelectricvehicle25.Asthedegreeofhybridizationincreases,asmallerICEcanbeusedandoperatedclosertoitsoptimumefficiencyforagreaterproportionoftheti me,.MicroHybrid MicrohybridshavethesmallestdegreeofhybridizationandusuallyconsistofanintegratedstartergeneratorISG2.1.31500 kg100 km/h0 km/h0 km/h50 km/h2.1.42.1.5译文混合动力电动汽车机械和再生制动的整合摘要为了减少对环境的污染和车辆的燃油消耗,混合动力电动汽车已经成为汽车工业的首选方法;混合动力电动汽车通过使用由电动马达和内燃发动机组成的混合动力系统来达到减少环境污染和燃油消耗的目的;混合动力系统消除了怠速,使发动机以一种更有效的方式运行,增加了再生制动的使用;但是,混合动力的成本的增加阻碍了这些车辆的销售;在这里提出一个更具成本效益的电液制动系统的设计;该系统使用电控机械结合的控制方式控制制动助力器产生的推动力,并有足够的时间反应;这个系统使驾驶员清楚地了解机械和再生制动力矩的混合,使再生制动力系统得到有效的控制;一个系统化的设计过程是其次,重点在于展示概念设计方案的可行性和使用虚拟和实物模型的初步设计功用;虚拟和实物模型的结合使用成为验证和开发系统的强大工具,本文将介绍和讨论在设计过程中模型所起到的作用;因为在设计过程中设计者可以获得相关的经验,提倡学生设计实物模型,以提高学生的学习经验;很明显,这正是本文所要提出的;现代混合动力电动汽车随着油价的上涨和环境保护意识的提高,消费者和政府迫使汽车行业开始生产省油和对环境污染小的汽车;一个有前景的方法就是现在实行的混合动力电动汽车;混合动力汽车指的是有两个或两个以上动力来源的车辆;混合动力汽车动力的来源可能有很多的不同,但是现在混合动力汽车最常见的布局是由内燃发动机和电动马达,能量储存系统共同输出动力,这样的车辆就叫混合动力电动汽车;汽车可以同时使用发动机和电动马达输出的动力,从而可以提高汽车的使用性能和效率,进而又可以提高燃油经济性,减少废气的排放,同时还能满足消费者对汽车性能的要求;1997年,丰田成普瑞斯为了第一款混合动力电动汽车,在日本进行了批量生产;本田公司花费了三年的时间进行混合动力电动车的生产,然后进军北美市场;丰田普瑞斯在北美发行几个月后,本田Insight紧随其后也在北美进行发行;混合动力电动车具有再生制动系统的独特优势;在制动过程,通常用于动力输出的电动马达,可以起到发电机的功用,把汽车的动能转化为蓄电池的电能,而不会转化为热能浪费掉;转换的电能可以储存到蓄电池中,然后可以作为电动马达驱动汽车使用的能量;考虑到蓄电池能量密度时,动能转换为电能这个过程就更加重要了;能量密度是指单位体积或质量下能量储存系统所储存的能量;为了说明这一点,我们可以做个对比,4.5公升的汽油通常可以维持一辆汽车行驶50千米;而要把相同的能量储存到蓄电池中,则需要一个质量约为270千克的铅酸蓄电池;这就说明了在汽车行驶过程中能够有效地储存再生制动系统产生的能量的重要性,从而可以保证在提高混合动力电能车性能的前提下,不至使能量储存系统所占体积过大;再生制动系统研究范围本文所提出的再生系统的研究范围是研究再生制动系统和机械制动系统之间相互作用的关系,目的是设计开发出一个低成本的再生制动系统,从而可以应用到未来经济型的混合动力电动汽车上;这个系统可以根据驾驶员的需要进而控制再生制动系统和机械制动系统产生的制动力矩的结合,还应该保证这个过程的平顺性和安全性;再生制动力矩是通过使用的异步电动机的矢量控制算法进行控制的;但是,独立地控制制动踏板产生的机械制动力矩,同时又要保持机械制动系在再生制动系统失效后起到备用作用,这是一个很大的难题;为了解决这个问题,需要研究一个通过减少制动主缸内制动液压来来控制机械制动系统产生的制动力矩的制动系统;混合电动汽车概述混合动力电动车已经成为了可以在短时间内减少汽车污染排放和提高燃油经济型的解决方法之一;在过去的10年几乎所有的主要汽车公司都已经向公众发行销售自己的混合动力电动汽车,混合动力电动汽车的普及和销售在这个世纪有了很明显的增长,随着不可预测的汽油价格的增长和对环境保护的关注,混合动力电动汽车的销售将在最近几年内急剧增长;2.1.1混合动力装置在过去100年来混合动力的研究目标是延长电动汽车的使用寿命,解决蓄电池的长期充电问题;在目前市场,现在主要有三种混合动力装置,这些混合动力装置为串联混合动力,并联混合动力,串并联混合动力;每一种动力装置都有其优点和缺点,这将在以后的章节进行讨论;串联混合动力串联混合动力汽车使用发动机输出的动力来驱动发电机产生电能,这些电能可以储存在蓄电池中,也可以用来驱动电动马达来驱动汽车;在串联混合动力汽车上,发动机和驱动轮之间没有直接的机械连接,串联混合动力往往在高功率系统中使用,如大型货车或火车,也可以应用到低功率的客运车辆上;发动机输出的机械能和蓄电池输出的电能可以通过电子控制器进行控制接合,然后这个电子控制器通过比较驾驶员所需的动力和汽车车速,电动马达输出的转矩,从而决定每个动力源驱动汽车行驶所要输出的能量;在制动过程中,这个电子控制装置可以使电能输出模式转换为再生模式,直接把再生制动系统产生的电能储存在蓄电池内;按照这种布置方式进行设计有很多的优点;发动机可以保持高效率的运行,使发动机产生的电能在蓄电池和驱动马达之间得到分配;发动机在其最高效率的工况下运行,排放可以大大降低,燃烧每体积的燃料可以产生更多的电能;因为串联动力装置结构简单且成本低,这种动力装置很容在汽车上落实;并联混合动力在并联混合动力汽车中,发动机输出的机械功传到变速箱中;发动机输出的机械功和电动马达输出的功在变速箱内进行机械式的接合,混合的机械功用于驱动汽车行驶;在这种混合动力装置结构中,发动机和驱动轮之间有直接的机械连接;在串联混合动力装置中,电子控制器通过比较驾驶员所需的动力和汽车车速,电动马达输出的转矩,从而决定每个动力源驱动汽车行驶所要输出的能量,以满足汽车行驶性能,获得最佳的效率;正如串联混合装置一样,并联混合动力也以相似的方法控制再生制动;并联混合动力装置通常应用到低功率的电动车中,这两种驱动力可以同时使用,提供更高的行驶性能;与串联混合动力系统相比,并联混合动力系统有很多优势;其中最重要的一项优势是效率高,因为在并联混合动力中,电能和机械能只需转换一次,而在串联混合动力中,电能和机械能需要两次转换;由于并联混合动力可以使发动机和电动马大产生的动力同时结合起来,在不损失汽车行驶性能的前提下,可以使用体积小的电动马达,同时也降低了油耗和排放;最后,并联混合动力汽车在行驶过程中只需使发动机运行,而不需要另一个发电机为蓄电池充电;串、并联混合动力串并联混合动力装置结合了串联和并联动力装置的特点;这种混合方式汽车通过使用动力分配装置来控制双动力源电动马达输出动力,发动机输出动力或者两者同时输出驱动汽车行驶;虽然这种装置形式可以获得串联混合动力装置和并联混合动力装置的优点,因为考虑到汽车实际行驶可能性,这种装置的控制算法会变得非常复杂; 2.1.2混合度现在道路上行驶的混合动力电动汽车大多是串联混合动力,并联混合动力,或者串并联混合动力,因此定义一个‘混合度’变量来评价混合动力电动汽车的电能潜能是非常有意义的;混合度变从传统车辆DOH=0到所有电动车DOH=1之间变化,随着混合度的增加,在汽车上可以使用一个比较小的发动机,同时发动机可以在最接近最佳效率的工况下运行很长的时间,这样就可以减少燃油的消耗和废气的排放;电动马达输出的功用P表emP表示;示,发动机输出的功用ice微混合动力微混合指的是最小混合度,通常是由一个连接到发动机曲轴的综合起动发电机组成;在加速和怠速过程中,综合起动发电机使发动机处于关闭状态,从而节约燃油;加速时,在燃油喷入汽缸之前,综合起动发电机使发动机的曲轴加速旋转;在加速过程中,综合起动发电机对发动机起动协助的作用,在制动过程中,综合起动发电机还可以作为发电机向蓄电池充电;和非混合动力汽车相比,微混合动力汽车的燃油经济性可以提高10%左右;轻混合动力轻混合动力和微混合动力结构相似,有一点不同的是其综合起动发电机是经过改进的,其输出的动力可以超过20KW;但是,轻混合动力的能量储存系统只能储存1KWh左右的能量;轻混合动力汽车只有一个很短的纯电动续航能力,但是可以在加速过程中给发动机提供很大的辅助作用;轻混合动力中的电子元件要比微混合动力中的电子元件复杂的多,且在汽车行驶过程中发挥着更大的作用;和非混合动力的汽车相比,轻混合动力汽车的燃油经济性可以提高20%-25%左右;全混合动力在全混合动力汽车上不再使用综合起动发电机,取代它的是一个独立的电动马达和交流发电机、起动机,这些装置也可以起到综合起动发电机的作用;电动马达可以独立驱动汽车行驶,尤其是在城市道路上走走停停的行驶;能量储存系统也得到了改进,这样就提高了汽车纯电动续航能力,减少了发动机的体积,从而提高燃油经济性和减少排放;与非混合动力汽车相比,全混合动力汽车的燃油消耗量可以减少40%-50%;插电式混合动力插电式混合动力汽车在结构上和全混合动力汽车相似,不同的是插电式混合动力汽车有一个比较大的能量储存系统,可以通过与外部电源连接进行充电;在蓄电池储存能量范围内,可以通过电动马达来驱动汽车行驶,但是当蓄电池的能量降到一定水平后,其运行形势就和全混合动力一样了;2.1.3再生制动原理混合动力电动汽车最重要的特点是可以回收大量的制动能量;在制动过程中,电动马达可以作为发电机来运行操作,将制动过程中的动能转换为电能储存到蓄电池中,这些电能就可以被汽车重复使用;但是,车辆的制动性能就将影响到汽车的安全性;在紧急制动状态下,汽车的制动距离要尽可能的短,还要保证制动时汽车有较好的方向稳定性;汽车具有较好的方向稳定性,就需要控制车轮的制动力分配;一般来说,制动时所需的制动力矩比电动马达产生的制动力矩大得多;因此,机械制动系统需要和电子再生制动系统同时存在,这就需要适当的设计以保证制动时的操作稳定性,不至于影响到汽车的安全性;制动时能量消耗由公式可得,一个质量为1500Kg的汽车以100km/h初速度制动到完全停止,需要消耗的动能;如果这些能量的25%可以通过再生制动系统进行回收,当忽略制动和加速过程中的空气阻力,机械摩擦和滚动阻力,假设电动马达的工作效率100%,利用公式可以估算出,这些能量可以使汽车从0km/h加速到50km/h.这就表明,当汽车行驶在城市道路上,汽车不停加速和制动,混合动力电动车的燃油经济性可以大大增加;需要注意的是,制动能量的回收量受到马达的型号和能量转换率的限制;2.1.4再生制动系统目前,通常使用的有两种再生制动方法;这些方法通常称为串联再生制动和并联制动,每种制动策略都有其优点和缺点,本文对此将进行具体讨论;并联再生制动在并联再生制动系统中,电动马达和机械制动系统同时工作,从而使汽车减速;因为机械制动系统不能独立的控制制动力,使制动时的能量转换为热能而不是电能,因此这不是最有效地再生制动方法;但是并联再生制动结构简单成本低,这就成为其一大优势;并联再生制动的机械制动系统只需要稍加修改,而且电动马达的控制算法也可以很容易在汽车上实现;这种制动方法还有一个额外的优势,当再生制动系统发生故障时,机械制动系统可以起到备用的作用;串联再生制动在串联再生制动中,电动马达只有在制动时才起作用;只有当电动马达和能量储存系统无法接受更多制动时所需的能量时,再生制动系统才起作用;串联再生制动需要独立的控制制动力矩,串联再生制动可以高效率的把动能转换为电能,这是其一项优势;但是它的不足之处在于,制动系统结构复杂,成本高;这种制动方式需要制动踏板模拟器,制动系统也需要重新设计,这都会增加其制造成本;因为制动系统需要装有传感器和信息处理器,这就会增加了结构的复杂度;2.1.5目前的再生制动系统目前大多数混合动力电动汽车的再生制动系统都是比较昂贵的电液制动系统;再生制动系统使用制动踏板模拟器来建立驾驶者的制动需求,这个制动踏板模拟器与液压制动电路独立分开;这样再将制动需求按照一定比例转换为再生制动和机械制动需求,然后将机械制动需求发送到由高压液压泵,蓄能器和比例控制阀的系统;比例控制阀根据制动需求,控制制动液以一定的预定值流到每个车轮的制动轮缸中;。
外文文献翻译(图片版)
本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。
当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。
事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。
但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。
但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。
此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。
随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。
本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。
相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。
本文有三个部分。
在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。
第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。
引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。
第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。
外文文献原文及译文
附录1 外文文献原文及译文原文：An evaluation of NDT methods for the location and sizing of forging discontinuitiesIn selecting an NDT method for flaw detection in forgings a number of variables must be considered:a) the type of discontinuity to be assessed;b) the method to be used for detection and evaluation, andc) the variables associated with the forging itselfThe variables in item a) will govern the location within the forging and its orientation with respect to a particular surface Item b) could include a considerable array of NDT methods, but for the purpose of this paper only the six most widely used are considered一visual testing (VT), penetrant inspection(PI), magnetic particle inspection(MI), eddy current testing (ET), radiographic inspection (RT) and ultrasonic inspection (UI). In the last item c) the component race include such things as condition, geometry access for inspection.a)Forging discontinuitiesThe location of the discontinuity will have a significant influence on the selection of the NDT method to be used and they are therefore grouped into three categories, to aid this selection:1. open to the surface: laps, seam, burst, slugs, cracks and inclusions2. slightly subsurface: seam, stringers, inclusions and grain structure variations3. internal: stringers, burst, lamination, grain structure, inclusions and pipingA brief review of these terms may be helpful:Lap: folded metal, flattened into the surface but not fusing with itSeam: linear flaws due to oxidized blow holes or ingot splashes, which are elongated by hot workingBurst:ruptures caused by failure of plastic deformation by processing at too low a temperature or excessive working of metalStringers: a bar stock defect, due to non metallic inclusions being squeezed out into long and thin stringsLamination: planar defect aligned parallel to surface, originating in the original ingot from rolled out pipingCracks: transgranular failure, due to localized stresses resulting from non-uniform heating or cooling and non-plastic deformationInclusions: impurities, such as slag, oxide and sulphides, often from the original molten stage in forming the billet used for forgingGrain structure: depending upon the extent of working, (deformation and recrystllisation) can be as small as 0.5mm or as large as 10mmPiping: a cavity at the centre of the ingot or billet, caused by shrinkage during solidification Slug: a piece of foreign matter that has been pressed or rolled into the surface of the material b)The NDT MethodVT—visual testing is the oldest of the NDT methods but still valid and widely used today The system is based upon observation, usually by a human observer, but now increasingly by digital/video cameras which use pattern recognition to locate dissimilar areas in a surface. The sensitivity will depend upon the method but typically a good observer with simplevisual aids can resolve 0.5mm differences aids will include magnifying glasses (up to x10), microscopes(up to x100) and fibred-optic bores copes and endoscopes for viewing internal details in hollow or complex sections. The system is used for surface inspection only with costs in the range $4 to $4000.PT一the surface is covered with brightly covered oil (typically red or fluorescent), which will penetrate any surface openings. After removal of excess, an absorbent, white powder is applied, which draws any trapped oil to the surface. This creates an indication of the presence of the surface opening. This process, like visual inspection, also requires visual acuity, but the indications are ‘enhanced’ by the process, since‘bleed-out’ spreads the visual image. Costs can range from as little as $4 for a couple of cans, to $8000 for a process ‘line’. Both VT and PT are surface inspection systems only arid will therefore detect only those discontinuities that have a definite surface opening Surface cleanliness is very important, particularly with PT.MT一ferromagnetic materials carrying a large flux density; retain the presence internally, with little external evidence other than at the poles. Any discontinuity in the material will disturb this uniform flux and create a small ‘leakage’ at the site of the discontinuity. This leakage can be detected by the fact that finely divided; ferromagnetic particles collect at the-site, creating an indication. As with PT, the particles can be colored, to increase contrast, which when viewed under suitable lighting, create a clear visual image of the discontinuity. However, unlike PT the leakage can pass through thin layers of paint or plating materials, so that the discontinuity does not have to be open to the surface. The system can therefore detect surface AND slight subsurface discontinuities. However this is only possible in ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, mild and tool steel, nickel, cobalt and martenstic stainless. It will not operate on Paramagnetic or Diamagnetic materials, such as copper, aluminum and austenitic stainless steel. A small electromagnet can cost as little as $200, but a large `bench type' machine can cost up to $10 000 and the cost of electricity can be substantial.ET一Direct current flowing in a coil, sets up a longitudinal magnetic, field through the coil, and exhibits a particular resistance to flow. If the current is alternating, then a further effect一inductive reactance, adds to this resistance, the total being impedance. This impedance also causes a lag between the current and the voltage, called a phase shift. This shift and impedance are characteristics of the coil.If the coil is now placed close to a conducting surface, the reversing magnetic field induces a reversing current in the conducting (eddy current) which opposes the inducing field. This opposition alters the impedance of the coil and a suitable instrument can detect these changes (both phase angle and/or impedance).For a given ,discontinuity-free surface , a specific alteration will be present which can be zeroed .If the coil now passes over a discontinuity, a change in induction will occur which will be registered by the instrument. However, a change in the conductivity of the material will also effect the induction, as will changes in permeability. Thus, non-uniform heat treatment, segregation and in homogeneities in material composition and structure will also effect the induction and create an ‘indication’. Another critical factor is the distance between the coil and the test surface. This ‘lift off’ can be used in a positive way to determine coating or paint thickness’, on conducting materials. But equally, differences in the coil/specimen gap can result in non-relevant signals. The system can therefore detect surface AND slight subsurface discontinuities. However this is only possible in conducting materials and the proximity of the test coil to the test surface is critical. This means that for any component (other than flat plate), special probes are usually designed to follow specific component contours. A small eddy current machine can cost as little as $2000, but a large automated machine can cost upto $20 000RT一Short wavelength, electromagnetic radiation will pass through many materials, depending upon density and thickness, and then create a range of exposures on either film or a fluoroscopic screen, to present a visual image of the internal composition of the item. Differences in absorption within the material due to such things as gas holes, cracks and bursts will create photographic density differences on the film or detector, which can be interpreted by trained personnel. The source of radiation can be an X-ray tube or a gamma source (such as Iridium or Cobalt) and the images can be generated on either film or as real-time images on fluoroscopic screens. Defect orientation is a vital factor in radiography since it is thickness differences, which the process detects. Hence, a lamination type defect, parallel to the film would be almost impossible to detect. On the other hand, a crack perpendicular to the film would almost certainly be detected. It is therefore often the case that a single component would have to be radio graphed from more than one direction, in order to detect most defects. Finally, the radiation used is highly hazardous and therefore any environment in which it is used, must suitably shielded, to prevent exposure of the operator. As well as shielding the use of X or gamma rays will also require, monitors, alarms, interlocks and personal dosimetry systems, which along with the film itself, adds to the cost.A basic X-ray set up would cost around $10000 and with ancillary equipment and film could cost $3000 per year to run.UT—At an interface between materials of differing acoustic impedance, a sound wave will have a proportion reflected and the remainder transmitted. Thus a gas hole or crack in a forging will reflect a sound beam because of their large difference in acoustic impedance with the metal structure containing them. Since ultrasound travels in a given material at a known (predictable) velocity, then the distance to a reflector will be a direct function of this time of flight of the pulse of sound. Its location can therefore be estimated .Since the amplitude of the returning signal is also related to the size of the reflector, then an approximation can be made of the extent of the reflector, in terms of length through-wall thickness and width. The data can be presented as an ‘A’scan, on a cathode ray tube (requiring skilled interpretation) or as a ‘B’ or ‘C’ scan, where the data are plotted on printers or strip charts as a permanent record. Depths of penetration can be adjusted (by calibration and probe selection) from 10mm to 3 meters in suitable, fine-grained material. However cast, or large grained forged material, could be attenuate signals to the extent that they are untestable. A typical portable flaw detector and probes would cost around $5000, a fully automated ‘C’ scan immersion system could cost $2000.c)The variables associated with the forging1.Surface conditionFor VT and PT surfaces better than 6.3um Ra would yield the best results. For MT a similar situation exists, where a confusing background could result from rough surfaces. ET also requires a smooth a surface for preference, since ‘lift-off’ effects could be unacceptable. For RT a surface roughness exceeding 1% of material thickness could result in a significant loon of sensitivity. However for UT, a suitably viscous ‘couplant’could assist in sound transmittance, but entry surface ‘noise’on the timebase and attenuation would reduce sensitivity.2.GeometryFlat surfaces are the simplest to inspect, by any method. However, PT is least influenced by geometry, being a liquid process. MT requires that the flux be at 90 to the discontinuity and thus, curved surfaces and hollow sections offer particular problems. VT may require special access equipment and ET will need specially designed probes for curved or irregular surfaces. Since RT relies on absorption differences, variations in thickness due to curvaturewill result in large variations in photographic density and a consequent loss of film contrast. In UT the probe has best transmittance when it is whole face is in direct contact with the surface. Any curvature will result in “rocking”of the probe and a consequent loss of “coupling” and reduced signal amplitude.plexityForged bar, billet, rod and plate offer simple shapes for inspection, but aircraft landing gear is an entirely different manner. PT is the least influenced by complex shapes when using the water washable system VT will require longer inspection periods and aids such as mirrors and bores copes. For MT, the more complex the shape, the more difficult it is to arrive at an all over procedure and individual flux/current tor the various sections ET will again require specially shaped probes and RT a larger number of film exposure and angled shots UT will need careful planning to ensure complete coverage and may not be possible if access is limited.4.ThicknessVT, ET, PT and MT are all unaffected by thickness since they are surface methods. RT has an approximate thickness limit of 300mm in steel and at 2% sensitivity (a typical value), will only record discontinuities of 6mm maximum section, in the plane of the radiation. UT is capable of inspecting beyond 2 meters in fine-grained material but is less effective below 10mm or so.5.Discontinuity OrientationVT and PT are unaffected by orientation. In MT, for maximum sensitivity the flux should be at right angles to the discontinuity. ET requires that the discontinuity be at right angles to the coil windings and RT has its maximum sensitivity when the discontinuity lies parallel to the radiation beam. UT has the maximum response when the reflector is at right angles to the sound beam.译文：对铸件缺陷位置和尺寸的无损检测方法的评价对铸件裂纹探测时，选择无损检测方法必须注意以下几点：a)评定缺陷类型；b)确定评定和探测缺陷的方法；c)铸件自身相关的变化。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿The water level control circuit designWater source total ranks sixth in the world, per capita water resources is only a quarter of the world per capita consumption, and geographical distribution is very uneven, the vast region north of the Yangtze River, northin most parts of the medium-sized cities in the dry state, water shortage has become an important factor restricting China's economic development. Reasonable use of water resources has become an important issue for China is now facing. In order to achieve the rational use of water resources, in addition to in beefing water conservancy projects and enhance the people's awareness of water conservation efforts to improve. But more important is the application of new technical information, real-time to accurately understand and master a variety of hydrological information in order to make the right water scheduling and management, so that preventive measures to minimize water wastage . Coupled with long-standing water level measurement of water level has been an important issue in hydrology, water resources department. For the timely detection of the signs of the accident, precautionary measures in the future, economical and practical, reliable water level wireless monitoring systems will play a major role. The water level of dam safety, one of the important parameters for water drainage and irrigation scheduling, water storage, flood discharge.Provides a good foundation for the automation of monitoring, transmission and processing of the water level reservoir modernization. Need to monitor the water level in many areas of industrial and agricultural production. The site may not be able to close without the manpower to monitor, we can RMON, sitting in the control room facing the instrument can be monitored on-site, convenient and save manpower. In order to ensure the safe production of hydroelectric power station to improve power generation efficiency,Hydropower production process need to monitor the water level in the reservoir, trash rack, pressure drop and the tail water level. However, due to the different power plants with a different factual situations, have different technical requirements, and the measurement methods and location of the water level parameters and also the requirements of the monitoring equipment. This often results in the monitoring system equipment of a high degree of variety, interchangeability is not conducive to the maintenance of equipment will increase the equipment design, production, installation complexity. Therefore, on the basis of the actual situation and characteristics of the comprehensive study of hydropower water level monitoring, the use of modern electronic technology, especially single-chip technology and non-volatile memory technology, designed to develop a versatile, high reliability, easy maintenance, the applicable a variety of monitoring the environment, multi-mode automatic water level monitoring system has important practical significance. The subject according to the reservoir water level measurement needs, design a remote microcontroller water level monitoring system, the system automatically detects the water level, time processing, Data GPRS remote upload function. The design of the monitoring system will be significant savings in manpower and resources, low-power 24 hours of continuous monitoring and upload real-time control reservoir water level, to better adapt to the needs of the modern water level measurement, the safety of the dam reservoir, impoundment spillway to provide a basis.Microcontroller embedded microcontrollers are widely used in industrial measurement and control systems, intelligent instruments and household appliances. In real-time detection and automatic control of microcomputer application system, the microcontroller is often as a core component to use. The basic requirements of the water tower water level control system in the case of unattended automatic limit automatically start the motor to reach the water level in the water level in the water tower to the water tower water supply; water tower water level reached the water level upper limit is automatically off the motor to stop water supply. And unusual time to sound the alarm and troubleshooting in the water supply system at any time to ensure that the towers of the external normal water supply role. The water tower is often seen in daily life and industrial applications, water storage devices, external water supply through the control of its water level to meet the needs of its waterlevel control is universal. Regardless of socio-economic rapid water plays an important role in people's normal life and production. Once off the water, ranging from great inconvenience to the people's living standards, weight is likely to cause serious accidents and losses, and thus a higher demand of water supply system to meet the timely, accurate, safe and adequate water supply. If you still use the artificial way, the labor-intensive, low efficiency, safety is hard to guarantee the transformation of the automated control system, which must be carried out. In order to achieve sufficient amount of water, smooth water pressure, water towers, water level automatic control design low-cost, high practical value of the controller. The design uses a separate circuit to achieve high and low warning level processing, and automatic control, save energy, improve the quality of the water supply system.SCM is an integrated circuit chip, VLSI technology with data processing capability of the central processing unit CPU random access memory RAM, read only memory ROM, and a variety of I / O port and interrupt system, timers / timer other functions (which may also include a display driver circuit, pulse width modulation circuit, analog multi-channel converter, A / D converter and other circuit) integrated into a silicon constitute a small computer system. The basic features are as follows: the chip is small, but complete, SCM is one of the main features. Its internal program memory, data memory, a variety of interface circuit. Large processor speed is higher, the median more of the arithmetic unit, processing ability, but need to be configured in the external interface circuit; microcontroller clocked generally 100MHZ less suitable for small products for independent work, cited pin number from a few hundred. The application is simple, flexible, and free assembly language and C language development of SCM products. The working process of the microcontroller: microcontroller automatically complete the tasks entrusted to it, that is, single-chip implementation of the procedure for a section of the instruction execution process, the so-called directive requirements for single-chip implementation of the various operations used in the form of the command is to write down , which corresponds to a basic operation of designers assigned to it by the instruction set, an instruction; Full instructions can be executed by the microcontroller, the microcontroller instruction set, the different types of single-chip, and its instruction set is also different. So that the microcontroller canautomatically complete a specific task, the problem to be solved must be compiled into a series of instructions (these instructions must be selected microcontroller to the identification and implementation of the Directive), a collection of this series of instructions to become the program, the program need to pre- stored in the components - memory storage capabilities. Memory is composed by a number of storage units (the smallest unit of storage), like a large building has many rooms composed of the same, the instructions stored in these units, the instruction fetch unit and perform like the rooms of large buildings, each assigned to only a room number, each memory cell must be assigned to a unique address number, the address is known as the address of the storage unit, so as long as you know the address of the storage unit, you can find the storage unit that stores instructions can be removed, and then be executed. Programs are usually executed in the order, instruction program is a sequential storage, single-chip in the implementation of the program to be able to a section of these instructions out and be implemented, there must be a component to track the address of instruction where this part the program counter PC (included in the CPU), the start of program execution, endowed the address where the first instruction of the program to the PC, and then made for each command to be executed, the PC in the content will automatically increase, increase The amount is determined by the instruction length of this article may be 2 or 3, to point to the starting address of the next instruction to ensure the implementation of the instruction sequence.Microcontroller tower water level control system is the basic design requirements: inside the tower, we have designed a simple water level detection sensor used to detect the three water level, the low water level, the normal water level, water level. Low water to give a high single-chip, driven pumps and water, the red light; water level in the normal range, the pump add water, the green light; high water when the pump without water, the yellow light. The design process using the sensor technology, microcomputer technology, and light alarm technology and weak control the strong power of technology. Technical parameters and design tasks: 1, the use of the MCU to control the water level on the tower;, the water level in the water level detection sensor probe was the tower to give the microcontroller in order to achieve the water pump and water system and display system control; 3, the light alarm display system circuit, pumps and hydropower route relaycontrol;, analysis is drawn on the working principle of the system structure and a system block diagram using the microcontroller as a control chip, the main work process when the water in the tower low water level, water level detection sensor gave a high microcontroller, microcontroller-driven pump to add water and display system so that the red light lit; pump add water when the water level within the normal range, the green light, when the water level in the high-water mark, The microcontroller can not drive the water pump to add water, the yellow light. Light alarm circuit, the relay control circuit it works: When the water level in the low water, low water level detection sensor line is not +5 V power supply guide pass into the regulator circuit is treated in the output of the voltage regulator circuit has a high level, into the P1.0 port of the microcontroller, another high voltage circuit output of the microcontroller P1.1 port SCM After analysis, the P1.2 port outputs a low red light, drive, P1. 5 out a signal so that the optocoupler GDOUHE guide through so that the relay is closed, so that the water pump to add water; when the water level in the normal range, water pump plus P1.3 pin to a low level, so that the green light; when the water level in the high-water zone, the sensor of the two detection lines are conduction, are +5 power conduction into the SCM, SCM After analysis, the P1.4 pin out of a low yellow light, The optocoupler guide a low out of the P1.5-side can not pass, so that the relay can not be closed, the pump can not add water; failure when three flashing light indicates the system.译文水位控制电路设计中国水之源总量居世界第六位，人均占有水资源量仅为世界人均占有量的四分之一，并且在地域上分布很不平衡，长江以北的广大地区，特别是北方大、中城市大部分地区处于缺水状态，水资源短缺已成为制约我国经济发展的一个重要因素。
毕业设计外文文献翻译(原文+译文)
Environmental problems caused by Istanbul subway excavation and suggestionsfor remediation伊斯坦布尔地铁开挖引起的环境问题及补救建议Ibrahim Ocak Abstract：Many environmental problems caused by subway excavations have inevitably become an important point in city life. These problems can be categorized as transporting and stocking of excavated material, traffic jams, noise, vibrations, piles of dust mud and lack of supplies. Although these problems cause many difficulties,the most pressing for a big city like Istanbul is excava tion,since other listed difficulties result from it. Moreover, these problems are environmentally and regionally restricted to the period over which construction projects are underway and disappear when construction is finished. Currently, in Istanbul, there are nine subway construction projects in operation, covering approximately 73 km in length; over 200 km to be constructed in the near future. The amount of material excavated from ongoing construction projects covers approximately 12 million m3. In this study, problems—primarily, the problem with excavation waste(EW)—caused by subway excavation are analyzed and suggestions for remediation are offered.摘要：许多地铁开挖引起的环境问题不可避免地成为城市生活的重要部分。
外文参考文献译文及原文
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor's Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大，在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段，项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法。
1.简介调查显示，大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本。
2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000)指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的...标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密...决( Diallo and Thuillier, 2005)。
4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四，项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有...重要(Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化--在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰...围、变更、进度、质量）相结合由于一个工程项目......虑时间价值影响后的结果。
外文文献原稿和译文格式
四、外文文献原稿和译文打印格式
外文文献原稿和译文包括题目、原稿、译文三个部分。
●题目为“外文文献原稿和译文”：之上之下各留一空行，宋体，三号字，居中，加粗
原稿整体格式要尽量保持与原文格式相同，如原稿格式不明确可采用如下格式：
“原稿”：之下留一空行，宋体，小三号字，居中，加粗，“原稿”二字中间空两格；原稿内容：章节题目——新罗马“Times New Roman”字体，四号字，加粗，左对齐；正文——新罗马“Times New Roman”字体，小四号字，段落设置为：固定值，22磅，段前、段后均为0磅。
“译文”：本部分另起一页。
之上之下各留一空行。
宋体，小三号字，居中，加粗。
“译文”二字中间空两格。
译文内容：章节题目——章节题目：宋体，四号字，加粗，左对齐；正文——宋体，小四号字。
段落设置为：固定值，22磅，段前、段后均为0磅。
●页面设置为：上3.5cm，下2.6cm，左2.7cm，右2.7cm，页眉2.4cm，页脚2cm。
●页眉：“北京化工大学北方学院毕业设计（论文）——外文文献原稿和译文”，宋体，小五号字，居中。
●页脚：插入页码，居中。
页码格式为“1，2，3…”。
外文文献原稿和译文
2014届毕业设计（论文）外文文献原稿和译文姓名：陈立贺专业：升会计班级： 12.2 学号： 20122804020203 指导教师：刘丽颖外文文献原稿和译文原稿COST MANAGEMENT AND PRODUCTIONCONTROL FOR CONSTRUCTION COMPANIESMarchesan, P.R.C.; Formoso, C. T.ABSTRACTConstruction, like other industries, has been experiencing profound changes involving both the business environment and internal organization. In this context, new cost management information that provides better understanding and helps managing increasingly turbulent and complex production processes is needed. Activity-based costing (ABC) has been suggested as the leading contender method to replace traditional cost accounting systems, due to its capability to make the processes and activities performed in the organization more transparent and observable.This paper reports the main results of a research project which aimed to develop a cost accounting system capable of providing useful information to manage production processes in construction and devise a model that integrates this system to the Production Planning and Control process, based on the new operations management paradigm and on the ABC ideas. The study involved three case studies, a series of interviews with construction managers and the development of prototype software.The main conclusions of this research work are that the cost information provided by the proposed management accounting system (a) makes the production processes more transparent; (b) helps to identify production inefficiencies; (c) encourages managers to introduce corrective actions; and (d) allows the evaluation of corrective actions to be undertaken. The study also indicated that the proposed model has contributed to establishsystematic procedures for production control concerned not only with time management but also with cost management.KEY WORDS：Cost management, activity-based costing, lean construction, production control.1. INTRODUCTIONOver the last decades, many industrial sectors have been experiencing profound changes involving both the business environment and the internal organisation. This process has been so deep and radical as to suggest that a new operations management paradigm has emerged (Bartezzaghi, 1999; Koskela, 2000). In this new competitive and turbulent environment, effective cost management information has become extremely important to drive improvement efforts (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987).However, besides the environmental, managerial and technological changes occurred in the last thirty years, the existing traditional cost management systems are very similar to the ones that have been used since the mid Twenties (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987). In the face of all these changes, traditional cost account information has become mostly irrelevant and even dangerous for managerial purposes (Ploss, 1990). According to Johnson & Kaplan (1987), traditional management accounting information tends to be too late, too aggregated and too distorted to be relevant for production planning and control.The failings of the traditional management accounting systems have three important consequences. Firstly, these systems cannot provide accurate product cost. Costs are distributed to products in a simplistic and arbitrary way that usually does not represent the real demand imposed by each product on the company's resources (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987). Secondly, traditional management accounting systems fail to stimulate decisions that can affect the overall production result. Managers are sometimes encouraged to accomplish short-term goals by reducing expenses with training and investment, or even produce to stock. Although effective in short term, these decisions can seriously affect future results (Goldratt & Cox, 1992). Finally, the cost management information provided by the traditional systems is of little help to managers in their effort to improve production performance. The information provided is past-oriented and too aggregated to be useful inplanning and control decisions, because these systems are developed mostly to satisfy fiscal and financial needs. The lack of transparency allied with the lack of timeliness prevents the traditional cost information to help in the identification and correction of production flow inefficiencies.Particularly in the construction industry, the inadequacy of cost accounting systems has resulted in the dissociation between the cost management and the Production Planning and Control processes. In general, construction cost control consists basically of monitoring actual performance against cost estimates and identifying variances. According to Ballard (2000), the traditional control methods based on the detection of variances appears to assume that the causes of deviation will be apparent and the appropriate corrective action obvious. As a result, the traditional cost control systems has been much more useful to manage contracts than production (Howell & Ballard, 1996; Koskela, 2000).Since the Eighties, some alternatives for traditional cost accounting systems have been developed, aiming to regain the managerial relevance of cost information. One of these alternatives is the Activity-Based Costing (ABC) method, which has been suggested as the leading contender to replace traditional cost accounting methods due to its capability to make the processes and activities performed in an organisation transparent and observable. Over the past decades, ABC has helped many manufacturing and service organisations to improve their competitiveness by enabling them to make better decisions based on cost information.2. BACKGROUND FOR THE RESEARCHConstruction cost control systems has been the subject of a myriad of studies. Despite their relevance in terms of both improving the cost estimate structure and integrating cost and schedule, they have hardly contributed to the integration of cost management and production control systems. Besides the fact that construction cost control systems have not changed much since the Seventies, cost management and productioncontrol are still treated independently, as separated systems.From a managerial point-of-view, the effort to develop, implement and operate a cost system is justifiable only when the cost information provides effective support for decision making (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987; Krieger, 1997).Activity-Based Costing has been increasingly adopted in many industrial and service firms as a method to improve cost management in complex production systems. Despite some similarities to the cost centre method or other traditional costing methods (Horngren & Foster, 1990), the underlying philosophy of ABC is considerably different. ABC is a costing system that is based on the idea that activities consume resources and product /services consume activities.The method is basically a two-stage approach for allocating indirect costs to products based on cost drivers of various levels. In the first stage, resource costs (labour, equipment and power) are assigned to those activities performed in the organisation. During the second stage, activities costs are assigned to the cost objects based on selected cost drivers (e.g., machine set-up, quality inspection and material handling activities), which express a causal relation between the activity demand and the cost object considered. Besides the fact that ABC permits to directly trace manufacturing costs to products, it is possible to determine the costs related to objects different from products, e.g., product family, services and clients.However, the main contribution of ABC to the operations management area is the process view incorporated by the method. The information produced by ABC cost systems can increase process transparency, providing guidance to identify non-valueadding activities and take the necessary corrective actions (Kaplan & Cooper, 1995).Notwithstanding the benefits of its application, ABC presents some drawbacks when compared to traditional cost systems. Perhaps, the most important one is the larger amount of data usually needed in ABC systems. Indeed, according to some authors (Krieger, 1997; Cokins, 1999), the excessive level of detail is a major cause of unsuccessful ABC implementations. This problem can be even worse when one considers unstable and complex production processes, such as those observed in the construction industry.Despite its wide utilisation in manufacturing companies and its capability to increase the transparency of production processes, ABC has been poorly discussed in the construction literature. The few existing studies usually restrict the discussion of ABC concepts to academic applications (Maxwell et al., 1998). Therefore, there is a clear need to discuss the use of ABC concepts and principles in the construction environment. As othermanufacturing concepts and practices transferred to construction, ABC has to be translated and adapted (Lillrank, 1995).3. AN APPLICATION OF ACTIVITY-BASED CONCEPT IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRYThis paper suggests an integrated model of cost management and production control for construction companies, which is strongly based on concepts related to production planning and control proposed by Laufer & Tucker (1987) and Ballard & Howell (1998). In this model, four subprocesses are identified: the preparation, the production planning and control process itself, the evaluation process and, finally, the cost management system.The information generated by the cost system is introduced into two different control cycles (figure 1) - one is continuous and the other is intermittent. The first is a continuous feedback for long and medium term planning. The aim is to encourage a process of continuous improvement to happen, enabling the managers to identify and correct problems in real time. In the intermittent cycle, cost information is used in the planning evaluation process, aiming to improve the production planning and control process and support decisions to be taken in future projects.Figure 1: An Integrated model for cost management and production control inconstruction companies.ABC was chosen as the conceptual basis of the proposed system for its capability to provide a better understanding about the processes and the activities performed, as well as for its affinity with the new operations management ideas.There are two basic groups of resources that are involved in production: those that perform the work - named production resources -and those that are the object of work typically materials. Production resources are those that can add value to the products. Considering that the cost management of materials is an issue much discussed in literature, this paper focuses on the application of ABC to the management of production resources.Construction production processes tend to be extremely variable. This variability involves not only that caused by manual labour, but also the variability of the process configuration itself. In such a context, the use of a classical ABC structure would demand too many activities, overburdening the cost system.For that reason, a different cost allocation structure was proposed. As shown in figure 2, activities were decomposed into tasks and operations. Resources are consumed by operations and the operations are demanded by different tasks. Differently from typical ABC structures, a restricted set of operations is employed to describe and analyse any construction production process. However, in practice, some resources, such as employees or subcontractors, are typically assigned to tasks. For such resources, cost assignment is made upstream, i.e., from tasks to operations.Figure 2: Cost Allocation Model - adapted from ABCOne of the main challenges in the application of the proposed cost allocation model is the definition of an adequate set of operations. Firstly, the conceptual difference between process and operation must be observed (Shingo, 1988). Briefly, process refers to the material flow and operations refers to the human and the equipment flow. The cost system presented in this work is focused on the operations axis, i.e. the subjects that perform the work.Secondly, the existence of different process types should be recognised (Shingo, 1988). Despite the fact that any process - essential, contributory or preparation, and post-adjustment (figure 3) -consists of the same categories of activities -waiting, inspection, moving and processing -the nature and the purpose of an operation differ considerably in each of those process types.Figure 3: Classification of processes (adapted from Shingo (1988)).In this study, essential processes were defined as those that add a permanent component or prefabricate a permanent component to the owner-specified facility (Pregenzer et al., 1999). Clearly, the definition of what is essential or contributory could be different depending on who classifies the process: owner, contractor, subcontractor or layman. Preparation, post-adjustment and contributory tasks are necessary for the execution of essential activities, but do not directly add a permanent component to the facility, i.e. do not directly add value for the owner. For example, using current methods, formwork must be built for a concrete column to be cast, but the construction of the formwork itself doesnot add a permanent component to facility and, therefore, does not add value for the owner.The following set of operations was defined for the proposed cost system:·Processing: a conversion operation that intersects an essential process. It is a conversion activity that adds a permanent component or prefabricates a permanent component of the owner specified facility, e.g. pouring concrete on slabs, bricklaying, electrical wire installation. Only processing may add value to the final product from the owner point of view;· Pre-processing: a conversion operation that intersects a contributory process, which is a prerequisite of an essential process. Pre-processing operations are considered to be non-value adding, because it does not add a permanent component to the final product, e.g., formwork construction, and scaffolding assembling;·Post-processing: also a conversion process that intersects a contributory process, which, in this case, is subsequent to an essential process, e.g. formwork and scaffolding disassembling;·Moving: an operation in which any material is moved. This operation may belong to either essential or contributory processes;·Cleaning: an operation dedicated to remove rubbish and waste materials from workstations or from construction sites. It belongs to preparation and post-adjustment processes;·Adjustments and corrections: a conversion operation related to both the correction of defects (rework) and the adjustments required by the different production methods;·Travelling: an operation in which a workman travels from one point to another. This operation does not belong to any process, i.e., it does not intersect any material flow;·Waiting: it corresponds to those idle times caused by inclement weather, production disruptions or physiological needs. Like travelling, it does not belong to any process.This set of eight operations has been specifically proposed for this study, considering its objectives and the resources available. In other studies, a different set could be suggested, depending on the cost-benefit analysis of data collection and processing.3.1 DATA GATHERING AND ANALYSISDespite the fact that it is possible to collect data on site, the perception of managersand employees was used in this study to evaluate the intensity which each operation is demanded by each different task. This decision was made due to the difficulty of incorporating objective methods, such as work sampling and work study, in small and medium sized construction companies as systematic procedures for measuring the time spent performing each operation. Moreover, the relative short duration of several construction tasks would imply in the need of making a great number of observations during a very short period of time – sometimes about half a day – in order to get statistical validity.According to Drucker (1995), it is necessary to rely on assessment and judgement rather than on direct measurement when objective measures are nearly impossible to obtain. Furthermore, perception has been successfully used with such purpose in several cases of ABC implementation (Brimson, 1991). Although the use of perception is a limitation of this study, objective measures might be used when the processes are reasonably stable and the proper resources are available. In such situations, objective time measurements can also be used to validate data collected through the perception-based measurement.In general terms, the procedure adopted in this study consisted of measuring the total amount of resources spent in each task (total man-hour) and then determining the intensity that each task demanded from each operation. The time demanded by each operation was evaluated by the managers and the foremen through the assignment of an index (0 to 10) which express the relative intensity of each operation.To illustrate the data gathering and analysis process, consider the example provided in table 1. The table represents a daily register of the tasks performed in a construction site. Each line in the table corresponds to a specific task, defined as a unique combination of an action (e.g. casting, assembling or digging) to be performed on a physical element (e.g. beams, columns, windows or pipes), located in a zone (e.g. a building, a level, an apartment, or a room). For each task, the total cost is given by the multiplication of labour cost per hour and the task duration. For example, assuming that each worker (JJ) cost $40,00 per hour, the task of "pouring concrete on the 14th floor's slab" costed $160,00.Table 1: Cost System Input Data – ExampleThe second step consists of distributing the task cost among the set of operations considered. For every tasks an intensity index is assigned to each operation based on the perception of managers and employees. Accordingly to the assigned index, a share of the task cost is allocated to each operationFinally, the cost assignment to cost objects depends on how these are defined. A cost object might be defined as an element, as a zone, or as a combination of both element and zone. Once defined the cost object, the costs of all those tasks that match the cost object definition are summed up to determine its total cost.CONCLUSIONSThis paper reports the main results of a research project which investigated the application of ABC concepts to improve process transparency in construction cost control.A cost allocation model was suggested aiming to translate and adapt the method for the construction industry context. The need to integrate the cost management information in the production planning and control process was also stressed. Three case studies were carried out, in which the proposed cost system was successfully implemented.The main contributions of this paper are presented below:·The proposed cost system has demonstrated the capability of providing relevant information for production management. Its implementation has increased production processes transparency, making visible important aspects usually neglected by traditional cost systems. The cost information encouraged discussion and reflection about the way production process are managed and performed. In this way, it helped to identify production inefficiencies, as well as to evaluate the corrective actions that were undertaken. The great benefit of the proposed cost system, when compared with operational analysis techniques such as first run studies, work sampling and craftworker questionnaires is that it enables toquantify and evaluate processes costs distribution in a systematic way. The proposed system can be continuously operated by the construction companies, allowing them not only to identify but also to quantify waste, so that corrective actions can be properly evaluated before hand in terms of cost.;· the adoption of ABC concepts in the construction industry demands the translation and adaptation of such concepts in order to create a manageable cost system. The cost allocation model suggested in this paper uses "operations" as the main unit for process analysis. Instead of hundreds of activities, a restricted set of operations, which incorporates the flow and value views by differentiating the value adding from the non-value adding operations, is employed to describe and analyse any production process;· the integration of cost information in the production planning and control process is essential so that systematic procedures for production control concerned not only with time but also with costs can be established.REFERENCESBrimson, J. A. (1991) "Activity Accounting: an activity-based costing approach" John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York.Ballard, H. G. (2000) "The last planner system of production control". Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Birmingham. Birmingham, 137pp.Ballard, H. G; Howell, G. (1998). "Shielding production: an essential step in production control". Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 124(1): pp. 11-17.Bartezzaghi, E. (1999) "The evolution of production models: is a new paradigm emerging?". Intern. J. of Oper. & Prod. Mgmt, 19(2), 229-250.Drucker, P.F. (1995) "The information executives truly need". Harvard Business Review, Boulder, 73(1), 54-62.Goldratt, E.M. and Cox, J.F. (1992). "The Goal: a process of ongoing improvement". 2nd ed., North River, Great Barrington, 337p.Horngren, C.T.; Foster, G. (1990) ―Cost accounting: a managerial emphasis‖. 7th ed. Englewood: Prentice-Hall. 964 p.Howell, G. and Ballard, G. (1996) ―Can project controls do its job?‖. Proceedings of the 4th annual conference of the International Group for Lean Construction, Birminghan, England.Johnson, H.T. and Kaplan, R.S. (1987) "Relevance lost: the rise and fall of management accounting". Harvard Business School, Boston, 269pp.Kaplan, R.S. and Cooper, R. (1995) "Cost and effect" Harvard Business School Press, Boston. 376pp.Koskela, L. (2000) "An exploration towards a production theory and its application to construction". Dr. Thesis, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Helsinki, 296pp.Krieger, J. (1997) "Establishing activity-based costing: Lessons & Pitfalls". Newspaper Financial Executives Quarterly, 3(4), 14-17.Laufer, A. and Tucker, R.L. (1987) "Is construction project planning really doing its job? A critical examination of focus , role and process". Constr. Mgmt, and Econ. London, 5(3), 243-266.Lillrank, P. (1995) "The transfer of management innovations from Japan". Organisation Studies, 16(6), 971-989.Maxwell, D.A.; Back, W.E. and Toon, J. (1998) "Optimazation of crew configurations using activity: based costing". J. Constr. Engrg. and Mgmt., ASCE, New York, NY, 124(2), 162-168.Ploss, G. W. (1990) "Cost Manufacturing: dawn of a new era". Production Planning & Control, London, 1(1), 61-68.Pregenzer, L.J.; Seppanen, P.J.; Kunz, J.C. and Paulson, B.C (1999) "Value-added assessment of construction plans". J. Constr. Engrg. and Mgmt, ASCE, New York, NY, 125(4), 242-248.Shingo, S. (1988). "Non-Stock Production: The Shingo System for Continuous Production" Productivity Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.译文建筑公司的成本管理和生产控制Marchesan, P.R.C.; Formoso, C. T.摘要建筑和其他的行业一样，在商业环境和内部的组织结构方面已经经历了意义深远的变革。
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英文原文1：《Professional C# Third Edition》Simon Robinson，Christian Nagel, Jay Glynn, Morgan Skinner, Karli Watson, Bill Evjen. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2006 Where C# Fits InIn one sense, C# can be seen as being the same thing to programming languages is to the Windows environment. Just as Microsoft has been adding more and more features to Windows and the Windows API over the past decade. Visual Basic andC++ have undergone expansion. Although Visual Basic and C++ have ended up as hugely powerful languages as a result of this, both languages also suffer from problems due to the legacies of how they have evolved.In the case of Visual Basic 6 and earlier, the main strength of the language was the fact that it was simple to understand and didn't make many programming tasks easy, largely hiding the details of the Windows APT and the COM component infrastructure from the developer. The downside to this was that Visual Basic was never truly object-oriented, so that large applications quickly become disorganized and hard to maintain. As well as this, because Visual Basic's syntax was inherited from early versions of BASIC (which, in turn, was designed to be intuitively simple for beginning programmers to understand, rather than lo write large commercial applications), it didn't really lend itself to well-structured or object-oriented programs.C++, on the other hand, has its roots in the ANSI C++ language definition. It isn’t completely ANSI compliant for the simple reason that Microso ft first wrote itsC++ compiler before the ANSI definition had become official, but it conics close. Unfortunately, this has led to two problems. First, ANSI C++ has its roots in a decade-old state of technology, and this shows up in a lack of support for modern 1 外文文献-中文翻译-c#concepts (such as Unicode strings and generating XML documentation), and in some archaic syntax structures designed for the compilers of yesteryear (such as the separation of declaration from definition of member functions). Second, Microsoft has been simultaneously trying to evolve C++ into a language that is designed for high-performance (asks on Windows, and in order to achieve that they've been forced to add a huge number of Microsoft-specific keywords as well as various libraries to the language.The result is that on Windows, the language has become a complete mess. Just ask C++ developers how many definitions for a string they can think of: char*, LPTSTR, string, CString (MFC version), CString (WTL version), wchar_l*, OLECHAR*, and so on.Now completely new environment that is going to involve new extensions to both languages. Microsoft has gotten around this by adding yet more Microsoft-specific keywords to C++, and by completely revamping Visual Basic into Visual a language that retains some of the basic VB syntax but that is so different in design that we can consider it to be, for all practical purposes, a new language. It?s in this context that Microsoft has decided to give developers an alternative—a language designed specifically and designed with a clean slate. Visual C# .NET is the result. Officially, Microsoft describes C# as a ''simple, modern, object-oriented, and type-safe programming language derived from C and C++.” Most independent observers would probably change Chat to '"derived from C, C++, and Java.^ Such descriptions are technically accurate but do little to convey the beauty or elegance of the language. Syntactically, C# is very similar to both C++ and Java, to such 2an extent that many keywords are (he same, and C# also shares the same block structure with braces ({}) to mark blocks of code, and semicolons to separate statements. The first impression of a piece of C# code is that it looks quite like C++ or Java code. Behind that initial similarity, however, C# is a lot easier to learn than C++, and of comparable difficulty to Java. Its design is more in tune with modern developer tools than both of those other languages, and it has been designed to give us, simultaneously, the ease of use of Visual Basic, and the high performance, low-level memory access of C++ if required. Some of the features of C# arc:LI Full support for classes and object-oriented programming, including both interface and implementation inheritance, virtual functions, and operator overloading.□ A consistent and well-defined set of basic types.□ Built-in support for automatic generation of XML documentation.□ Automatic cleanup of dynamically allocated memory.□ The facility to mark classes or methods with user-defined attributes. This can be useful for documentation and can have some effects on compilation (for example, marking methods to be compiled only in debug builds).□ Full access to base class library, as well as easy access to the Windows AP I (if you really need it, which won’t be all that often).□ Pointers and direct memory access are available if required, but the language has been designed in such a way that you can work without them in almost all cases. □ Support for properties and eve nts in the style of Visual Basic.LJ Just by changing the compiler options, you can compile either to an executable or to a library components that can be called up by other code in the same way as 3外文文献-中文翻译-c#ActiveX controls (COM components).LI C# can be used to write dynamic Web pages and XMLWeb services.Most of the above statements, it should be pointed out. do also apply to Visual and Managed C++. The fact that C# is designed from the start to work however, means that its support for the features is both more complete, and offered within the context of a more suitable syntax than for those other languages. While the C# language itself is very similar to Java, there are some improvements: in particular. Java is not designed to work with environment.Before we leave the subject, we should point out a couple of limitations of C#. The one area the language is not designed for is time-critical or extremely high performance code—the kind where you really are worried about whether a loop takes 1.000 or 1,050 machine cycles to run through, and you need to clean up your resources the millisecond they arc no longer needed. C++ is likely to continue to reign supreme among low-level languages in this area. C# lacks certain key facilities needed for extremely high performance apps, including the ability to specify inline functions and destructors that are guaranteed to run at particular points in the code. However, the proportions of applications that fall into this category are very low.4外文文献-中文翻译-c#中文译文1:《C#的优点》C#在某种程度上k可以打作足.NET面向Windows环境的种编程语言。
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目录1外文文献译文 (3)1外文文献原文 (4)2外文文献译文 (7)2外文文献原文 (9)1、外文文献译文《人力资本投资》节选作者：西奥多·威廉·舒尔茨《人力资本投资》---- 简要介绍1960年舒尔茨在美国经济学会年会上发表的题为《人力资本投资》的演说中，对于人力资本观点作了非常系统的论述。
这篇演说震惊了西方整个学术界，这不仅因为舒尔茨一向给人的印象是一位农业经济学家，而且还因为一般人总以为资本是有形的、物质的，至于教育、在职训练、保健、人口流动等方面的投资也可以增加一国资本存量和加速经济发展的观念对于当时的经济学界来说的确是很新鲜的。
这次会议之后，人力资本成为经济学中一个非常热门的新兴领域，“人力资本”也成了西方教育经济学的基本概念，人力资本理论成为现代西方资产阶级发展经济学的一个主要学派。
《人力资本投资》---- 内容提要舒尔茨这篇《人力资本投资》被人称之为：人力资本研究新领域的“独立宣言”，其在文中提出了九项主张：“在税收政策上应该给人力资本给予优惠；防止人人力资本的闲置和老化；避免对人力资本投资进行人为的干扰；完善人力资本市场，银行应积极主动地提供人力资本所需的费用，鼓励私人和公共投资；政府应承担人力资本投资的大部分费用，特别是资助劳动力向城市转移；重视低收入者的人力资本投资；明确教育和保健同样具有经济意义，它们是一项投资，要扭转投资在这方面的不平衡；增加政府投入、扩大人力资本投资，以减少收入的不平等；舒尔茨所提出的人力资本理论的基本内涵是：把资本分为物质资本和人力资本两种形式。
人力资本是体现在劳动者身上的以劳动者的数量和质量表示的资本。
劳动者的知识、技术水平、劳动技能的高低不同，决定了人力资本对经济的生产性作用的不同，结果使国民收入增长的程度也不同。
舒尔茨的人力资本理论有五个主要观点：（一）人力资本存在于人的身上，表现为知识、技能、体力（健康状况）价值的总和。
一个国家的人力资本可以通过劳动者的数量、质量以及劳动时间来度量。
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外文文献（一）原文DUAL FULL BRIDGE PROTECTED MOTOR DRIVER（A3976）The A3976 is designed to drive both windings of a bipolar stepper motor or bidirectionally control two DC Motors. Both H-Bridges are capable of continuous output currents of up to+/- 500 mA and operating voltages to 30V. Free wheeling, substrate isolated diodes are included for output transient suppression when switching motors or other inductive loads. For each bridge the PHASE input controls load current polarity by selecting the appropriate source and sink driver pair. The ENABLE input, when held high, enables the respective output H-bridge. When both ENABLE pins are held low the device will enter SLEEP mode and consume less than 100mA. The 3976 is protected to ensure safe operation in harsh operating environments and was designed specifically for automotive applications. Protection circuitry will check for open or shorted load, motor lead short to ground or supply, VBB overvoltage, VCC undervoltage, and thermal shutdown. If any of these conditions are detected the outputs will be disabled and fault information will be output to diagnostic pins FAULT1 and FAULT2. The 3976 is supplied in a choice of two power packages, a 16-lead plastic DIP with a copper batwing tab (suffix ‘B’), and a 24-lead plastic SOIC with a copper batwing tab (suffix ‘LB’). In both cases, the power tab is at ground potential and needs no electrical isolation.FEATURES（1）30 V , ±500 mA Continuous Output Rating（2）35V Load Dump Survival（3）Output Short Circuit Protection（4）Coded Fault Diagnostic Outputs（5）Low Current Standby Mode（6）Open Load Monitor（7）Low Current Standby Mode（8）VBB Over Voltage Shutdown（9）Internal Thermal Shutdown Circuitry（10）Internal Low Parasitic Free Wheeling Diodes（11）Crossover Current ProtectionABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGSat TA = +25°COperating Supply Voltage, VBB .................... 30 VNon-Operating Supply Voltage..................... 35 V Output Current, IOUT ............................±500 mA* Logic Supply Voltage, VCC.......................... 7.0 V Fault Output Voltage ................................... 7.0 VLogic Input Voltage Range, VIN.......................... -0.3 V to VCC + 0.3 VPackage Power Dissipation (TA = +25°C), PDA3976KLB..................................2.2 WA3976KB ....................................2.9 WOperating Temperature Range,TA ..............................-40°C to +125°CJunction Temperature, TJ .........................+150°C Storage Temperature Range, TS...............................-55°C to +150°C* Output current rating may be limited by duty cycle, ambient temperature, and heat sinking. Under any set of conditions, do not exceed the specified current rating or ajunction temperature of 150°C.PART NUMBER PACKAGE RØJA RØJTA3976KLB24 Lead SOIC56︒C/W6︒C/WA3973KB16 Lead DIP43︒C/W6︒C/WInput LogicPHASE ENABLE OUTA OUTBX 0 OFF OFF0 1 LOW HIGH1 1 HIGH LOWFault LogicFault Condition FAULT1FAULT2Thermal Shutdown LOW LOWShort to Battery or Open Load LOW HIGHShort to Ground HIGH LOWNormal Operation HIGH HIGHAPPLICATION NOTESOpen Lead Protection. During normal PWM operation diagnostic circuitry will look for a minimum source current level after a bridge is signalled on. Additionally, the diode flyback is monitored on the proper output. The logic will signal a fault and disable the outputs if it determines that the current is below the minimum level AND no flyback is occurring. If the inductive load is too large, the current would take too long to reach the minimal level and afalse open load would be reported. It is recommended that the inductive load be less than38mH.Short Circuit Protection. Internal sense resistors in series with VBB and ground willtrip the fault circuitry if greater than 1.1A is detected. To prevent false overcurrent events due to reverse recovery spikes of the clamp diodes, the current monitor is blanked for 5us after a high side is signalled to turn on. If an additional input command follows after the initial fault, the selected pair of drivers will pulse on for the 5us blanking duration. The short circuit fault will remember the input state where the fault occurred and will wait for that particular logic state after the short has been removed before normal operation is allowed to resume.Thermal Protection. Circuitry turns OFF all drivers when the junction temperaturereaches 170°C typically. It is intended only to protect the device from failures due to excessive junction temperatures and has a hysteresis of approximately 15°C.Layout. The printed wiring board should use a heavy ground plane. For optimum electricaland thermal performance, the driver should be soldered directly onto the board. The load supply pin, VBB, should be decoupled with an electrolytic capacitor (> 47 μF is recommended) placed as close to the device as possibleEnengy or Solar EnegryEnergy means the power which does work and drives machines. All living things (including humans) rely on the sun as a source of energy. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are energy sources available today because organisms in the past captured sunlight energy and stored it in the complex organic molecules that made up their bodies, which were then compressed and concentrated. With the development of society, a large of energy sources have been used,such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, geothermal energy, nuclear fission power, nuclear fusion power, solar energy, and Hydrogen gas. however, under the circumstances, the quantity of energy source is limited. unlimited usage of energy source results in energy crisis. At present, most of the energy consumed by humans is produced from fossil fuels. The greatest recoverable fossil is in the form of coal and lignite. Although world coal resources are enomous and potentially can fill energy needs for a century or two, their utilization is limited by environmental disruption from mining and emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. These would become intolerable long before coal resources were exhausted. Only a small percentage of coal and lignite has been utilized to date, whereas much of the recoverable petroleum and natural gas has already been consumed. Petroleum has several characteristics that make it superior to coal as a source of energy. Its extraction causes less environmental damage than does coal mining. It is a more concentrated source of energy than coal, and it burns with less pollution, and it can be moved easily through pipes. These characteristics make it an ideal fuel for automobiles.Since first commercial oil well in 1859, somewhat more than 100 million barrels of oil have been produced in the United States, most of it in recent years. In 1990 world petroleumconsumption was at a rate of about 65 million barrels per day. Projected use of petroleum and natural gas indicates rapid depletion. Alaskan oil can help the petroleum supply only temporarily. Peak world petroleum resources production will be reached within a few years. Since the first "energy crisis" of 1973-1974, some concrete actions have even taken place. However, the several-fold increase in crude oil prices since 1973 has extacted a toll. In the U.S. and other industrialized nations, the economy has been plagued by inflation, recession, unemployment, and obsolescence of industrial equipment. The economies of some petroleum-deficient developing countries have been devastated by energy prices.Energy crisis was accompanied by worldwide shortages of some foods and minerals, followed in some cases by surpluses, such as the surplus wheat resulting from increased planting and a copper surplus resulting from the efforts of copper-producing nations to acpuire foreign currency by copper export.As known to all,the availability and cost of energy has become dominant factors in society today. Obviously, solving the "energy crisis" makes good sense. Many schemes has been proposed for conserving present energy resources and for developing new ones. It is always possible to use less energy in any process. Therefore, energy engineer is created and developed. The first goal of energy engineer is to determine the methods by which energy utilization is reduced but the output remains the same, or even increases.The second goal is to determine which methods of using less energy are cost effective.Conventional engineering techniques are used to evaluated the mechanisms of energy use. Economic considerations are of equal importance and life cycle cost and saving techniques are used to determine cost-effective measures. The evaluation focuses on those uses which are significant in the overall picture and attempts to determine those technical measures that can reduce usage and save money.Meanwhile, looking for ideal energy sources is also very important to solve energy crisis. The recipe for an ideal energy source calls for one that is unlimited in supply, widely available, and inexpensive; it should not add to the earth's total heat burden or produce chemical air and water pollutants. Solar energy fulfills all of these criteria. Solar energy does not add excess heat to that which must be radiated from the earth. On a global basis, utilization of only a small fraction of solar energy reaching the earth could provide for all energy needs.Solar energy is unlimited in supply, but its exploitation and utilization are limited owing to the limitation of technology and conditions. Solar energy utilization needs an enormous amount of land, and there are economic and environmental problems related to the use of even a fraction of this amount of land for solar energy collection. Certainly, many residents of Arizona would not be pleased at having so much of the state devoted to solar collectors, and some environmental groups would protest the resultant shading of rattlesnake habitat. Solar power cells for the direct conversion of sunlight to electricity have been developed and are widely used for energy in space vehicles. With present technology, however, they remain too expensive for large-scale generation of electricity. Therefore, most schemes for the utilization of solar power depend upon the collection of thermal energy, followed by conversion to electrical energy. The simplest such approach involves focusing sunlight on a steam-generating bioler. Parabolic refkectors can be used to focus sunlight on pipescontaining heat-transporting fluids. Selective coatings on these pipes can be used so that only a small percentage of incident energy is reradiated from the pipes.（二）翻译全双桥电机保护驱动器（A3976）A3759是一种用来驱动双极性步进电机双绕组的单片集成电路，也可以用来双向控制两台电动机。
英文文献小短文(原文加汉语翻译)
A fern that hyperaccumulates arsenic(这是题目，百度一下就能找到原文好，原文还有表格，我没有翻译)A hardy, versatile, fast-growing plant helps to remove arsenic from contaminated soilsContamination of soils with arsenic,which is both toxic and carcinogenic, is widespread1. We have discovered that the fern Pteris vittata (brake fern) is extremely efficient in extracting arsenic from soils and translocating it into its above-ground biomass. This plant —which, to our knowledge, is the first known arsenic hyperaccumulator as well as the first fern found to function as a hyperaccumulator— has many attributes that recommend it for use in the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils.We found brake fern growing on a site in Central Florida contaminated with chromated copper arsenate (Fig. 1a). We analysed the fronds of plants growing at the site for total arsenic by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy. Of 14 plant species studied, only brake fern contained large amounts of arsenic (As;3,280–4,980 p.p.m.). We collected additional samples of the plant and soil from the contaminated site (18.8–1,603 p.p.m. As) and from an uncontaminated site (0.47–7.56 p.p.m. As). Brake fern extracted arsenic efficiently from these soils into its fronds: plants growing in the contaminated site contained 1,442–7,526p.p.m. Arsenic and those from the uncontaminated site contained 11.8–64.0 p.p.m. These values are much higher than those typical for plants growing in normal soil, which contain less than 3.6 p.p.m. of arsenic3.As well as being tolerant of soils containing as much as 1,500 p.p.m. arsenic, brake fern can take up large amounts of arsenic into its fronds in a short time (Table 1). Arsenic concentration in fern fronds growing in soil spiked with 1,500 p.p.m. Arsenic increased from 29.4 to 15,861 p.p.m. in two weeks. Furthermore, in the same period, ferns growing in soil containing just 6 p.p.m. arsenic accumulated 755 p.p.m. Of arsenic in their fronds, a 126-fold enrichment. Arsenic concentrations in brake fern roots were less than 303 p.p.m., whereas those in the fronds reached 7,234 p.p.m.Addition of 100 p.p.m. Arsenic significantly stimulated fern growth, resulting in a 40% increase in biomass compared with the control (data not shown).After 20 weeks of growth, the plant was extracted using a solution of 1:1 methanol:water to speciate arsenic with high-performance liquid chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Almostall arsenic was present as relatively toxic inorganic forms, with little detectable organoarsenic species4. The concentration of As(III) was greater in the fronds (47–80%) than in the roots (8.3%), indicating that As(V) was converted to As(III) during translocation from roots to fronds.As well as removing arsenic from soils containing different concentrations of arsenic (Table 1), brake fern also removed arsenic from soils containing different arsenic species (Fig. 1c). Again, up to 93% of the arsenic was concentrated in the fronds. Although both FeAsO4 and AlAsO4 are relatively insoluble in soils1, brake fern hyperaccumulated arsenic derived from these compounds into its fronds (136–315 p.p.m.)at levels 3–6 times greater than soil arsenic.Brake fern is mesophytic and is widely cultivated and naturalized in many areas with a mild climate. In the United States, it grows in the southeast and in southern California5. The fern is versatile and hardy, and prefers sunny (unusual for a fern) and alkaline environments (where arsenic is more available). It has considerable biomass, and is fast growing, easy to propagate,and perennial.We believe this is the first report of significant arsenic hyperaccumulationby an unmanipulated plant. Brake fern has great potential to remediate arsenic-contaminated soils cheaply and could also aid studies of arsenic uptake, translocation, speciation, distribution and detoxification in plants. *Soil and Water Science Department, University ofFlorida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-0290, USAe-mail: lqma@†Cooperative Extension Service, University ofGeorgia, Terrell County, PO Box 271, Dawson,Georgia 31742, USA‡Department of Chemistry & SoutheastEnvironmental Research Center, FloridaInternational University, Miami, Florida 33199,1. Nriagu, J. O. (ed.) Arsenic in the Environment Part 1: Cyclingand Characterization (Wiley, New York, 1994).2. Brooks, R. R. (ed.) Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998).3. Kabata-Pendias, A. & Pendias, H. in Trace Elements in Soils and Plants 203–209 (CRC, Boca Raton, 1991).4. Koch, I., Wang, L., Ollson, C. A., Cullen, W. R. & Reimer, K. J. Envir. Sci. Technol. 34, 22–26 (2000).5. Jones, D. L. Encyclopaedia of Ferns (Lothian, Melbourne, 1987).积累砷的蕨类植物耐寒，多功能，生长快速的植物，有助于从污染土壤去除砷有毒和致癌的土壤砷污染是非常广泛的。
外文原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿introductionKillian use a lot of routines, clear, clearly explain the modern automatic control system and the basic theory of industrial electronic. "Modern control technology: components and system (third edition)" compact structure is clear. First introduced the typical control system, and then discuss basic components: sensors, wire, electric motors, electric motor control circuit, machinery parts, and make the reader have a vivid feeling. In the last part of the book, through the discussion control strategy, control type, including programmable logic controller etc, the basic components together. The whole "modern control technology: components and system (third edition reflect the control technology advanced and comprehensive, the book there are many necessary physical and mechanical concept of knowledge, such as linear movement and rotational motion, spring, friction, gearing, lever, heat transfer and energy conversion. The concept of digital control in the books will carry out beginning, and has been throughout the whole "modern control technology: components and system (third edition. At the same time the book also speak of the simulation, the concept. The third edition of the book by the following content: digital "panel installation" controller, differential gears, insulation grid transistor (IGBT), ultrasonic proximity sensors, inductive proximity sensors, ultrasonic flow sensor and cascade control. At the same time for the original parts of contents added, better emphasized themes, such AS communication frequency electric tent area move, PID control and AS-I sensor factory network.Can be used in enterprise's technical training, it is also applied to the following professional courses, such as industrial control, industrial electronics, control system, mechanical and electrical system.Learning book until at least should grasp basic ac/dc circuit. If also mastered the following knowledge, will be more beneficial. Include solid-state circuits and operation circuit, basic digital circuit, microprocessor, physical knowledge (although these will be explained in this book).This book of difficulty to belong to medium. Only request relevant mathematics knowledge with algebra, and does not require the use of integral and Laplace transform. In most cases, if the topic of discussion over which we ask level of knowledge, this book will introduce practical application examples to explain the theme of the basic concepts involved.Objectives and methodsMany technology professional students often only learn a foreign control and motor interface of the course. And this course will cover: (1) the mechanical and electrical parts, such as sensors, motors, and drive circuit; (2) mechanical and electronic interface between the circuit; (3) part of the mechanical domain knowledge, such as gear, spring, friction and inertia; (4) basic feedback control theory, they will above all the concept together.This book covers the following topics: each chapter of the actual interpretation of the industrial control system.This book includes the following article: control system control system and background paper summary open loop control system closed loop control system transfer function analog and digital controller of the control system of classification process control motion control based on the microprocessor control in the paper Microprocessor system hardware overview microprocessor working principle microprocessor controller interface connection parallel interface serial interface controller based on the programming of the microprocessor controller micro control unit (MCU) veneer computer digital "panel installation" controller panel programmable logic controllersDue to mechanical itself can make regular decision, artificial operation can be free....... In many cases, mechanical intelligent control than people better, because it can make fast or slow response (tracking long-term slow change), this response is more accurate, and keep the system performance is the best.The control system can with several methods classification. The standard system can be keep parameters for (or close) to a certain value. Such examples have family heating system, although external conditions change it all will keep in a certain temperature. Follow the system, it will make the system output follow predetermined path. Such examples have industrial robots will parts move from place to place. Incident control system, it controls a series of events of order. Such examples have washing machine, it according to a series of already programmed recycling program steps.When life appeared, natural control system was already there. Think about the human body is how to adjust temperature. If the human body need to warm up, and then the food energy can be transformed to heat. On the other hand, can make the body evaporation cooling. Due to evaporation effect is not obvious (especially in damp climate), so we body temperature slightly higher than the temperature of the earth. If the body's temperature sensor, the temperature drop that, it will be issued to the body burns more fuel signal. If it realized the body temperature is too high, send out a signal that the body sweating.From the time of ancient Greece started, artificial control system in some form to exist. The book had described an interesting device-a pool will never die. The pool has a hidden float and similar device transformation of valve in the toilet. When the water drop, floating ball sinking, then open valve make water flow in.The electronic control system is a creation of the twentieth century. Electromechanical relay is developed and used in motor and equipment of the remote control. Relay and also is used to switch as a simple logic gate to realize intelligent. The application of vacuum tube technology make the control system in the second world war had significant development. Dynamic position control system (servo mechanism) was developed, used for aircraft, gun tower, torpedo. Today, the position control system used in machine tools, industrial process control, robots, cars and office equipment.Meanwhile, in the other development of electronic control system also have certain effect. In motor control circuit, solid-state device begun to replace the relay. Analog controller, the transistor and integrated circuit operational amplifiers also been applied.Digital integrated circuit has replaced the common relay logic. Finally, is also the most significant, the microprocessor to create digital controller, these digital controller cheap, reliable, and can control the complicated process and is adjustable (if task change, controller can be reprogrammed).Control system to cover many aspects: electronic (simulation and digital), electric power control devices, sensors, motor, mechanics and control system theory. Control system theory will all these concepts together. Many students find of the control system of knowledge is very interesting, because it involves some theory in the application, and the application in life has happened.译文介绍基利安使用了大量的例程，清晰、明确地解释了现代自动控制系统和工业电子的基本理论。
外文文献翻译原文+译文
外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。
毕业论文外文翻译范例
外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。
(完整word版)外文文献及翻译doc
Criminal Law1.General IntroductionCriminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penaltieswas reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change.2.Elements of a CrimeObviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.(1) actus reusThe first element of crime is the actus reus.Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”---that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not on e’s behavior is illegal.Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action,or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent’s failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one’s official position. Duty also can arise from one’s own creation of a dangerous situation.(2)mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual’s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor’s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea hasbeen reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3)CausationThe next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abel’s death. ”In other words, ‘but for Cain’s act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to thesatisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state’s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪，有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判，及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。
定稿外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿The Design and Development of the hotel management system Along with economical development in our country, people’s life level has been improving, holiday economy and tour economy have been become hot point of people’s consumption. All the country also regards the tourism as one of the most important stanchion of developing local economy, which promoted the fast development of the hotels and cabaret industry thus. Meanwhile, along with the more and more hotels and cabarets, people’s requests are higher, so the competition in hotel and cabaret industry also becomes more and more violent. The modernized hotel collects the guest room, food and beverage , communication , amusement, commercial culture and other various kinds of services and facilities are the integrated consumption place , the hotel organizes hugely, there are many service items. The amount of information is large It is a problem which every hotel or cabaret must face that how to survive and develop in the violent competition. The service management level of the cabaret play an important part in improving its competition ability. It is a very heavy and baldness job of managing a bulky database by manpower. The disadvantage, such as great capacity of work, low efficiency and long period, exist in data inputting, demanding and modification.How to improve its service management level has been become the urgent task of the hotel and cabaret industry development. In this case, to establish the hotel management information system becomes one of the valid paths that can resolve this problem. The hotel management information system is an information management one kind within system, currently information technique continuously of development, the network technique has already been applied in us extensively nearby of every trade, there is the network technical development, each hotels all make use of a calculator to manage the files, the hotel is operated by handicraft before of the whole tedious affairs all got fast and solvehigh-efficiencily, especially the system had in the hotel industry very big function, all can be more convenient, fast for people coming saying and understand accurately with management everyone noodles information.This thesis takes current state of the development of the hotel industry as the background, has analysis the deficiency under the traditional management mode of my State Guesthouse industry, have explained the necessity of the housekeeping information of the hotel. The thesis introduced the functions and the process of design. The thesis mainly explained the point of the system design, the thought of design, the difficult technique and the solutions. By the investigation with hotels, we have building the organization model of the management information system of guest room of the hotel. Based on that, we have carried on the detailed investigation to the business procedure of the guest room of the hotel, having set up the structure chart of the function, for instance the room reserves, the customers check in, checks out to settle account, charges to account etc., thus makes the management clear. To meet the actual inquire, we have set up concept structure, proposes the systematic design principle and design method, provides Solution Architecture of database. We have developed a practical the management information system. Not only carried on detailed analysis and design to the system of guest room of the hotel in terms of business, but also we appraised to the system.A number of free or very inexpensive Web servers are good for development use or deployment of low-volume or medium-volume Web sites. Thus, with Servlets and Java you can start with a free or inexpensive server and migrate to more expensive servers with high-performance capabilities or advanced administration utilities only after your project meets initial success. This is in contrast to many of the other CGI alternatives, which require a significant initial investment for the purchase of a proprietary package.But, with Servlets and Java, they could start with a free server: Apache Tomcat (either standalone, embedded in the regular Apache Web server, or embedded in Microsoft IIS). Once the project starts to become successful, they could move to a server like Caucho Resin that had higher performance and easier administration but that is not free. But none of their Servlets or Java pages have to be rewritten.The system is in the data from one server and a number of Taiwan formed LANworkstations. Users can check the competence of different systems in different users submit personal data, background database you can quickly given the mandate to see to the content.More and more are also urgent along with hotel automationthe information management when science and technology rapid development,therefore is essential to develop the software system of marks register to assist the hotel industry management.So that can improve the information management,enhance the efficiency of management.译文宾馆管理系统的设计与发展随着我国经济的发展，人们的生活水平有了显著的提高，假日经济和旅游经济已成为人们消费的热点。
外文文献原稿及译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿About Programmable Logiccontrollers（PLCs）PLCs (programmable controller) is used in a variety of automatic control system and process control hub.They contain multiple input and output, input and output is used to transistors and other circuit, analog switch and relay to control the equipment.PLC software interface, standard calculator interface, specialized language programming and network equipment.Programmable logic controller I/O channel rules including all input output contact and contact, to expand capacity and the largest number of channels.Contact number is the sum of input and output points.PLC can specify any combination of these values.Extension units can be stack or connected to each other to increase the total control.The largest number of channels are in an extension system, the total number of maximum input and output channels.PLC system rules include scanning time, number of instructions, data storage and storage program.Scan time is used to monitor input and output module of PLC need time.Standard operation instruction is used in PLC software.Data storage is the ability to store data.Program memory is the ability to control software.Used for programmable controller input devices including DC, AC, intermediate relay, thermocouple, RTD, frequency or pulse, transistors and interrupt signal input;Output devices include DC, AC, intermediate relay, frequency or pulse, transistor, three-terminal two-way thyristor switch components;PLC programming equipment including control panel, handle and computer.Programmable control is used to control a variety of software programming language.These languages including iec61131-3, sequential table (SFC), action block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), and the structure of the text (ST), instruction sequences (IL), relay ladder diagram (RIL), flow charts, C language and Basic language.Iec61131-3 programming environment can support five languages, with international standards to regulate, SFC, respectively, FBD, LD, ST and IL.This allows more vendor compatibility and a variety of languages.SFC is a kind of graphlanguage, it provides the programming in order to cooperate, can support the order selection and tied for choice, to choose between them.Runtime FBD with a big, established the complicated process, in the form of graphs.Standard mathematical and logical operation can be combined with user interaction and interface operation.LD is suitable for discrete control and interlock logic diagram language.It is fully compatible with FBD on discrete control.ST is a kind of text language, used for complex mathematical and computational process, language is not applicable to chart.IL is similar to the combination of coding low-level languages.It is used in relatively simple logical instructions.Relay ladder diagram and ladder diagram is used for programmable controller is an important programming dder diagram programming is designed to relay logic diagram representation of the program.Flow chart is a graphic language, for use in a controller or operations described in the order of application software, it is used to establish a standard component of recycled runtime.C language is a high-level programming language, suitable for processing the most complicated calculation, a continuous data acquisition task.It typically run in PC debugging.BASIC language is used to handle the number of consecutive data acquisition and interface operation of high-level language.Programmable controller also specification of many computer interface equipment, network rules and characteristics.PLC energy equipment and running environment is also very important.The development history of programmable controllerIn 1968, general motors (GM), according to the needs of the development of the market situation and put forward the "many varieties, small batch, new car brand model" strategy.To implement this strategy, relying on the original industrial control device obviously not, and there must be a kind of new industrial control device, it can be with the change of the products, flexible and easily change control scheme to difficult to meet the different requirements of control.In 1969, the famous American digital equipment corporation (DEC) according to the function requirements of GM, developed the new industrial control device, and the GM of a vehicle to run automated production line for the first time to succeed.According to this new type of industrial control devices can be programmedto change control scheme this characteristic, and the situation of the specialized for Logic control, says the new industrial control device for the Programmable control (Programmable Logic Controller), hereinafter referred to as PLC.From 1968 to now, the PLC has experienced four generation: most of the first generation of PLC with a machine development, with the core memory storage, only the logic control function.In the second generation of PLC products for 8-bit microprocessor and semiconductor memory, PLC product seriation.The third generation of PLC product with high performance microprocessor and chip is used in great quantities in the PLC CPU, PLC speed greatly improved, thus enabling it to develop in the direction of multi-function communications and networking.The fourth generation of PLC products not only comprehensive use 16-bit and 32-bithigh-performance microprocessors, high-performance slice microcontroller processor, RISC (Reduced instruction set computer) Reduced instruction system CPU and other advanced CPU, and more than one processor in a PLC configuration, multi-channel processing.Also produced a large number of embedded microprocessor module, only makes the fourth generation of PLC product has the function of logical control, process control, motion control, data control, networked control functions really worthy of the name of multi-functional controller.At the same time, the PLC network composed of PLC has also been rapid development.PLC and industrial control of PLC network in factory enterprises become the preferred device, composed of PLCmulti-stage distributed PLC network become indispensable fundamental part of CIMS system.People spoke highly of the importance of PLC and its network, it is one of the three pillars of modern.Selecting machine modelMarket popular PLC products manufacturer in China with the following companies:(1) schneider company, including the introduction of early from Modicon company by the tianjin instrument instrument and meter plant products, products are now Quantum, Premium and Momentum;(2) rockwell company (including AB company) PLC products, products are now SLC and Micro Logix Control Logix etc.(3) of Siemens PLC products, products are now 400/300 / S7-200 series;(4) ge PLC products;(5) the company's products such as omron, mitsubishi, Fuji, panasonic, one of the most popular is the mitsubishi FX series.The basic principle of PLC selection is: in the input/output quantity meet the requirements under the premise of should choose the most reliable, maintenance, and use the most convenient and cost-effective optimal products.Selecting I/OPLC is an industrial control system, the control object is industrial production equipment or the production process of industrial products, working environment is the industrial production field.It connects the industrial production process is achieved by I/O interface module.PLC has a lot of I/O interface module including switch input module, the switch output module, analog input module and analog output module and special module, we should use according to the characteristics of their implementation options.(1) determine the number of input/outputAccording to the requirements of the control system, determine the number of input/output required, should increase the spare quantity of 10% 20%, in order to increase control function in any time.(2) the switch quantity input/outputSwitch input/output interface and can take the signals from the sensors and switches and control equipment.A typical 24-240 - v ac input/output signals, 5-240 - v dc input/output signals.(3) the analog input/outputAnalog input/output inte rface can accept the signal generated by thesensor.These interfaces can be used to measure turnover rate, temperature and pressure, and thus to control the voltage or current output device.Range for these interfaces - 10-10 v, + 0 to 10 v, 4-20 ma, or 10 to 50 ma.Some manufacturers on the PLC design special dedicated analog interface, so it can receive low level signal.In general, this interface module can be used to receive different types of thermocouple and RTD mixed signal.(4) special function input/outputWhen selecting a PLC, user may faced some special types of input/output and some because of the location of the limited input/output and fast response and frequency problem caused by the non standard input/output.Now, the user should consider whether to accept by the market or manufacturers to provide a special module, through a dedicated part of the module and dispose data, so as to reduce the use of the CPU, improve the efficiency of the task processing, to minimize failure caused by high limit control.PLC statusIn a PLC, the lack of keyboard and other input and output devices is a very worthy of attention.In PLC front usually have a certain amount of status ually indicates that:The start-up - as long as the PLC charged, it will be started.Program is running - this will indicate whether running or if no program is running. Error display - when PLC has a large hardware or software errors, it will be displayed. These lights are usually used for debugging.A certain number of button will also be provided to the PLC hardware.The most common button is a run/programming selection switch, when in keeping the state, it will be transferred to the programming;When the production status, it will be transferred to the operation.A PLC system almost no start closing switch or reset switch at the front.It needs to be designed into the system the rest.The state of the PLC can also be ladder logic diagram.Test whether the program implemented is very common for the first time.'first scan input in ladder diagram by scanning for the first time, will is right, and in the rest of the time when the scanning is wrong.In this case, the PLC - 5 'first scan' address is' S2:1/14 '.According to the example of the logical relationship, the first scan will seal the 'light' until the 'clear' is started.So the light will be start brighter in the PLC, but after the "clear" is launched, it will shut down and remain in the closed position.'first scan module is mentioned in the "first pass" module.PLC application domainAt home and abroad at present, the PLC has been widely used in steel, petroleum, chemical, electric power, building materials, machinery manufacturing, automobile, textile, transportation, environmental protection and cultural industries with happiness and usage can be roughly divided into the following categories:(1) the switch quantity logic controlThis is the most basic, the most widely PLC applications, it replaces the traditional relay circuit, realize logic control, sequence control, can be used for control of single equipment, also can be used in many machines and automatic assembly line.Such as injection molding machine, printing machine, stapler machinery, combined machine tool, grinding machine, packaging production line, plating production line, etc.(2) analog controlIn the process of industrial production, there are a lot of continuous change, such as temperature, pressure, flow, liquid level and speed and so on are all analog.In order to make the programmable controller to deal with analog, must implement the analog quantity and digital quantity between A/D and D/A conversion module, the programmable controller for analog control.(3) motion controlPLC can be used in circular motion and linear motion control.From control mechanism configuration, early applied directly to switch the I/O module connection position sensors and actuators, now in general use special motion controlmodule.Such as driving a stepper motor or servo motor of uniaxial or multi-axis position control module.The world's major products almost all have motion control function of PLC manufacturers, widely used in all kinds of machinery, machine tools, robots, elevators, etc.(4) process controlProcess control is to point to the analog quantities such as temperature, pressure, flow rate of the closed loop control.As industrial control computer, PLC can prepare the all kinds of control algorithm procedures, complete the closed-loop control.PID control is generally be applied closed loop control system of the control rge and medium-sized PLC has PID module, at present many small PLC also has thefunction module.PID processing is generally run special PID subroutine.The process control in metallurgy, chemical industry, heat treatment, boiler control occasions has wide application, etc.(5) the data processingModern PLC with mathematical operation, data transmission, data conversion, sorting, look-up table, a function, such as the operation can complete data collection, analysis, and processing.These data can be compared with the reference value of memory, accomplish a certain number of control operation, also can send to other intelligent device, the use of communication function or printing them tabulation.Data processing is generally used in a large control system, such as unmanned control of flexible manufacturing systems;Can also be used to process control system, such as paper making, metallurgy, food industry, some of the large control system.(6) communications and networkingPLC communication with the communication between PLC and the communication between PLC and other smart devices.With the development of computer control, factory automation network is growing fast, the PLC manufacturers have attached great importance to PLC communications functions, have launched their own network systems.The newly production PLC has a communication interface, communication is very convenient.PLC application field is still in the extension, in Japan, the application of PLC has been from the traditional industrial automatic control equipment and machinery, extended to the following areas of application: small and medium-sized process control system, remote maintenance service system, the energy conservation monitoring control system, and of the relation of living machines, relationship with the environment, and all have rapidly rising trend.It is important to note that with PLC, DSC mutual penetration, both the boundaries of an increasingly fuzzy, PLC applied to discrete manufacturing industry from the traditional to the applied to the continuous process industries to expand.译文PLC介绍PLC（可编程控制器）是用于各种自动控制系统和过程的可控网络集线器。
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外文文献原稿和译文原稿Mechanical and Regenerative Braking Integration for a HybridElectric VehicleAbstractHybrid electric vehicle technology has become a preferred method for the automotive industry to reduce environmental impact and fuel consumption of their vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles accomplish these reductions through the use of multiple propulsion systems, namely an electric motor and internal combustion engine, which allow the elimination of idling, operation of the internal combustion engine in a more efficient manner and the use of regenerative braking. However, the added cost of the hybrid electric system has hindered the sales of these vehicles.A more cost effective design of an electro-hydraulic braking system is presented. The system electro-mechanically controlled the boost force created by the brake booster independently of the driver braking force and with adequate time response. The system allowed for the blending of the mechanical and regenerative braking torques in a manner transparent to the driver and allowed for regenerative braking to be conducted efficiently.A systematic design process was followed, with emphasis placed on demonstrating conceptual design feasibility and preliminary designfunctionality using virtual and physical prototyping. The virtual and physical prototypes were then used in combination as a powerful tool to validate and develop the system. The role of prototyping in the design process is presented and discussed.Through the experiences gained by the author during the design process, it is recommended that students create physical prototypes to enhance their educational experience. These experiences are evident throughout the thesis presented.1.1 Modern Hybrid Electric VehiclesWith rising gas prices and the overwhelming concern for the environment, consumers and the government have forced the automotive industry to start producing more fuel efficient vehicles with less environmental impact. One promising method that is currently being implemented is the hybrid electric vehicle.Hybrid vehicles are defined as vehicles that have two or more power sources [25]. There are a large number of possible variations, but the most common layout of hybrid vehicles today combines the power of an internal combustion engine (ICE) with the power of an electric motor and energy storage system (ESS). These vehicles are often referred to as hybrid electric vehicles (HEV’s) [25]. These two power sources are used in conjunction to optimize the efficiency and performance of the vehicle, which in turn will increase fuel economy and reduce vehicle emissions, all while delivering the performance the consumer requires. In 1997, the Toyota Prius became the first hybrid vehicle introduced into mass production in Japan. It took another three years for the first mass produced hybrid vehicle, the Honda Insight, to be introduced into the North American market. The release of the Honda Insight was closely followed by the release of the Toyota Prius in North America a couple of months later [35].Hybrid electric vehicles have the distinct advantage of regenerative braking. The electric motor, normally used for propulsion, can be usedas a generator to convert kinetic energy of the vehicle back into electrical energy during braking, rather than wasting energy as heat. This electrical energy can then be stored in an ESS (e.g. batteries or ultracapacitors) and later released to propel the vehicle using the electric motor.This process becomes even more important when considering the energy density of batteries compared to gasoline or diesel fuel. Energy density is defined as the amount of energy stored in a system per unit volume or mass [44]. To illustrate this point, 4 kilograms (4.5 litres) of gasoline will typically give a motor vehicle a range of 50 kilometres. To store the same amount of useful electric energy it requires a lead acid battery with a mass of about 270 kilograms [25]. This demonstrates the need for efficient regenerative braking to store electrical energy during driving, which in turn will keep the mass of the energy storage system down and improve the performance and efficiency of the HEV.1.2 Research Scope - Regenerative Braking SystemsThe scope of the research presented is to create a low cost regenerative braking system to be used on future economical hybrid vehicles to study the interaction between regenerative and mechanical braking of the system. This system should be able to control the combination of both regenerative and mechanical braking torque depending on driver demand and should be able to do so smoothly and safely. Controlling the regenerative braking torque can be done using control algorithms and vector control for induction motors. However, controlling the mechanical braking torque independently of the driver pedal force, while maintaining proper safety back-ups, proved to be more of a challenge. To overcome this problem, a system was developed that would attenuate the pressure in the brake booster in order to control the amount of mechanical torque developed by the braking system．2.1 Hybrid Electric Vehicle OverviewHybrid vehicles have emerged as one of the short term solutions for reducing vehicle emissions and improving fuel economy. Over the past 10 years almost all of the major automotive companies have developed and released for sale their own hybrid electric vehicles to the public. The popularity of hybrid electric vehicles has grown considerably since the turn of the century. With enormous pressure to become more environmentally friendly and with unpredictable gas prices, the sales of hybrid electric vehicles have increased dramatically in recent years.2.1.1 Hybrid ConfigurationsFor the past 100 years the objective of the hybrid has been to extend the range of electric vehicles and to overcome the problem of long recharging times [35]. There are three predominant hybrid electric vehicle configurations currently on the market today. These configurations are known as series hybrids, parallel hybrids and series/parallel hybrids.Each configuration has its advantages and disadvantages which will be discussed in the following sections.Series HybridsIn series hybrids the mechanical output from the internal combustion engine is used to drive a generator which produces electrical power that can be stored in the batteries or used to power an electric motor and drive the wheels. There is no direct mechanical connection between the engine and the driven wheels. Series hybrids tend to be used in high power systems such as large trucks or locomotives but can also be used for lower power passenger vehicles [18]. The mechanically generated electrical power is combined with the power from the battery in an electronic controller. This controller then compares the driver demand with the vehicle speed and available torque from the electric motor to determine the amount of power required from each source to drive the vehicle. During braking, the controller also switches the power electronics to regenerative mode, and directs the power being regenerated to the batteries [55].There are many advantages made possible by the arrangement describedabove. It is possible to run the ICE constantly at its most efficient operating point and share its electrical output between charging the battery and driving the electric motor. By operating the engine at its most efficient operating point, emissions can be greatly reduced and the most electrical power can be generated per volume of fuel. This configuration is also easierto implement into a vehicle because it is less complex which makes this method more cost effective.Parallel HybridsIn parallel hybrid configurations the mechanical energy output from the ICE is transmitted to a gearbox. In this gearbox the energy from the ICE can be mechanically combined with a second drive from an electric motor. The combined mechanical output is then used to drive the wheels [35]. In this configuration there is a direct connection between the engine and the driven wheels. As in series hybrids the controller compares the driver demand with the vehicle speed and output torque and determines the amount of power to be used from each source to meet the demand, while obtaining the best possible efficiency. A parallel hybrid also controls regenerative braking similarly to a series hybrid. Parallel hybrids are usually used in lower power electric vehicles in which both drives can be operated in parallel to provide higher performance [18].There are a number of advantages of a parallel hybrid over a series hybrid. The most important advantage is that since only one conversion between electrical and mechanical power is made, efficiency will be much better than the series hybrid in which two conversions are required. Since the parallel hybrid has the ability to combine both the engine and electric motor powers simultaneously, smaller electric motors can be used without sacrificing performance, while getting the fuel consumption and emission reduction benefits. Lastly, parallel hybrids only need to operate the engine when the vehicle is moving and do not need a second generator tocharge the batteries.Series/Parallel HybridsCombined hybrids have the features of both series and parallel configurations. They use a power split device to drive the wheels using dual sources of power (e.g. electric motor only, ICE only or a combination of both). While the added benefits of both series hybrids and parallel hybrids are achieved for this configuration, control algorithms become very complex because of the large number of driving possibilities available.2.1.2 Degree of HybridizationSince most HEV’s on the road today are either parallel or series/parallel, it is useful to define a variable called the ‘degree of hybridization’ to quantify the electrical power potential of these vehicles.iceem em P P P DOH += The degree of hybridization ranges from (DOH = 0) for a conventional vehicle to (DOH = 1) for an all electric vehicle [25]. As the degree of hybridization increases, a smaller ICE can be used and operated closer to its optimum efficiency for a greater proportion of the time, which will decrease fuel consumption and emissions. The electric motor power is denoted by Pem and the internal combustion engine power is denoted by Pice. Micro HybridMicro hybrids have the smallest degree of hybridization and usually consist of an integrated starter generator (ISG) connected to the engine crankshaft. The ISG allows the engine to be shut off during braking and idling to conserve fuel and then spins the crankshaft up to speed before fuel is injected during acceleration. The ISG also provides small amounts of assist to the ICE during acceleration and acts as a generator to charge the batteries during braking. Micro hybrids usually improve fuel economy by about 10 percent compared with non hybrids [53].Mild HybridMild hybrids have a similar architecture to the micro hybrid exceptthat the ISG is uprated in power to typically greater than 20 kW. However,the energy storage system is limited to less than 1 kWh [35]. Mild hybrids usually have a very short electric-only range capability but can provide a greater assist to the ICE during accelerations. The electrical components in a mild hybrid are more complex than a micro hybrid and playa greater role in the vehicle operation. Fuel economy can be improved by20 to 25 percent with a mild hybrid over non hybrid vehicles [53]. Full HybridFull hybrids do away with the ISG and replace it with a separate electric motor and alternator/starter that perform the same function. The electric motor has the ability to propel the vehicle alone, particularly in city (stop and go) driving. The energy storage system is upgraded to improve electric-only range capability and the engine is usually downsized to improve fuel economy and emissions. Full hybrids can achieve40 to 45 percent fuel consumption reductions over non hybrids [53]. Plug-in HybridPlug-in hybrids are very similar to full hybrids except that they have a much larger ESS that can be connected to an outside electrical utility source for charging. These vehicles use only the electric motor to propel the vehicle within the range of the batteries and then operate like full hybrids once the batteries have discharged to a predefined level.2.1.3 Fundamentals of Regenerative BrakingOne of the most important features of HEV’s is their ability to recover significant amounts of braking energy. The electric motors can be controlled to operate as generators during braking to convert the kinetic energy of the vehicle into electrical energy that can be stored in the energy storage system and reused. However, the braking performance of a vehicle also greatly affects vehicle safety. In an emergency braking situation the vehicle must be stopped in the shortest possible distance and must be able to maintain control over the vehicle’s direction. The latter requires control of brake force distribution to the wheels [12].Generally, the braking torque required is much larger than the torque that an electric motor can produce [12]. Therefore, a mechanical friction braking system must coexist with the electrical regenerative braking. This coexistence demands proper design and control of both mechanical and electrical braking systems to ensure smooth, stable braking operations that will not adversely affect vehicle safety.Energy Consumption in BrakingBraking a 1500 kg vehicle from 100 km/h to 0 km/h consumes about 0.16 kWh of energy based on Equation 2.2.221mv E If 25 percent of this energy could be recovered through regenerative braking techniques, then Equation 2.2 can be used to estimate that this energy could be used to accelerate the vehicle from 0 km/h to about 50 km/h, neglecting aerodynamic drag, mechanical friction and rolling resistance during both braking and accelerating. This also assumes that the generating and driving modes of the electric motor are 100% efficient. This suggests that the fuel economy of HEV’s can be greatly increased when driving in urban centres where the driver is constantly braking and accelerating. Note that the amount of energy recovered is limited by the size of the electric motor and the rate of which energy can be transferred to the ESS.2.1.4 Methods of Regenerative BrakingThere are two basic regenerative braking methods used today. These methods are often referred to as parallel regenerative braking and series regenerative braking. Each of these braking strategies have advantages and disadvantages that will be discussed in this section.Parallel Regenerative BrakingDuring parallel regenerative braking, both the electric motor and mechanical braking system always work in parallel (together) to slow the vehicle down [48]. Since mechanical braking cannot be controlled independently of the brake pedal force it is converting some of thevehicle’s kinetic energy into heat instead of electrical energy. This is not the most efficient regenerative braking method. However, parallel regenerative braking does have the advantages of being simple and cost effective. For this method to be used, the mechanical braking system needs little modification and the control algorithms for the electric motor can be easily implemented into the vehicle. This method also has the added advantage of always having the mechanical braking system as a back-up in case of a failure of the regenerative braking system.Series Regenerative BrakingDuring series regenerative braking the electric motor is solely used for braking. It is only when the motor or energy storage system can no longer accept more energy that the mechanical brakes are used [48]. This method requires that the mechanical braking torque be controlled independently of the brake pedal force and has the advantage of being the most efficient by converting as much of the vehicle’s kinetic energy into electrical energy . The downfall of this method is that it brings many costs and complexities into the system. For this method to function properly a brake-by-wire system has to be developed which either uses an electro-hydraulic brake (EHB) or an electro-mechanical brake (EMB). Both of these types of brakes require brake pedal simulators and redesigned brake systems which can become costly. Since these systems are brake-by-wire there are also many redundancies required with sensors, processors and wiring for safety which add to the complexity of the system.2.1.5 Current Regenerative Braking SystemsThe cur rent regenerative braking system in most HEV’s (e.g. Toyota Prius) is the more costly electro-hydraulic braking (EHB) system. This system uses a brake pedal simulator, which is separate from the hydraulic braking circuit, to establish driver braking demand. The braking demand is then proportioned into a regenerative and mechanical braking demand. The mechanical braking demand is then sent to a system that contains a high pressure hydraulic pump, accumulator and proportional control valves.The proportional control valves allow the brake line fluid to flow to each wheel at predefined pressures determined by the braking demand.译文混合动力电动汽车机械和再生制动的整合摘要为了减少对环境的污染和车辆的燃油消耗，混合动力电动汽车已经成为汽车工业的首选方法。