英文文献及翻译
英文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Sodium Polyacrylate:Also known as super-absorbent or “SAP”(super absorbent polymer), Kimberly Clark used to call it SAM (super absorbent material). It is typically used in fine granular form (like table salt). It helps improve capacity for better retention in a disposable diaper, allowing the product to be thinner with improved performance and less usage of pine fluff pulp. The molecular structure of the polyacrylate has sodium carboxylate groups hanging off the main chain. When it comes in contact with water, the sodium detaches itself, leaving only carboxylions. Being negatively charged, these ions repel one another so that the polymer also has cross-links, which effectively leads to a three-dimensional structure. It has hige molecular weight of more than a million; thus, instead of getting dissolved, it solidifies into a gel. The Hydrogen in the water (H-O-H) is trapped by the acrylate due to the atomic bonds associated with the polarity forces between the atoms. Electrolytes in the liquid, such as salt minerals (urine contains 0.9% of minerals), reduce polarity, thereby affecting superabsorbent properties, especially with regard to the superabsorbent capacity for liquid retention. This is the main reason why diapers containing SAP should never be tested with plain water. Linear molecular configurations have less total capacity than non-linear molecules but, on the other hand, retention of liquid in a linear molecule is higher than in a non-linear molecule, due to improved polarity. For a list of SAP suppliers, please use this link: SAP, the superabsorbent can be designed to absorb higher amounts of liquids (with less retention) or very high retentions (but lower capacity). In addition, a surface cross linker can be added to the superabsorbent particle to help it move liquids while it is saturated. This helps avoid formation of "gel blocks", the phenomenon that describes the impossibility of moving liquids once a SAP particle gets saturated.History of Super Absorbent Polymer ChemistryUn til the 1980’s, water absorbing materials were cellulosic or fiber-based products. Choices were tissue paper, cotton, sponge, and fluff pulp. The water retention capacity of these types of materials is only 20 times their weight – at most.In the early 1960s, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was conducting work on materials to improve water conservation in soils. They developed a resin based on the grafting of acrylonitrile polymer onto the backbone of starch molecules (i.e. starch-grafting). The hydrolyzed product of the hydrolysis of this starch-acrylonitrile co-polymer gave water absorption greater than 400 times its weight. Also, the gel did not release liquid water the way that fiber-based absorbents do.The polymer came to be known as “Super Slurper”.The USDA gave the technical know how several USA companies for further development of the basic technology. A wide range of grating combinations were attempted including work with acrylic acid, acrylamide and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).Since Japanese companies were excluded by the USDA, they started independent research using starch, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), acrylic acid, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and isobutylene maleic anhydride (IMA).Early global participants in the development of super absorbent chemistry included Dow Chemical, Hercules, General Mills Chemical, DuPont, National Starch & Chemical, Enka (Akzo), Sanyo Chemical, Sumitomo Chemical, Kao, Nihon Starch and Japan Exlan.In the early 1970s, super absorbent polymer was used commercially for the first time –not for soil amendment applications as originally intended –but for disposable hygienic products. The first product markets were feminine sanitary napkins and adult incontinence products.In 1978, Park Davis (d.b.a. Professional Medical Products) used super absorbent polymers in sanitary napkins.Super absorbent polymer was first used in Europe in a baby diaper in 1982 when Schickendanz and Beghin-Say added the material to the absorbent core. Shortly thereafter, UniCharm introduced super absorbent baby diapers in Japan while Proctor & Gamble and Kimberly-Clark in the USA began to use the material.The development of super absorbent technology and performance has been largely led by demands in the disposable hygiene segment. Strides in absorption performance have allowed the development of the ultra-thin baby diaper which uses a fraction of the materials – particularly fluff pulp – which earlier disposable diapers consumed.Over the years, technology has progressed so that there is little if any starch-grafted super absorbent polymer used in disposable hygienic products. These super absorbents typically are cross-linked acrylic homo-polymers (usually Sodium neutralized).Super absorbents used in soil amendments applications tend to be cross-linked acrylic-acrylamide co-polymers (usually Potassium neutralized).Besides granular super absorbent polymers, ARCO Chemical developed a super absorbent fiber technology in the early 1990s. This technology was eventually sold to Camelot Absorbents. There are super absorbent fibers commercially available today. While significantly more expensive than the granular polymers, the super absorbent fibers offer technical advantages in certain niche markets including cable wrap, medical devices and food packaging.Sodium polyacrylate, also known as waterlock, is a polymer with the chemical formula [-CH2-CH(COONa)-]n widely used in consumer products. It has the ability to absorb as much as 200 to 300 times its mass in water. Acrylate polymers generally are considered to possess an anionic charge. While sodium neutralized polyacrylates are the most common form used in industry, there are also other salts available including potassium, lithium and ammonium.ApplicationsAcrylates and acrylic chemistry have a wide variety of industrial uses that include: ∙Sequestering agents in detergents. (By binding hard water elements such as calcium and magnesium, the surfactants in detergents work more efficiently.) ∙Thickening agents∙Coatings∙Fake snowSuper absorbent polymers. These cross-linked acrylic polymers are referred to as "Super Absorbents" and "Water Crystals", and are used in baby diapers. Copolymerversions are used in agriculture and other specialty absorbent applications. The origins of super absorbent polymer chemistry trace back to the early 1960s when the U.S. Department of Agriculture developed the first super absorbent polymer materials. This chemical is featured in the Maximum Absorbency Garment used by NASA.译文聚丙烯酸钠聚丙烯酸钠，又可以称为超级吸收剂或者又叫高吸水性树脂，凯博利克拉克教授曾经称它为SAM即：超级吸收性物质。
中英文文献以及翻译(化工类)
Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals whichthe general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding at which point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate this dilemma, emulsion paints may contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate). Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemical activities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, is carried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufactured the ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in the decorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our livesmore comfortable or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing costs then a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of chemical industry to achieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question “do we need a chemical industry?” However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the range of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industry’s co ntribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothing and (briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by producing veterinary products which protect livestock from disease or cure their infections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to “bond” th em to the fiber has resulted in a tremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeed they now span almost every color and hue of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitable shade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this canreadily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Other major advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e., resistance to the dye being washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls and footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Like wise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of the total automobile derived from these materials—dashboard, steering wheel, seat padding and covering etc.—now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examplesinclude synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a very high level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.化学工业1.化学工业的起源尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。
英文文献用翻译
Adult【成年人】Aged【老年人】Aged, 80 and over【老年人, 80以上】Catheterization, Central Venous/*instrumentation/methods【*导管插入术, 中心静脉/*仪器/方法】Cost-Benefit Analysis【费用效益分析】Equipment Design【设备设计】Equipment Failure【设备失效】Equipment Safety【设备安全性】Female【女(雌)性】Humans【人类】Infusion Pumps, Implantable/adverse effects/*economics【*输注泵, 植入型/副作用/*经济学】Male【男(雄)性】Middle Aged【中年人】Neoplasms/*drug therapy/pathology【*肿瘤/*药物疗法/病理学】Probability【概率】Prospective Studies【前瞻性研究】Risk Assessment【危险性评估】Sensitivity and Specificity【敏感性与特异性】Treatment Outcome【治疗结果】Vascular Patency【血管未闭】Venous Thrombosis/prevention & control【静脉血栓形成】Adolescent【青少年】Adult【成年人】Aged【老年人】Aged, 80 andover【老年人, 80以上】AntineoplasticAgents/*administration& dosage【*抗肿瘤药】*Catheters,Indwelling/adverseeffects/economics【*导管, 留置/副作用/经济学】Female【女(雌)性】Humans【人类】*Infusion Pumps,Implantable/adverse。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。
英文文献+翻译
Characterization of production of Paclitaxel and related Taxanes in Taxus Cuspidata Densiformis suspension cultures by LC,LC/MS, and LC/MS/MSCHAPTER THEREPLANT TISSUE CULTUREⅠ. Potential of Plant cell Culture for Taxane ProductionSeveral alternative sources of paclitaxel have been identified and are currently the subjects of considerable investigation worldwide. These include the total synthesis and biosynthesis of paclitaxel, the agriculture supply of taxoids from needles of Taxus species, hemisynthesis (the attachment of a side chain to biogenetic precursors of paclitaxel such as baccatin Ⅲ or 10-deacetylbaccatin Ⅲ), fungus production, and the production of taxoids by cell and tissue culture. This reciew will concentrate only on the latter possibility.Plant tissue culture is one approach under investigation to provide large amounts and a stable supply of this compound exhibiting antineoplastic activity. A process to produce paclitaxel or paclitaxel-like compounds in cell culture has already been parented. The development of fast growing cell lines capable of producing paclitaxel would not only solve the limitations in paclitaxel supplies presently needed for clinical use, but would also help conserve the large number of trees that need to be harvested in order to isolate it. Currently, scientists and researchers have been successful in initiating fast plant growth but with limited paclitaxel production or vice versa. Therefore, it is the objective of researchers to find a method that will promote fast plant growth and also produce a large amount of paclitaxel at the same time.Ⅱ. Factors Influencing Growth Paclitaxel ContentA.Choice of Media for GrowthGamborg's (B5) and Murashige & Skoog's (MS) media seem to be superior for callus growth compared to White's (WP) medium. The major difference between these two media is that the MS medium contains 40 mM nitrate and 20mM ammonium, compared to 25mM nitrate and 2mM ammonium. Many researchers have selected the B5 medium over the MS medium for all subsequent studies, although they achieve similar results.Gamborg's B5 media was used throughout our experiments for initiation of callus cultures and suspension cultures due to successful published results. It was supplemented with 2% sucrose, 2 g/L casein hydrolysate, 2.4 mg/L picloram, and 1.8 mg/L α-naphthalene acetic acid. Agar (8 g/L) was used for solid cultures.B. Initiation of Callus CulturesPrevious work indicated that bark explants seem to be the most useful for establishing callus. The age of the tree did not appear to affect the ability to initiate callus when comparing both young and old tree materials grown on Gamborg's B5 medium supplemented with 1-2 mg/L of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Callus cultures initiated and maintained in total darkness were generally pale-yellow to light brown in color. This resulted in sufficient masses of friable callus necessary for subculture within 3-4 weeks. However, the growth rate can decline substantially following the initial subculture and result in very slow-growing, brown-colored clumps of callus. It has been presumed that these brown-colored exudates are phenolic in nature and can eventually lead to cell death. This common phenomenon is totally random and unpredictable. Once this phenomenon has been triggered, the cells could not be saved by placing them in fresh media. However, adding polyvinylpyrrolidone to the culture media can help keep the cells alive and growing. Our experience with callus initiationwas similar to those studies.Our studies have found that callus which initiated early (usually within 2 weeks ) frequently did not proliferate when subcultured and turned brown and necrotic. In contrast, calli which developed from 4 weeks to 4 months after explants were fist placed on initiation media were able to be continuously subcultured when transferred at 1-2 month intervals. The presence of the survival of callus after subsequent subculturing. The relationship between paclitaxel concentration and callus initiation, however, has not been clarified.C. Effect of SugarSucrose is the preferred carbon source for growth in plant cell cultures, although the presence of more rapidly metabolized sugar such as glucose favors fast growth. Other sugars such as lactose, galactose, glucose, and fructose also support cell growth to some extent. On the other hand, sugar alcohols such as mannitol and sorbital which are generally used to raise the sugars added play a major role in the production of paclitaxel. In general, raising the initial sugar levels lead to an increase of secondary metabolite production. High initial levels of sugar increase the osmotic potential, although the role of osmotic pressure on the synthesis of secondary metabolites is not cleat. Kim and colleagues have shown that the highest level of paclitaxel was obtained with fructosel. The optimum concentration of each sugar for paclitaxel production was found to be the same at 6% in all cases. Wickremesinhe and Arteca have provided additional support that fructose is the most effective for paclitaxel production. However, other combinations of sugars such as sucrose combined with glucose also increased paclitaxel production.The presence of extracellular invertase activity and rapid extracellular sucrose hydrolysis has been observed in many cell cultures. These reports suggest that cells secrete or possess on their surface excess amounts of invertase, which result in the hydrolysis of sucrose at a much faster rate. The hydrolysis of sucrose coupled with the rapid utilization of fructose in the medium during the latter period of cell growth. This period of increased fructose availability coincided with the faster growth phase of the cells.D. Effect of Picloram and Methyl JasmonatePicloram (4-amino-3.5.6-trichloropicolinic acid) increases growth rate while methyl jasmonate has been reported to be an effective elicitor in the production of paclitaxel and other taxanes. However, little is known about the mechanisms or pathways that stimulate these secondary metabolites.Picloram had been used by Furmanowa and co-workers and Ketchum and Gibson but no details on the effect of picloram on growth rates were given. Furmanowa and hid colleagues observed growth of callus both in the presence and absence of light. The callus grew best in the dark showing a 9.3 fold increase, whereas there was only a 2-4 fold increase in the presence of light. Without picloram, callus growth was 0.9 fold. Unfortunately,this auxin had no effect on taxane production and the high callus growth rate was very unstable.Jasmonates exhibit various morphological and physiological activities when applied exogenously to plants. They induce transcriptional activation of genes involved in the formation of secondary metabolites. Methyl jasmonate was shown to stimulate paclitaxel and cephalomannine (taxane derivative) production in callus and suspension cultures. However, taxane production was best with White's medium compared to Gamborg's B5 medium. This may be due to the reduced concentration of potassium nitrate and a lack of ammonium sulfate with White's medium.E. Effect of Copper Sulfate and Mercuric ChlorideMetal ions have shown to play significant roles in altering the expression of secondary metabolic pathways in plant cell culture. Secondary metabolites,such as furano-terpenes, have been production by treatment of sweet potato root tissue with mercuric chloride. The results for copper sulfate, however, have not been reported. F. Growth Kinetics and Paclitaxel ProductionLow yields of paclitaxel may be attributed to the kinetics of taxane production that is not fully understood. Many reports stated inconclusive results on the kinetics of taxane production. More studies are needed in order to quantitate the taxane production. According to Nett-Fetto, the maximum instantaneous rate of paclitaxel production occurred at the third week upon further incubation. The paclitaxel level either declined or was not expected to increase upon further incubation. Paclitaxel production was very sensitive to slight variations in culture conditions. Due to this sensitivity, cell maintenance conditions, especially initial cell density, length of subculture interval, and temperature must be maintained as possible.Recently, Byun and co-workers have made a very detailed study on the kinetics of cell growth and taxane production. In their investigation, it was observed that the highest cell weight occurred at day 7 after inoculation. Similarly, the maximum concentration for 10-deacetyl baccatin Ⅲ and baccatin Ⅲ were detected at days 5 and 7, respectively. This result indicated that they are metabolic intermediates of paclitaxel. However, paclitaxel's maximum concentration was detected at day 22 but gradually declined. Byun and his colleagues suggested that paxlitaxel could be a metabolic intermediate like 10-deacetyl baccatin Ⅲ and baccatin Ⅲ or that pacliltaxel could be decomposed due to cellular morphological changes or DNA degradation characteristic of cell death.Pedtchanker's group also studied the kinetics of paclitaxel production by comparing the suspension cultures in shake flasks and Wilson-type reactors where bubbled air provided agitation and mixing. It was concluded that these cultures of Taxus cuspidata produced high levels of paclitaxel within three weeks (1.1 mg/L per day ). It was also determined that both cultures of the shake flask and Wilson-type reactor produced similar paclitaxel content. However, the Wilson-type reactor had a more rapid uptake of the nutrients (i.e. sugars, phosphate, calcium, and nitrate). This was probably due to the presence of the growth ring in the Wilson reactor. Therefor, the growth rate for the cultures from the Wilson reactor was only 135 mg./L while the shake flasks grew to 310 mg/L in three weeks.In retrospect, strictly controlled culture conditions are essential to consistent production and yield. Slight alterations in media formulations can have significant effects upon the physiology of cells, thereby affecting growth and product formation. All of the manipulations that affect growth and production of plant cells must be carefully integrated and controlled in order to maintain cell viability and stability.利用LC,LC/MS和LC/MS/MS悬浮培养生产紫杉醇及邓西佛米斯红豆杉中相关紫杉醇类的特征描述第三章植物组织培养Ⅰ.利用植物细胞培养生产紫杉的可能性紫杉醇的几个备选的来源已被确定，而且目前是全球大量调查的主题。
英文文献原文及对应翻译
Adsorption char acter istics of copper , lead, zinc and cadmium ions by tourmaline(环境科学学报英文版) 电气石对铜、铅、锌、镉离子的吸附特性JIANG Kan1,*, SUN Tie-heng1,2 , SUN Li-na2, LI Hai-bo2(1. School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China. jiangkan522@; 2. Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering of Shenyang University, Shenyang 110041, China)摘要：本文研究了电气石对Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的吸附特性，建立了吸附平衡方程。
研究四种金属离子的吸附等温线以及朗缪尔方程。
结果表明电气石能有效地去除水溶液中的重金属且具有选择性：Pb2+> Cu2+> Cd2+> Zn2+。
电气石对金属离子吸附量随着介质中金属离子的初始浓度的增加而增加。
电气石也可以增加金属溶液的pH值；发现电气石对Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的最大吸附量为78.86、154.08、67.25和66.67mg/g；温度在25-55℃对电气石的吸附量影响很小。
此外研究了Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的竞争吸附。
同时观察到电气石对单一金属离子的吸附能力为Pb>Cu>Zn>Cd，在两种金属系统中抑制支配地位是Pb>Cu，Pb>Zn，Pb>Cd，Cu>Zn，Cu>Cd，和Cd>Zn。
关键字：吸附；重金属含量；朗缪尔等温线；电气石介绍重金属是来自不同行业排出的废水，如电镀，金属表面处理，纺织，蓄电池，矿山，陶瓷，玻璃。
英文文献及翻译
Geotextile reinforced by soft soil1. IntroductionGeotextile known, it has high tensile strength, durability, corrosion resistance, texture, flexibility, combined with good sand, to form reinforced composite foundation, effectively increase the shear strength , tensile properties, and enhance the integrity and continuity of soil. Strengthening mechanism for the early 60's in the 20th century, Henri Vidal on the use of triaxial tests found a small amount of fiber in the sand, the soil shear strength can improve the image of more than 4 times in recent years, China's rock Laboratory workers also proved in the reinforced sand can effectively improve the soil's bearing capacity, reduce the vertical ground settlement, effectively overcome the poor soil and continuity of overall poor performance. As with the above properties of reinforced soil and the characteristics of its low price, so the project has broad application prospects.2.1 Project OverviewThe proposed retaining wall using rubble retaining wall of gravity, the wall is 6 meters high, the bearing capacity of foundation soil required to 250kPa, while the basement geology from the top down as follows: ①clay to a thickness of 0.7 to 2 meters saturated, soft plastic; ② muddy soil, about 22 - 24 meters thick, saturated, mainly plastic flow, local soft plastic; ③ sand layer to a thickness of 5 to 10 meters, containing silty soil and organic matter, saturated, slightly wet; ④ gravel layer, the thickness of the uneven distribution points, about 0 to 2.2 meters, slightly dense; ⑤ weathered sandstone. Including clay and silty soil bearing capacity is 70kPa, obviously do foundation reinforcement.2.2 Enhanced Treatment of reinforced foundation cushion Reinforcement replacement method can be used for sand and gravel used forsoil treatment, but due to loose bedding, based on past experience, witha gravel mat to treat a large settlement of the foundation always exist, even the characteristics of poor, often resulting in cracks in the superstructure, differential settlement of the image, this works for6-meter-high rubble retaining walls, height and large, and because the walls are 3 meters high wall, if there is differential settlement of retaining walls, cracks, will result in more serious consequences and thus should be used on the cushion reinforcement through economic and technical analysis, decide on the sand and gravel stratum were reinforced hardening. Reinforcement treatment method: first the design elevation and the basement excavation to 200mm thick layer of gravel bedding, and then capped with a layer of geotextile, and then in the thick sand and gravel on the 200, after leveling with the yellow sand using roller compaction; second with loaded bags of sand and gravel laying of geotextile, the gap filled with slag, geotextile bags capped 100 thick gravel, roller compaction. Its on repeat laying geotextile → → compacted gravel, until the design thickness of the cushion, the bridge is 1 m thick cushion, a total of 4 layers of geotextile, two bags of sand.This method works fast, simple machine, investment, after years of use, that reinforce good effect, building and construction units are satisfied.3 ExperienceTo achieve the reinforced soil reinforcement effect, must be reinforced earth construction technology, construction strict quality control: 1, geotextile should increase the initial pre-stress, and its end should be a reliable anchor to play the tensile strength of geotextile, anchoring more firmly, more capacity to improve, the foundation of the stress distribution more uniform, geotextile side Ministry of fixed length by laying end to ensure the fold, the folded end wrapped sand to increase its bond strength to ensure that the use will not be pulled out duringthe period.Second, the construction process have a significant effect on the reinforcement effect, the construction should be as soon as possible so that geotextile in tension, tensile strength geotextile can be played only when the deformation, so do not allow construction of geotextile crease occurs, the earth Fabric tension leveling as much as possible. Geotextile in order to have enough by the early Dutch strain, according to the following procedure works: ① laying geotextile; ② leveled the tension at both ends; both ends of the folded package gravel and sand filling at both ends; ③ center fill sand; ④ 2 higher end of sand; ⑤ Finally, the center of sand filling. Click here to enable the construction method of forming corrugated geotextile being stretched as soon as possible, to play a role in the early loaded.Third, the construction of geotextile-reinforced cushion should the level of shop using geotextile geotextile and laying of gravel bags cushion the turn to play bag cushion integrated turn out good, flexural rigidity, and dispersion of good and peace bedding layer of the overall continuity of good advantages.4 ConclusionGeotextile reinforced by soft soil is an effective, economical, safe, reliable, simple method, but the literature describes only qualitative, experience more components, yet the lack of rigorous The theoretical formula, reliable test data to be adequate, these are yet to be theoretical workers and the general engineering and technical personnel continue to explore.土工织物加筋垫层加固软土地基1. 引言土工织物又称土工聚合物，它具有高抗拉强度，耐久性、耐腐蚀性，质地柔韧，能与砂土很好地结合，组合成加筋土复合地基，有效地提高土的抗剪强度、抗拉性能，增强土体的整体性和连续性。
英文文献翻译
外文翻译（原文）Catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of azo dye (Congo red) using modified Y zeolite as catalystAbstractThe present study explores the degradation of azo dye (Congo red) by catalytic wet peroxide oxidation using Fe exchanged commercial Y zeolite as a catalyst. The effects of various operating parameters like temperature, initial pH, hydrogen peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on the removal of dye,color and COD from an aqueous solution were studied at atmospheric pressure. The percent removals of dye, color and COD at optimum pH07, 90◦C using 0.6 ml H 2 O2/350 ml solution and 1 g/l catalyst was 97% (in 4 h), 100% (in 45 min) and 58% (in 4 h), respectively. The % dye removal has been found to be less in comparison to % color removal at all conditions, e.g. dye removal in 45 min and at above conditions was 82%, whereas the color removal was 100%. The results indicate that the Fe exchanged Y zeolite is a promising catalyst for dye removal. Fe exchanged catalyst is characterized using XRD, SEM/EDAX, surface area analyzer and FTIR. Though the dye, color and COD removals were maximum at pH02 but as the leaching of Fe from the catalyst was more in acidic pH range, pH0 7 was taken as operating pH due to almost comparable removals as of pH0 2 and no leaching of Fe ions.© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1. IntroductionReactive azo dyes from textile and dyeing industries pose grave environmental problem. An estimate shows that textiles account for 14% of India’s industrial production and around 27% of its export earnings[1]. Production during 2006 registered a growth of about 3.5% at 29,500 tonnes and the textile industry accounts for the largest consumption of dyestuffs at nearly 80% [2]. The waste containing these azo dyes is non-degradable. The process of dyeing is a combination of bleaching and coloring, which generates huge quantities of wastewaters causing environmental problems. The effluents from these industries consist of large quantities of sodium, chloride, sulphate, hardness, carcinogenic dye ingredients and total dissolved solids with very high BOD and COD values over 1500 mg/l and over 5000 mg/l, respectively [3]. Various methods have been used for dye removal like adsorption, coagulation, electrocoagulation, Fenton’s reagent and combination of these processes. Though these treatment processes are efficient in dye removal, they generate adsorbed waste/sludge, etc. which further causes a secondary pollution. In wet oxidation the sludge is disposed off to a great extent by oxidizing the organic pollutant. Catalytic wet oxidation method (CWAO and CWPO) is gaining more popularity. CWPO process using H2O2, in particular has advantages like better oxidation ability thanusing oxygen,as the former is carried out at lower pressure (atmospheric pres-sure).WAO usually acts under high temperatures (200–325◦C)and pressure (50–150 bar). A comparable oxidation efficiency is obtained at a less temperature of 100–120◦C when using hydrogen peroxide as the oxi dizing agent instead of oxygen [4].WAO is capital intensive whereas WPO needs limited capital but generates little higher running costs [4].Rivas et al.[5] showed that the addition of H2O2(as a source of free radicals) enhanced wet air oxidation of phenol, a highly non-degradable substance and found that the combined addition of H2O2 and a bivalent metal (i.e. Cu, Co or Mn) enhanced the rate of phenol removal. Various oxidation catalysts have been studied for the removal of different compounds like phenol, benzoic acid, dyes, etc. by CWPO process. Catalysts like Fe2O3/CeO2and WO3/CeO2 in the removal of phenolic solution, (Al–Fe) pillared clay named FAZA in the removal of 4-hydroxy benzoic acid, mixed (Al–Fe) pillared clays in the removal of organic compounds have been used[6–8] .Removal of dyes by CWPO process is gaining importance in recent times with a large number of catalysts. Kim and Lee [9] used Cu/Al2O3 and copper plate in treatment of dye house effluents. Liu and Sun [10] removed acid orange 52, acid orange 7 and reactive black 5 using CeO2doped Fe2O3/ -Al2O3 from dye waste water. Kim and Lee [11] reported the treatment of reactive dye solutions by using Al–Cu pillared clays as catalyst.Among these catalysts, modified zeolites are preferred for improved efficiency, lower by-product formation and less severe experimental conditions (temperatures and pressures). Theimproved efficiency of the catalyst is ascribed to its structure and large surface area with the ability of forming complex compounds. Zeolites can be ion exchanged using transition metal ions like Fe,Cu, Mn and others like Ca, Ba, etc. Zeolites are negatively charged because of the substitution of Si(IV) by Al(III) in the tetrahedral accounts for a negative charge of the structure and hence the Si/Al ratio determines the properties of zeolites like ion exchange capacity [12] . These metal ions neutralizethe negative charge on zeolites and their position, size and number determine the properties of zeolite. These metal ions are fixed to the rigid zeolite framework which prevents leaching and precipitation in various reactions[13–21] .In this work, catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of Congo red azo dye using Fe exchanged Y zeolite has been presented. Effect of variables like temperature, initial pH, peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on catalytic wet peroxide oxidation were examined and the optimum conditions evaluated.2.Materials and methods2.1. ChemicalsHydrogen peroxide (30% analytical grade), manganese dioxide,sodium hydroxide pellets (AR) and hydrochloric acid were obtained from RFCL limited (Mumbai), India. Congo red was obtained from Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd. (Mumbai) and were obtained from RFCL limited (Mumbai), India.Commercial Na–Y zeolite was obtained from Sud chemie Pvt.Ltd. (Baroda), India. Commercial catalyst was iron exchanged with excess 1 M Fe(NO3)3 at 80◦C for 6 h. The process was repeated three times and the sample was thoroughly washed with distilled water and dried in oven in air at60◦C for 10-12 h. The amount of iron exchanged was 1.53 wt% estimated by A.A.S.2.2. Apparatus and procedureThe experimental studies were carried out in a 0.5 l three-necked glass reactor equipped with a magnetic stirrer with heater and a total reflux (Fig. 13). Water containing Congo red dye was transferred to the three-necked glass reactor. Thereafter, the catalyst was added to the solution. The temperature of the reaction mixture was raised using heater to the desired value and maintained by a P.I.D. temperature controller, which was fitted in one of the necks through the thermocouple. The raising of the temperature of the reaction mixture to 90◦C from ambient took about 30 min.The total reflux prevents any loss of vapor and magnetic stirrer to agitate the mixture. Hydrogen peroxide was added, the runs were conducted at 90◦C and the samples were taken at periodic intervals. The samples after collection were raised to pH-11 by adding 0.1N NaOH (so that no further reaction takes place) and the residual hydrogen peroxide was removed by adding MnO2 which catalyzed the decomposition of peroxide to water and oxygen. The samples were allowed to settle for overnight or one day (or centrifuged) and filtered. The supernatant was tested for color and COD. After the completion of the run, the mixture was allowed to cool and settle overnight.2.3. CharacterizationThe determination of structure of the heterogeneous catalyst was done by X-ray diffractometer (Bruker AXS, Diffraktometer D8,Germany). The catalyst structure was confirm ed by using Cu Kα as a source and Ni as a filter. Goniometer speed was kept at 1cm/min and the chart speed was 1 cm/min. The range of scanning angle(2θ) was kept at 3–60◦. The intensity peaks indicate the values of2θ , where Bragg’s law is applicable. The formation of compounds was tested by comparing the XRD patternusing JCPDS files (1971).The determination of images and composition of catalyst were done by SEM/EDAX QUANTA 200 FEG. Scanning for zeolite samples was taken at various magnifications and voltage to account for the crystal structure and size. From EDAX, the composition of the elements in weight percentage and atomic percentage were obtained along with the spectra for overall compositions and particular local area compositions. BET surface area of the samples was analyzed by Micromeritics CHEMISORB 2720. The FTIR spectra of the catalyst was recorded on a FTIR Spectrometer (Thermo Nicolet, USA, Software used: NEXUS) in the 4000–480 cm−1wave number range using KBr pellets. The internal tetrahedra and external linkage of the zeolites formed are identified and confirmed by FTIR. The IR spectra data in Table 2 is taken from literature[22] .2.4. AnalysisThe amount of the dye present in the solution was analyzed by direct reading TVS 25 (A) Visible Spectrophotometer. The visible range absorbance at the characteristic wavelength of the sample at 497 nm was recorded to follow the progress of decolorization during wet peroxide oxidation.The COD of the dye solution was estimated by the Standard Dichromator Closed Reflux Method (APHA-1989) using a COD analyzer (Aqualytic, Germany). The color in Pt–Co unit was estimated using a color meter (Hanna HI93727, Hanna Instruments, Singapore) at 470 nm and the pH was measured using a Thermo Orion, USA make pH meter. The treated dye solutions were centrifuged (Model R24, Remi Instruments Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India) to obtain the supernatant free of solid MnO2.A.A.S (Avanta GBC, Australia) was used to find the amount of iron exchanged and leached.3. Results and discussionDue to the iron present after the exchange process, the Y peaks diminished along with the rise in Fe peaks. Similar phenomena has also been observed by Yee and Yaacob [23] who obtained zeolite iron oxide by adding NaOH and H2O2(drop wise) at 60◦C to Na–Y zeolite. XRD pattern ( Fig. 2) showed diminishing zeolite peaks along with evolution of peaks corresponding to y-Fe2O3 with increasing NaOH concentration. The IR assignments from FTIR (Fig. 3) remain satisfied even after iron exchanging. The EDAX data (Table 1) show clearly an increase in the value of Fe conc. after ion exchange of Y-zeolite. The BET surface area (Table 1) has been found to decrease from 433 to 423 m2/g after Fe exchange. SEM image is shown in Fig. 1 . Table 2 presents FTIR specifications of zeolites (common to all zeolites).The effect of temperature, initial pH, hydrogen peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of azo dye Congo red were investigated in detail.Fig. 1. SEM image of Fe-exchanged Y zeolite.Fig. 2. XRD of commercial and Fe-exchanged commercial Y zeolite.BET surface area (commercial Na–Y): 433.4 m2/g.BET surface area (Fe exchanged commercial Na–Y): 423 m2/g.Table 2Zeolite IR assignments (common for all zeolites) from FTIR.3.1. Effect of temperature on dye, color and COD removalThe temperatures during the experiments were varied from50◦Cto100◦C. A maximum conversion of dye of 99.1% was observed at 100◦C in 4 h (and 97% at 90◦C). The dye rem ovals at 80◦C, 70◦C, 60◦C and 50◦C and at 4 h are 56%, 52%, 42% and 30%,respectively. Fig. 4 shows that at a particular temperature, the dye concentration gradually decreases with time. The initial red color of the dye solution decreased into brown color in due course and finally the brown color disappeared into a colorless solution. Dye concentration decreases at faster rates with temperatures for initial 30 min and thereafter it decreases from 1 h to 2 h. The initial concentrations of dye did not change after a brief contact period of dye solution with the Fe-exchanged zeolite catalyst (before CWPO)confirming that there is negligible adsorption of the dye by the catalyst.Fig. 5 shows the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and temperature. The maximum color removal (100%) is obtained at 100◦C in 30 min and also at 90◦C in 45 min. At a particular temperature, the color continuously decreases with time atFig. 3. FTIR of Fe-exchanged Y zeolite.Fig. 4. % dye removal as function of temperature.faster rate in first few minutes until a certain point ( t = 45 min) and then remaining almost unchanged. At 50◦C, the color removal is very low, whereas at 60◦C, there is a sudden shift towards its greater removal. The color removal is much higher at higher temperatures(70–100◦C).Fig. 6 depicts the results obtained for %COD removal as a function of time and temperature. A maximum COD removal of 66% was obtained at 100◦C (at 4 h) followed by 58% at 90◦C (at 4 h). Until60◦C, the rate of COD removal is less and during 70–100◦C, the rate is much faster.3.2. Effect of initial pH on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of initial pH on dye (Congo red) removal was studied at different pH (pH0 2, 4, 7, 8, 9 and 11) without any adjustment of pH during the experiments. A maximum conversion of 99% was obtained at pH0 2 followed by 97% at pH0 7. The dye removal at pH0 4, 8, 9 and 11 were 94%, 29%, 5% and 0.6%, respectively. All the runs were conducted for 4 h duration. The color of the solution is violet blue at pH0 2 (a colloidal solution) and greenish blue at pH0 4 (colloidal solution). In neutral and basic pH0(7, 8, 9 and 11) range, color of the solution did not change during treatment and was same as original solution, i.e. red color. Fe cations can leach out from zeolite structure into the solution causing secondary pollution. Leaching of Fe cations out of zeolitesFig. 5. % color removal as function of temperature.Fig. 6. %COD removal as function of temperature.Fig. 7. % color removal as function of pH0depends strongly on pH of the solution. The leaching of iron ions was enhanced at low pH values [24,25] . In order to determine dissolved Fe concentration, final pH values of the solutions were analyzed by A.A.S. At initial pH0 2 and 4, Fe detected in the solution was 7.8 ppm and 3.9 ppm, respectively. At pH0 7 and in alkaline range, there wasFig. 8. %COD removal as function of pH0.Fig. 9. % color removal as function of peroxide concentration.Fig. 10. %COD removal as function of peroxide concentration.almost no leaching. pH0 7, therefore, was chosen to be optimum pH for future experiments. The final pH values pH f after the reaction corresponding to pH0 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 and 11 were 2.1, 4.2, 7.2, 7.7 and 8.7, respectively. This show that the pH f tend to reach to neutral pH for all starting pH values.Fig. 7 presents the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and pH0. A maximum color removal of 100% was obtained at pH0 2 (in 10 min) and also at pH0 7 (in 45 min). The color removal at a particular pH0 decreases at a faster rateinitially (0–1 h) and thereafter it has a slower rate. The lowest removal was observed at pH0 11 with almost no removal.Fig. 11. % color removal as function of catalyst loading.Fig. 12. %COD removal as function of catalyst loading.The results obtained for COD removal as a function of time and pH0 are shown in Fig. 8 . A maximum COD removal of 69% was obtained at pH0 2 in 4 h followed by 63% at pH0 4 and 58% at pH0 7in4h.Fig. 8 shows maximum decrease in COD value in the initial 30 mines at all pH0. The decrease in COD is not appreciable thereafter. The COD removal is more in acidic range with a maximum removal of 69%, moderate in neutral region and least in basic region.3.3. Effect of peroxide concentration on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of H2O2 concentration on dye removal was investigated at different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (in the range 0–6 ml). A maximum removal of 99.02% was obtained at H2O2 concentration of 3 ml per 350 ml of solution, followed by 98.3% at 1ml and 97% at 0.6 ml. The dye removal at H2O2concentrations of 6 ml,0.3 ml and 0 ml (and at 4 h) were 94%, 82% and 8%, respectively. The dye removal rate at 90◦C temperature is gradual at all conc entrations of peroxide. At peroxide concentration of 0 ml, there is very little removal of dye, hardly 8%. Hence, it can be inferred that catalytic thermolysis (a process of effluent treatment by heating the effluent with/without catalyst) is not active and cannot be applied for dye removal.At the beginning of the reaction, the OH•radicals which are produced additionally when peroxide concentration is increased,speeds up the azo dye degradation. After a particular peroxide concentration, on further increase of the peroxide, the dye removal isFig. 13. Schematic diagram of the reactor.not increased. This may be because of the presence of excess peroxide concentration, hydroperoxyl radicals (HO2•) are produced from hydroxyl radicals that are already formed. The hydroperoxyl radicals do not contribute to the oxidative degradation of the organic substrate and are much less reactive. The degradation of the organic substrate occurs only by reaction with HO•[26] .The % color removal at a particular peroxide concentration increases at a faster rate in the initial 45 min and then at slower rates afterwards (Fig. 9). As H2O2 concentration increases, the rate of removal is much faster, reaching 100% in 45 minusing 6 ml H2O2 per 350 ml solution, whereas it is 100% in 1 h for both 0.3 ml and3ml.Fig. 10 shows the results obtained for COD removal as a function of time and H2O2 concentration. The maximum COD removal, 63% is obtained for H2O2 conc. 3 ml at 90◦C, pH0 7 and 2 h duration.3.4. Effect of catalyst loading on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of catalyst concentration on dye removal was investigated at different concentrations (in the range 0.5–1.5 g/l). A maximum dye removal of 98.6% was observed at 1.5 g/l followed by 98.3% at 1 g/l and 87.3% at 0.5 g/l in 4 h duration. The % dye removal without catalyst was very low with only 36% dye removal in 4 h. By comparing the results for the dye removal without catalyst and1.5 g/l catalyst, the removal for 1.5 g/l is approximately three times to that of without catalyst. The rate of removal is also more for higher concentrations of catalyst and increases with it.Fig. 11 shows the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and catalyst concentration. The maximum color removal of 100% was obtained using 1.5 g/l catalyst conc. in 1.5 h and also using 1 g/l catalyst in 3 h.Fig. 12 presents the results obtained for %COD removal as a function of time and catalyst concentration. A maximum COD removal of 58% was obtained at catalyst conc. 1 g/l, 51.8% at 1.5 g/l and 50.5% at 0.5 g/l in 4 h. Without catalyst, the COD removal was only 35%.4. ConclusionsThe % removals of dye, color and COD by catalytic wet peroxide oxidation obtained at 100◦C, 4 h duration using 0.6 ml H2O2/350 ml solution, 1 g/l Fe–Y catalyst and pH0 7 were 99.1%, 100% (30 min)and 66%, respectively. As at 100◦C the solution has tendency to vaporize during the operation, 90◦C was taken as operating temperature. The corresponding % removals at 90◦C were 97% dy e, 100%color (in 45 min) and 58% COD. Acidic range gave higher % removals in comparison to neutral and alkaline range. At pH0 2, the dye, color and COD removals of 99%,100% (in 10 min) and 69% were observed after 4 h duration. As at pH0 2, the leaching of Fe ions from Y zeolite catalyst is predominant,pH0 7 was taken as operating pH. Fe concentration of 7.8 ppm was observed in the solution at pH0 2. The values of removals, however,are comparable to pH0 2, with dye removal of 97%, color removal of100% (in 45 min) and COD removal of 58% in 4 h.The H2O2concentration was found to be optimum at 3 ml/350 ml solution giving dye, color and COD removals of 99%,100% (in 1 h) and 63%, respectively.The study on the effect of catalyst loading revealed 1.5 g/l as best among the catalyst concentrations studied. The results with 1 g/l and 1.5 g/l catalyst concentration were almost comparable.外文翻译（译文）使用改性Y沸石为催化剂湿式催化过氧化氢氧化偶氮染料(刚果红)摘要本研究主要探讨了使用改性Y沸石固载铁离子作为催化剂湿式催化过氧化氢氧化降解偶氮染料(刚果红)。
英文文献小短文(原文加汉语翻译)
A fern that hyperaccumulates arsenic(这是题目，百度一下就能找到原文好，原文还有表格，我没有翻译)A hardy, versatile, fast-growing plant helps to remove arsenic from contaminated soilsContamination of soils with arsenic,which is both toxic and carcinogenic, is widespread1. We have discovered that the fern Pteris vittata (brake fern) is extremely efficient in extracting arsenic from soils and translocating it into its above-ground biomass. This plant —which, to our knowledge, is the first known arsenic hyperaccumulator as well as the first fern found to function as a hyperaccumulator— has many attributes that recommend it for use in the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils.We found brake fern growing on a site in Central Florida contaminated with chromated copper arsenate (Fig. 1a). We analysed the fronds of plants growing at the site for total arsenic by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy. Of 14 plant species studied, only brake fern contained large amounts of arsenic (As;3,280–4,980 We collected additional samples of the plant and soil from the contaminated site –1,603 As) and from an uncontaminated site –As). Brake fern extracted arsenic efficiently from these soils into its fronds: plantsgrowing in the contaminated site contained 1,442–7,526 Arsenic and those from the uncontaminated site contained –These values are much higher than those typical for plants growing in normal soil, which contain less than of arsenic3.As well as being tolerant of soils containing as much as 1,500 arsenic, brake fern can take up large amounts of arsenic into its fronds in a short time (Table 1). Arsenic concentration in fern fronds growing in soil spiked with 1,500 Arsenic increased from to 15,861 in two weeks. Furthermore, in the same period, ferns growing in soil containing just 6 arsenic accumulated 755 Of arsenic in their fronds, a 126-fold enrichment. Arsenic concentrations in brake fernroots were less than 303 whereas those in the fronds reached 7,234 of 100 Arsenic significantly stimulated fern growth, resulting in a 40% increase in biomass compared with the control (data not shown).After 20 weeks of growth, the plant was extracted using a solution of 1:1 methanol:water to speciate arsenic with high-performance liquid chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Almost all arsenic was present as relatively toxic inorganic forms, with little detectable organoarsenic species4. The concentration of As(III) was greater in the fronds (47–80%) than in the roots %), indicating that As(V)was converted to As(III) during translocation from roots to fronds.As well as removing arsenic from soils containing different concentrations of arsenic (Table 1), brake fern also removed arsenic from soils containing different arsenic species (Fig. 1c). Again, up to 93% of the arsenic was concentrated in the fronds. Although both FeAsO4 and AlAsO4 are relatively insoluble in soils1, brake fern hyperaccumulated arsenic derived from these compounds into its fronds (136–315 levels 3–6 times greater than soil arsenic.Brake fern is mesophytic and is widely cultivated and naturalized in many areas with a mild climate. In the United States, it grows in the southeast and in southern California5. The fern is versatile and hardy, and prefers sunny (unusual for a fern) and alkaline environments (where arsenic is more available). It has considerable biomass, and is fast growing, easy to propagate,and perennial.We believe this is the first report of significant arsenic hyperaccumulation by an unmanipulated plant. Brake fern has great potential to remediate arsenic-contaminated soils cheaply and could also aid studies of arsenic uptake, translocation, speciation, distribution anddetoxification in plants.*Soil and Water Science Department, University ofFlorida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-0290, USAe-mail†Cooperative Extension Service, University ofGeorgia, Terrell County, PO Box 271, Dawson,Georgia 31742, USA‡Department of Chemistry & SoutheastEnvironmental Research Center, FloridaInternational University, Miami, Florida 33199,1. Nriagu, J. O. (ed.) Arsenic in the Environment Part 1: Cycling and Characterization (Wiley, New York, 1994).2. Brooks, R. R. (ed.) Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998).3. Kabata-Pendias, A. & Pendias, H. in Trace Elements in Soils and Plants 203–209 (CRC, Boca Raton, 1991).4. Koch, I., Wang, L., Ollson, C. A., Cullen, W. R. & Reimer, K. J. Envir. Sci. Technol. 34, 22–26 (2000).5. Jones, D. L. Encyclopaedia of Ferns (Lothian, Melbourne, 1987).积累砷的蕨类植物耐寒，多功能，生长快速的植物，有助于从污染土壤去除砷有毒和致癌的土壤砷污染是非常广泛的。
英文文献及翻译(计算机专业)
英文文献及翻译(计算机专业)The increasing complexity of design resources in a net-based collaborative XXX common systems。
design resources can be organized in n with design activities。
A task is formed by a set of activities and resources linked by logical ns。
XXX managementof all design resources and activities via a Task Management System (TMS)。
which is designed to break down tasks and assign resources to task nodes。
This XXX。
2 Task Management System (TMS)TMS is a system designed to manage the tasks and resources involved in a design project。
It poses tasks into smaller subtasks。
XXX management of all design resources and activities。
TMS assigns resources to task nodes。
XXX。
3 Collaborative DesignCollaborative design is a process that XXX a common goal。
In a net-based collaborative design environment。
n XXX n for all design resources and activities。
英文文献小短文(原文加汉语翻译)
A fern that hyperaccumulates arsenic(这是题目，百度一下就能找到原文好，原文还有表格，我没有翻译)A hardy, versatile, fast-growing plant helps to remove arsenic from contaminated soilsContamination of soils with arsenic,which is both toxic and carcinogenic, is widespread1. We have discovered that the fern Pteris vittata (brake fern) is extremely efficient in extracting arsenic from soils and translocating it into its above-ground biomass. This plant —which, to our knowledge, is the first known arsenic hyperaccumulator as well as the first fern found to function as a hyperaccumulator— has many attributes that recommend it for use in the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils.We found brake fern growing on a site in Central Florida contaminated with chromated copper arsenate (Fig. 1a). We analysed the fronds of plants growing at the site for total arsenic by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy. Of 14 plant species studied, only brake fern contained large amounts of arsenic (As;3,280–4,980 p.p.m.). We collected additional samples of the plant and soil from the contaminated site (18.8–1,603 p.p.m. As) and from an uncontaminated site (0.47–7.56 p.p.m. As). Brake fern extracted arsenic efficiently from these soils into its fronds: plants growing in the contaminated site contained 1,442–7,526p.p.m. Arsenic and those from the uncontaminated site contained 11.8–64.0 p.p.m. These values are much higher than those typical for plants growing in normal soil, which contain less than 3.6 p.p.m. of arsenic3.As well as being tolerant of soils containing as much as 1,500 p.p.m. arsenic, brake fern can take up large amounts of arsenic into its fronds in a short time (Table 1). Arsenic concentration in fern fronds growing in soil spiked with 1,500 p.p.m. Arsenic increased from 29.4 to 15,861 p.p.m. in two weeks. Furthermore, in the same period, ferns growing in soil containing just 6 p.p.m. arsenic accumulated 755 p.p.m. Of arsenic in their fronds, a 126-fold enrichment. Arsenic concentrations in brake fern roots were less than 303 p.p.m., whereas those in the fronds reached 7,234 p.p.m.Addition of 100 p.p.m. Arsenic significantly stimulated fern growth, resulting in a 40% increase in biomass compared with the control (data not shown).After 20 weeks of growth, the plant was extracted using a solution of 1:1 methanol:water to speciate arsenic with high-performance liquid chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Almostall arsenic was present as relatively toxic inorganic forms, with little detectable organoarsenic species4. The concentration of As(III) was greater in the fronds (47–80%) than in the roots (8.3%), indicating that As(V) was converted to As(III) during translocation from roots to fronds.As well as removing arsenic from soils containing different concentrations of arsenic (Table 1), brake fern also removed arsenic from soils containing different arsenic species (Fig. 1c). Again, up to 93% of the arsenic was concentrated in the fronds. Although both FeAsO4 and AlAsO4 are relatively insoluble in soils1, brake fern hyperaccumulated arsenic derived from these compounds into its fronds (136–315 p.p.m.)at levels 3–6 times greater than soil arsenic.Brake fern is mesophytic and is widely cultivated and naturalized in many areas with a mild climate. In the United States, it grows in the southeast and in southern California5. The fern is versatile and hardy, and prefers sunny (unusual for a fern) and alkaline environments (where arsenic is more available). It has considerable biomass, and is fast growing, easy to propagate,and perennial.We believe this is the first report of significant arsenic hyperaccumulationby an unmanipulated plant. Brake fern has great potential to remediate arsenic-contaminated soils cheaply and could also aid studies of arsenic uptake, translocation, speciation, distribution and detoxification in plants. *Soil and Water Science Department, University ofFlorida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-0290, USAe-mail: lqma@†Cooperative Extension Service, University ofGeorgia, Terrell County, PO Box 271, Dawson,Georgia 31742, USA‡Department of Chemistry & SoutheastEnvironmental Research Center, FloridaInternational University, Miami, Florida 33199,1. Nriagu, J. O. (ed.) Arsenic in the Environment Part 1: Cyclingand Characterization (Wiley, New York, 1994).2. Brooks, R. R. (ed.) Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998).3. Kabata-Pendias, A. & Pendias, H. in Trace Elements in Soils and Plants 203–209 (CRC, Boca Raton, 1991).4. Koch, I., Wang, L., Ollson, C. A., Cullen, W. R. & Reimer, K. J. Envir. Sci. Technol. 34, 22–26 (2000).5. Jones, D. L. Encyclopaedia of Ferns (Lothian, Melbourne, 1987).积累砷的蕨类植物耐寒，多功能，生长快速的植物，有助于从污染土壤去除砷有毒和致癌的土壤砷污染是非常广泛的。
3000字英文参考文献及其翻译范例
3000字英文参考文献及其翻译【注意：选用的英文一定要与自己的论文题目相关。
如果文章太长，可以节选（用省略号省略一些段略）。
如果字数不够，可以选2至3篇，但要逐一注明详细出处。
英文集中在一起放前面，对应的中文翻译放后面。
中文翻译也要将出处翻译，除非是网页。
对文献的翻译一定要认真！对英文文献及其翻译的排版也要和论文正文一样！特别注意：英文文献应该放在你的参考文献中。
】TOY RECALLS——IS CHINA THE PROBLEM？Hari. Bapuji Paul W. BeamishChina exports about 20 billion toys per year and they are the second most commonly imported item by U.S. and Canada. It is estimated that about 10,000 factories in China manufacture toys for export. Considering this mutual dependence, it is important that the problems resulting in recalls are addressed carefully.Although the largest portion of recalls by Mattel involved design flaws, the CEO of Mattel blamed the Chinese manufacturers by saying that the problem resulted ‘in this case （because）one of our manufacturers did not follow the rules’. Several analysts too blamed the Chinese manufacturers. By placing blame where it did not belong, thereis a danger of losing the opportunity to learn from the errors that have occurred. The first step to learn from errors is to know why and where the error occurred. Further, the most critical step in preventing the recurrence of errors is to find out what and who can prevent it.……From:/loadpage.aspx?Page=ShowDoc&Category Alias=zonghe/ggmflm_zh&BlockAlias=sjhwsd&filename=/doc/sjhwsd/2 00709281954.xml, Sep. 2007玩具召回——是中国的问题吗？哈里·巴普基保罗·比密什中国每年大约出口20亿美元的玩具，最常见是从美国和加拿大进口项目。
文学作品中英文对照外文翻译文献
文学作品中英文对照外文翻译文献
本文旨在汇总文学作品中的英文和中文对照外文翻译文献，共有以下几篇：
1. 《傲慢与偏见》
翻译：英文原版名为“Pride and Prejudice”，中文版由钱钟书翻译。
该小说是英国作家简.奥斯汀的代表作之一，描绘了19世纪英国中上层社会的生活和爱情故事。
2. 《了不起的盖茨比》
翻译：英文原版名为“The Great Gatsby”，中文版由杨绛翻译。
小说主要讲述了一个居住在纽约长岛的年轻白领盖茨比为了追求他的旧爱黛西而付出的努力，是20世纪美国文学的经典之作。
3. 《麦田里的守望者》
翻译：英文原版名为“The Catcher in the Rye”，中文版由施蛰存翻译。
该小说主人公霍尔顿是美国现代文学中最为知名的反英雄形象之一，作品深刻地揭示了青少年内心的孤独和矛盾。
4. 《1984》
翻译：英文原版名为“1984”，中文版由李敬瑞翻译。
该小说是英国作家乔治.奥威尔的代表作之一，描绘了一个虚构的极权主义社会。
以上是部分文学作品的中英文对照外文翻译文献，可以帮助读者更好地理解和学习相关文学作品。
英文参考文献及翻译
（二 零 一 五 年 六 月英文参考资料翻译 题 目：多层横机针织织物面料的开发 ****：*** 学 院：轻工与纺织学院 系 别：服装设计与工程系 专 业：服装设计与工程 班 级：服装设计与工程11-1班 指导教师：邱莉 讲师学校代码： 10128学 号：************Development of Multi-Layer Fabric on a Flat KnittingMachineAbstractThe loop transfer technique was used to develop the a splitable multi layer knit fabric on a computerized multi gauge flat knitting machine. The fabric consists of three layers: inner-single jersey, middle-1X1 purl and, outer-single jersey. By varying the loop length the multi layer knit fabric samples were produced,namely CCC-1, CCC-2 and CCC-3. The above multi layer fabrics were knitted using 24s Ne cotton of combined yarn feed in feeders 3, 4, and 4 respectively. The influence of loop length on wpc,cpc and tightness factor was studied using linear regression. The water vapor and air permeability properties of the produced multi layer knit fabrics were studied using ANOVA. The change of raw material in three individual layers could be useful for the production of fabric for functional, technical, and industrial applications.Keywords: multi layer fabric, loop length, loop transfer, permeability prope1.INTRODUCTIONcapable of manufacturing engineered fabric in two dimensional, three dimensional of bi-layer, and multilayer knit fabrics. The feature includes individual needle selection, the presences of holding down sinkers, racking, transfer, and adapted feeding devices combined with CAD. The layered fabrics are more suitable for functional and technical applications than single layer fabrics. These fabrics may be non-splitable (branching knit structure, plated fabric, spacer fabric) and splitable (bilayer,multilayer). The functional knitted structure of two different fabric layers based on different textile components (hydrophobic and hydrophilic textile material) is used to produce leisure wear, sportswear and protective clothing to improve the comfort. The separation layer is polypropylene in contact with skin, and the absorption layer will be the outside layer when cotton is used for the knit fabric .Garments made of plant branch structured knit fabrics facilitate the transport of sweat from the skin to the outer layer of the fabric very fast and make the wearer more comfortable. Qing Chen et al .reported that the branching knitted fabrics made from different combinations of polyester/cotton yarns with varying linear density and various knitted structure produced in rib machine improved water transport properties. The Moisture comfort characteristics of plated knitted fabric was good, reported by the authors findings from three layer plated fabric of cotton (40s), lycra (20 D) and superfine polypropylene (55 dtex/72 f) was used as a raw material in face, middle and ground layers respectively . The applications in wearable electronics for the multilayer fabric are wider. Novel multi-functional fibers structure include three layered knit fabric embedded with electronics for health monitoring. The knit fabric consists of 5% spandex and 95% polypropylene in –1stlayer, -2nd layer composed of metal fibers to conduct electric current to embedded electronics + PCM and the 3rd layer is composed of highly hydrophilic cotton . In flat knitting, two surface (U-,V-,M-,X- and Y-shaped) and three surface layers (U-face to face, U- zigzag and X-shaped) spacer fabric were developed from hybrid glass filament and polypropylene for light weight composite applications.HCebulla et al produced three dimensional performs like open cuboid and spherical shell using the needle parking method. The focus was in the area of individual needle selection in the machine for the production of near net-shape performs. The multi layered sandwich knit fabric of rectangular core structure (connecting layer: rib), triangular core structure (connecting layer:interlock), honeycomb core structure (connecting layer: jersey combined with rib), triple face structure 1 (connecting layers are not alternated), Triple face structure 2 (connecting layers are alternated) were developed on a flat-knitting machine for technical applications .In this direction the flat knitting machine was elected to produce splittable multi layer knit fabric with varying loop length and loop transfer techniques. The influence of loop length on wpc, cpc and tightness factor was studied for the three individual layers in the fabric. The important breathability properties of the fabric such as water vapor permeability and air permeability were studied. The production technique used for this fabric has wide applications such as in functional wear, technical textiles, and wearable textiles.2.MATERIALS AND METHODSThe production of multi-layer knit fabrics such as CCC-1, CCC-2 and CCC-3 cotton yarn with the linear density of 24s Ne was fed in the knit feeder.For layered fabric development, a computerized multi gauge flat knitting machine and combined yarn feed was selected like 3, 4 and 4 respectively, shown in the Table I. Q. M. Wang and H. Hu [9] was the selected yarn feed in the range of 4 –10 for the production of glass fiber yarn composite reinforcement on a flat knitting machine. The intermediate between integral and fully fashioned garment was produced using the “half gauging orneedle parking” technique. The use of only alternate needles on each bed of the flat knitting machine was used for stitch formation, The remaining needles did not participate in stitch formation in the same course,but the loops formed were kept in the needle head until employed for stitch formation again, thus freeing needles to be used as temporary parking places for loop transfer . For production of layered fabric and fully fashionedgarment, the loop transfer stitch is essential part of the panel. The running-on bars were used for transferring of loops either by hand or automatically from one needle to another needle depending on the machine. The principle of the loop transfer is shown in the Figure1.FIGURE. 1. Principle of loop transfer.(a)The delivering needle is raised by a cam in the carriage. The loop is stretched over the transfer spring. (b)The receiving needle is raised slightly from its needle bed. The receiving needle enters the transfer spring of delivering needle and penetrates the loop that will be transferred. (c)The delivering needle retreats leaving the loop on the receiving needle. The transfer spring opens to permits the receiving needleto move back from its closure. Finally, loop transference is completed.TABLE I. Machine & Fabric parameters.2.1 Fabric DevelopmentUsing STOLL M1.PLUS 5.1.034 software the needle selection pattern was simulated is shown in Figure 2.In Figure3, feeder 1, 2 and 3 are used for the formation of three layer fabric (inner-single jersey,middle-1X1 purl and outer-single jersey) respectively. With knit stitches the outer and inner layer knit fabrics are formed by means of selecting the alternate working needles in each bed. But the middle layer fabric is formed by free needles in each bed with the help of loop transfer and knit stitches.FIGURE 2. Selection of Machine & pattern parameters.FIGURE 3. Needle diagram for the multi-layer knit fabric.2.2TESTINGThe produced multi layer knit fabric was given a relaxation process and the following tests were carried out. The knitted fabric properties are given in Table II. and the cross sectional view of the fabrics is shown in Figure 4.FIGURE 4. Cross Sectional view of Multi-layer knit fabric.2.3 Stitch DensityThe courses and wale density of the samples in outer,middle and inner layer were calculated individually in the direction of the length and width of the fabric.The average density per square centimeter was taken for the discussion.2.4 Loop LengthIn outer, middle and inner layers of various combinations in multi layer fabric, 20 loops in a course were unraveled and the length of yarn in cm (LT) was measured. From the LT value the stitch length/loop length was measured by usingStitch length/loop length in cm (L) = (LT)/20 (1)The average loop length (cm) was taken and reported in Table II.2.5 Tightness Factor (K)The tightness of the knits was characterized by the tightness factor (K). It is known that K is a ratio of the area covered by the yarns in one loop to the area occupied by the loop. It is also an indication of the relative looseness or tightness of the knitted structure. For determination of TF the following formula was usedTightness Factor (K) = √T/l (2)Where T= Yarn linear density in Tex, l = loop length of fabric in cm. The TF of three layers (outer, midd le, and inner) were calculated separately is given in Table II.TABLE II. Multi-layer knitted fabric parameters3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe water vapor permeability of the multi layer knit fabrics were analyzed and shown in Figure 8. It can be observed that a linear trend is followed between water vapor permeability and loop length. With increases in loop length, there is less resistance per unit area, so, the permeability property of the fabric also increased. Anova data show increasesin loop length yield a significant difference in the water vapor permeability of the multi fabrics [F (2, 15) > Fcrit]. The regression analysis was done between CCC-1and CCC-2 and CCC-2 and CCC-3 for studying the influence of the number of yarn feeds.R2 values shows 0.755 for both comparisons. The water vapor permeability of the fabric is highly influenced by the length of the loop in the fabric and less by the number of yarn feed in the fabric.The air permeability of the multi layer knit fabricswas analyzed and is shown in Figure 8. It can be observed that the air permeability of the CCC-1,CCC-2, and CCC-3 fabrics is linear with loop length.FIGURE 8. Water Vapor Permeability & Air Permeability of fabric.As loop length in the fabric increased, air permeability also increased. The Anova- single factor analysis also proves that there is a significant difference at 5 % significance level between the air permeability characteristics of multi layer fabrics produced from various loop length [F (2, 15) > F crit] shown in Table IV. To study the influence of the combination yarn feed, the regression analysis was done between CCC-1 and CCC-2 andCCC-2 and CCC-3. It shows R2 =0.757. So, the air permeability of the fabric is may not be dependent on the number of yarns fed, but more influenced by the loop length.4. CONCLUSIONSIn flat knitting machine using a loop transfer technique, multi layer fabrics were developed with varying loop length. With respect to loop length, the loop density and tightness factor were analyzed.Based on analysis the following conclusions were made:TABLE III. Permeability Characteristics of Multi-layer knit fabrics.TABLE IV. ANOVA single factor data analysis.For multi-layer fabric produced with various basic structures (single jersey and 1x1 purl), the change of loop length between the layers has no significant difference.The wpc and cpc had an inverse relationship with the loop length produced from CCC combination multilayer fabrics.The combination yarn feed is an important factor affecting the tightness factor and loop lengths of the individual layers in knitted fabrics.The water vapor and air permeability properties of the multi layer knit fabrics were highly influenced by the change in loop length followed by the combination yarn feed.多层横机针织织物面料的开发摘要循环传输技术被用于开发一种计算机化多针距的横机上的一个多层编织织物。
英文文献翻译
燕京理工学院YANCHING INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY外文文献原稿和译文学院：机电工程学院专业：机械工程学号：130310159姓名：李健鹏指导教师：王海鹏黄志强2017 年3月外文文献原稿和译文原稿Style of materialsMaterials may be grouped in several ways. Scientists often classify materials by their state: solid, liquid, or gas. They also separate them into organic (once living) and inorganic (never living) materials.For industrial purposes, materials are divided into engineering materials or nonengineering materials. Engineering materials are those used in manufacture and become parts of products.Nonengineering materials are the chemicals, fuels, lubricants, and other materials used in the manufacturing process, which do not become part of the product.Engineering materials may be further subdivided into: ①Metal ②Ceramics③Composite ④Polymers, etc.Metals and Metal AlloysMetals are elements that generally have good electrical and thermal conductivity. Many metals have high strength, high stiffness, and have good ductility.Some metals, such as iron, cobalt and nickel, are magnetic. At low temperatures, some metals and intermetallic compounds become superconductors.What is the difference between an alloy and a pure metal? Pure metals are elements which come from a particular area of the periodic table. Examples of pure metals include copper in electrical wires and aluminum in cooking foil and beverage cans.Alloys contain more than one metallic element. Their properties can be changed by changing the elements present in the alloy. Examples of metal alloys include stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel, and chromium; and gold jewelry which usually contains an alloy of gold and nickel.Why are metals and alloys used? Many metals and alloys have high densities andare used in applications which require a high mass-to-volume ratio.Some metal alloys, such as those based on aluminum, have low densities and are used in aerospace applications for fuel economy. Many alloys also have high fracture toughness, which means they can withstand impact and are durable.What are some important properties of metals?Density is defined as a material’s mass divided by its volume. Most metal s have relatively high densities, especially compared to polymers.Materials with high densities often contain atoms with high atomic numbers, such as gold or lead. However, some metals such as aluminum or magnesium have low densities, and are used in applications that require other metallic properties but also require low weight.Fracture toughness can be described as a material’s ability to avoid fracture, especially when a flaw is introduced. Metals can generally contain nicks and dents without weakening very much, and are impact resistant. A football player counts on this when he trusts that his facemask won’t shatter.Plastic deformation is the ability of bend or deform before breaking. As engineers, we usuallydesign materials so that they don’t def orm under normal conditions. You don’t want your car to lean to the east after a strong west wind.However, sometimes we can take advantage of plastic deformation. The crumple zones in a car absorb energy by undergoing plastic deformation before they break.The atomic bonding of metals also affects their properties. In metals, the outer valence electrons are shared among all atoms, and are free to travel everywhere. Since electrons conduct heat and electricity, metals make good cooking pans and electrical wires.It is impossible to see through metals, since these valence electrons absorb any photons of light which reach the metal. No photons pass through.Alloys are compounds consisting of more than one metal. Adding other metals can affect the density, strength, fracture toughness, plastic deformation, electrical conductivity and environmental degradation.For example, adding a small amount of iron to aluminum will make it stronger. Also, adding some chromium to steel will slow the rusting process, but will make itmore brittle.Ceramics and GlassesA ceramic is often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material．By this definition, ceramic materials would also include glasses; however, many materials scientists add the stipulation that “ceramic” must also be crystalline.A glass is an inorganic nonmetallic material that does not have a crystalline structure. Such materials are said to be amorphous.Properties of Ceramics and GlassesSome of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance.Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties: some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle.Ceramics are not typically formed from the melt. This is because most ceramics will crack extensively (i.e. form a powder) upon cooling from the liquid state.Hence, all the simple and efficient manufacturing techniques used for glass production such as casting and blowing, which involve the molten state, cannot be used for th e production of crystalline ceramics. Instead, “sintering” or “firing” is the process typically used.In sintering, ceramic powders are processed into compacted shapes and then heated to temperatures just below the melting point. At such temperatures, the powders react internally to remove porosity and fully dense articles can be obtained.An optical fiber contains three layers: a core made of highly pure glass with a high refractive index for the light to travel, a middle layer of glass with a lower refractive index known as the cladding which protects the core glass from scratches and other surface imperfections, and an out polymer jacket to protect the fiber from damage.In order for the core glass to have a higher refractive index than the cladding, the core glass is doped with a small, controlled amount of an impurity, or dopant, whichcauses light to travel slower, but does not absorb the light.Because the refractive index of the core glass is greater than that of the cladding, light traveling in the core glass will remain in the core glass due to total internal reflection as long as the light strikes the core/cladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle. The total internal reflection phenomenon, as well as the high purity of the core glass, enables light to travel long distances with little loss of intensity.CompositesComposites are formed from two or more types of materials. Examples include polymer/ceramic and metal/ceramic composites. Composites are used because overall propertiesof the composites are superior to those of the individual components.For example: polymer/ceramic composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component, but aren’t as brittle as ceramics.Two types of composites are: fiber-reinforced composites and particle-reinforced composites.Fiber-reinforced CompositesReinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that have been turned into graphite and known as carbon fibers. Fibers increase the modulus of the matrix material.The strong covalent bonds along the fiber’s length give them a very high modulus in this direction because to break or extend the fiber the bonds must also be broken or moved.Fibers are difficult to process into composites, making fiber-reinforced composites relatively expensive.Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, and therefore most expensive sports equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame which consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix.Body parts of race cars and some automobiles are composites made of glass fibers (or fiberglass) in a thermoset matrix.Fibers have a very high modulus along their axis, but have a low modulusperpendicular to their axis. Fiber composite manufacturers often rotate layers of fibers to avoid directional variations in the modulus.Particle-reinforced compositesParticles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminum, and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black.Particles are used to increase the modulus of the matrix, to decrease the permeability of the matrix, to decrease the ductility of the matrix. An example of particle-reinforced composites is an automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a matrix of polyisobutylene elastomeric polymer.Polymers A polymer has a repeating structure, usually based on a carbon backbone. The repeating structure results in large chainlike molecules. Polymers are useful because they are lightweight, corrosion resistant, easy to process at low temperatures and generally inexpensive.Some important characteristics of polymers include their size (or molecular weight), softening and melting points, crystallinity, and structure. The mechanical properties of polymers generally include low strength and high toughness. Their strength is often improved using reinforced composite structures.Important Characteristics of PolymersSize. Single polymer molecules typically have molecular weights between10,000 and 1,000,000g/mol—that can be more than 2,000 repeating units depending on the polymer structure!The mechanical properties of a polymer are significantly affected by the molecular weight, with better engineering properties at higher molecular weights.Thermal transitions. The softening point (glass transition temperature) and the melting point of a polymer will determine which it will be suitable for applications. These temperatures usually determine the upper limit for which a polymer can be used.For example, many industrially important polymers have glass transition temperatures near the boiling point of water (100℃, 212℉), and they are most useful for room temperature applications. Some specially engineered polymers can withstandtemperatures as high as 300℃(572℉).Crystallinity. Polymers can be crystalline or amorphous, but they usuallyhave a combination of crystalline and amorphous structures (semi-crystalline).Interchain interactions. The polymer chains can be free to slide past one another (thermo-plastic) or they can be connected to each other with crosslinks (thermoset or elastomer). Thermo-plastics can be reformed and recycled, while thermosets and elastomers are not reworkable.Intrachain structure. The chemical structure of the chains also has a tremendous effect on the properties. Depending on the structure the polymer may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic (likes or hates water), stiff or flexible, crystalline or amorphous, reactive or unreactive.The understanding of heat treatment is embraced by the broader study of metallurgy. Metallurgy is the physics, chemistry, and engineering related to metals from ore extraction to the final product.Heat treatment is the operation of heating and cooling a metal in its solid state to change its physical properties. According to the procedure used, steel can be hardened to resist cutting action and abrasion, or it can be softened to permit machining.With the proper heat treatment internal stresses may be removed, grain size reduced, toughness increased, or a hard surface produced on a ductile interior. The analysis of the steel must be known because small percentages of certain elements, notably carbon, greatly affect the physical properties.Alloy steel owe their properties to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon, namely nickel, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, tungsten, silicon, vanadium, and copper. Because of their improved physical properties they are used commercially in many ways not possible with carbon steels.The following discussion applies principally to the heat treatment of ordinary commercial steels known as plain carbon steels. With this process the rate ofcooling is the controlling factor, rapid cooling from above the critical range results in hard structure, whereas very slow cooling produces the opposite effect.A Simplified Iron-carbon DiagramIf we focus only on the materials normally known as steels, a simplifieddiagram is often used.Those portions of the iron-carbon diagram near the delta region and those above 2% carbon content are of little importance to the engineer and are deleted. A simplified diagram, such as the one in Fig.2.1, focuses on the eutectoid region and is quite useful in understanding the properties and processing of steel.The key transition described in this diagram is the decomposition of single-phase austenite(γ) to the two-phase ferrite plus carbide structure as temperature drops.Control of this reaction, which arises due to the drastically different carbon solubility of austenite and ferrite, enables a wide range of properties to be achieved through heat treatment.To begin to understand these processes, consider a steel of the eutectoid composition, 0.77% carbon, being slow cooled along line x-x’ in Fig.2.1. At the upper temperatures, only austenite is present, the 0.77% carbon being dissolved in solid solution with the iron. When the steel cools to 727℃(1341℉), several changes occur simultaneously.The iron wants to change from the FCC austenite structure to the BCC ferrite structure, but the ferrite can only contain 0.02% carbon in solid solution.The rejected carbon forms the carbon-rich cementite intermetallic with composition Fe3C. In essence, the net reaction at the eutectoid is austenite0.77%C→ferrite 0.02%C+cementite 6.67%C.Since this chemical separation of the carbon component occurs entirely in the solid state, the resulting structure is a fine mechanical mixture of ferrite and cementite. Specimens prepared by polishing and etching in a weak solution of nitric acid and alcohol reveal the lamellar structure of alternating plates that forms on slow cooling.This structure is composed of two distinct phases, but has its own set of characteristic properties and goes by the name pearlite, because oits resemblance to mother- of- pearl at low magnification.Steels having less than the eutectoid amount of carbon (less than 0.77%) are known as hypo-eutectoid steels. Consider now the transformation of such a material represented by cooling along line y-y’ in Fig.2.1.At high temperatures, the material is entirely austenite, but upon cooling enters aregion where the stable phases are ferrite and austenite. Tie-line and level-law calculations show that low-carbon ferrite nucleates and grows, leaving the remaining austenite richer in carbon.At 727℃(1341℉), the austenite is of eutectoid composition (0.77% carbon) and further cooling transforms the remaining austenite to pearlite. The resulting structure is a mixture of primary or pro-eutectoid ferrite (ferrite that formed above the eutectoid reaction) and regions of pearlite.Hypereutectoid steels are steels that contain greater than the eutectoid amount of carbon. When such steel cools, as shown in z-z’ of Fig.2.1 the process is similar to the hypo-eutectoid case, except that the primary or pro-eutectoid phase is now cementite instead of ferrite.As the carbon-rich phase forms, the remaining austenite decreases in carbon content, reaching the eutectoid composition at 727℃(1341℉). As before, any remaining austenite transforms to pearlite upon slow cooling through this temperature.It should be remembered that the transitions that have been described by the phase diagrams are for equilibrium conditions, which can be approximated by slow cooling. With slow heating, these transitions occur in the reverse manner.However, when alloys are cooled rapidly, entirely different results may be obtained, because sufficient time is not provided for the normal phase reactions to occur, in such cases, the phase diagram is no longer a useful tool for engineering analysis.HardeningHardening is the process of heating a piece of steel to a temperature within or above its critical range and then cooling it rapidly.If the carbon content of the steel is known, the proper temperature to which the steel should be heated may be obtained by reference to the iron-iron carbide phase diagram. However, if the composition of the steel is unknown, a little preliminary experimentation may be necessary to determine the range.译文材料的类型材料可以按多种方法分类。
英文文献翻译
Bank risks, capital and loansupply: evidence fromSierra LeoneEric Osei-Assibey and Baimba Augustine BockarieDepartment of Economics, University of Ghana, Legon, GhanaAbstractPurpose–The study aims to investigate the factors that influence banks' loan supply in Sierra Leone. More specifically, it seeks to look into the effects of risk premium, leverage ratio and credit risk on banks'loan supply in Sierra Leone.Design/methodology/approach–Using annual bank level data on an unbalanced panel of 13 commercial banks data observed over a period of ten years (2002 to 2011), the study employs time and bank-specific fixed effects model for estimation.Findings –The findings indicate that risk premium, the share of non-performing loans in the banks'loan portfolio, tier 1 capital ratio (leverage ratio) and local currency deposit levels positively and significantly affect the share of loan supply to the private sector in banks' earning assets. On the other hand, advances to local currency deposit ratio and bank size have significant negative effects on the share of loans in banks assets. The study also finds bank type and the growth rate of real GDP (a proxy for economic activity) to be important determinants of the share of loans in banks' earning assets.Practical implications–The study recommends that the monetary authorities, banking practitioners and the government should pay keen attention to the key risk factors such as non-performing loans and risk premium in the operation of the banking sector to boost commercial banks' loan supply.Originality/value–Sierra Leone's banking sector presents a unique opportunity to study bank loan supply in relation to bank-specific features in the context of post-war financial reconstruction. Keywords Bank risks, Portfolio allocations, Bank assets, Banks, Banking, Sierra Leone.Paper type Research paper1. IntroductionThe influx of banks into the Sierra Leonean economy has been a subject of public discussions. The general concern is that given the relatively small size of the Sierra Leone Financial Market, there are too many banks to contend with. Whilst the Bank of Sierra Leone (2009) reinforces this concern, the International Monetary Funds (IMF, 2010) suggests that the low level of intermediation in Sierra Leone may be indicative of limited competition in the banking sector. But from available data, the increased number of banks –mostly of foreign origin and ownership has intensified competition in the system. Market shares are being lost by the three big players, interest margins are becoming thinner and foreign exchange rate spreads are being eroded. However, client deposits continue to increase and the well managed banks continue to be highly profitable. Additionally, despite the expansion in the Sierra Leone banking industry, there is still a dearth of bank credit to the private sector. A strict line could therefore be drawn between bankcredit availability and accessibility in this market, as the banks'balance sheets show high liquidity of the banks.The country continues to be characterised by an underdeveloped financial market which constrains financial resource allocation in an efficient manner and hence, holding economic growth backward (The World Bank, 2010). Understandably, given the difficult conditions in the Sierra Leonean financial market, the banking sector has fallen short of its traditional role of credit allocation to private sector in order to boost growth and development. Thus, the banking system's support to the private sector through credit allocation remains weak. From 1984 to 1987 for example, the Domestic Money Banks' claims on the private sector as a percentage of their claims on government were only 63.78, 32.81, 66.58 and 74.62 percent, respectively, (IMF, 2009).Between 2001 and 2009, the same figure averaged at 56 percent, with 2007, 2008 and 2009 individually recording 61, 66 and 86 percent, respectively. Between 2000 and 2007, the banks'non-performing loans (NPLs) as a percentage of gross loans averaged 22.11 percent (The World Bank, 2010).The lack of interest by commercial banks in providing loans and advances in the country is not due to liquidity considerations as this sector is seemingly liquid based on the fact that their total deposits nearly double their loan portfolio (Bank of Sierra Leone, 2010). Rather than lending to the perceived risky sector (the private sector), they prefer to invest in government securities such as treasury bills and treasury bearer bonds which earn varying returns and which are also riskless. The banks'holdings of riskless assets (government securities) form a huge proportion of their total financial assets (47.5 percent) (Bank of Sierra Leone, 2010). Access to finance outside the capital city –Freetown, by small and medium scale enterprises and the agricultural sector continues to be grossly inadequate.The unwillingness of banks to lend to the private sector can be caused by several reasons, among which are the increased capital adequacy requirements imposed by banking regulators; impaired debt-servicing capacity by clients, especially small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs), and risks of a further decline in collateral value. These make the interest rate on loans not to serve as the main determinant of bank credit approval. NPLs have been viewed to constitute one of themost important factors causing reluctance for banks to provide credit to the private sector. In a high NPL condition, banks increasingly tend to carry out internal consolidation to improve the asset quality rather than allotting credit. Although the NPL has witnessed a sharp decline since 2002, when it stood at 48 percent of gross loans and advances, it has been fluctuating and appears to be on the increase. Unavailability of credit to finance firms' working capitals and investments might trigger the second round business failure which in turn exacerbates the quality of bank loans, resulting in an endless vicious cycle of credit crunch. Krueger and Tornell (1999) attribute the credit crunch in Mexico after the 1995 crisis partially to the bad loans. They point out that banks were burdened with credits of negative real value, thereby reducing the capacity of the banks in providing fresh fund for new projects.One of the preconditions for achieving the strategic priorities of the Second PovertyReduction Strategy Paper (PRSP II) is growing the private sector through increased access to investible funds. This cannot be accomplished with the banks' failure to adequately direct the much needed credit to the private sector. The issue therefore is what factors are impacting on bank loan supply to the private sector. More specifically, the present study seeks to determine the impact of credit risk such as high NPLs and capital (measured by leverage ratio) on bank loan supply in Sierra Leone.Moreover, the study explores bank specific characteristics such as ownership structure, assets and size as well as the state of economic activities on loan supply.2. Conditions of the banking industry in Sierra Leone: pre and post war periodsSierra Leone's brutal and protracted civil war (1991-2002) destroyed infrastructure and truncated political, social, and economic development, including disrupting the banking sector in a fundamental way. This resulted in widespread damage to the branch network and banking infrastructure as well as financial loss and loss of customer goodwill and confidence.Moreover, economic difficulties especially in the second half of the 1980s significantly hampered productivity which culminated into an unhealthy business environment. Business failures had devastating consequences on commercial banks'loan portfolios. The quality of banking services became watered down with portfolio contamination becoming very conspicuous.A good number of the existing banks were concealing their losses. The practice of using “good money”(new loans) to finance “bad money”(doubtful loans or contaminated portfolio) to avoid providing for bad and doubtful debts had become a common thing. This practice is otherwise known as ever-greening. The resultant effect was a gradual disintermediation and severe liquidity problems in the early 1990s.It is important to note however that the country has made substantial progress in transitioning from a post-conflict nation to a developing democracy that has made notable economic gains. Immediately after the war, the government took immediate steps to reform and strengthened the financial system.Anew regulations and legislation were introduced, including the updating of the Bank of Sierra Leone Act 2000 and bringing the legislation in line with other Central Bank legislations in West Africa. The reforms also opened up the banking industry of the country, resulting in a large influx of foreign banks. This has generally culminated in the financial market in Sierra Leone being highly dominated by the banking sector, controlling 75 percent of the total financial sector assets (Bank of Sierra Leone, 2009).However, the influx of banks into the Sierra Leonean economy has been a subject of public concerns. The general concern is that given the relatively small size of the Sierra Leone Financial Market, there are too many banks to contend with. Whilst the Bank of Sierra Leone (2009) reinforces this concern, the IMF (2010) suggests that the low level of intermediation in Sierra Leone may be indicative of limited competition in the banking sector. But from available data, the increased number of banks –mostly of foreign origin and ownership has intensified competition in the system. Market shares are being lost by the three big players, interest margins are becoming thinner and foreign exchange rate spreads are being eroded. However, client deposits continue to increase and the well managed banks continue to be highly profitable.In 2005, there were only seven commercial banks operating in the market (three local and four foreign banks) with a branch network of 31. Out of the 31 branches, the three local banks accounted for 68 percent. By 2010, the number of commercial banks had increased to 13 (three local and ten foreign), with a branch network of 80 (local banks accounting for 39 percent of it). As at December 2011, additional six branches were opened, making a total of 86 branches (local banks accounting for 40 percent of it). Despite this phenomenal expansion, the market remains shallow, with not much active interbank market. Greuning and Bratanovic (2009) clearly put it that in an underdeveloped financial market where liquidity of financial instruments dependsexclusively on their maturities rather than on the ability to sell them, banks tend to hold a relatively high volume of liquid assets.The average total assets of the Sierra Leone banking system is US$38 million while the three largest players account for about half of the market share. This proportion had witnessed a persistent drop from the level of 90 percent in 1999 to 88 percent in 2004 and 86 percent recorded in 2005, owing to the influx of foreign banks (Bank of Sierra Leone, 2009). The system happens to be sound with average capital in excess of average total assets by 17 percent. Nonetheless, despite the expansion in the Sierra Leone banking industry, there is still a dearth of bank credit to the private sector. A strict line could therefore be drawn between bank credit availability and accessibility in this market, as the banks' balance sheets show high liquidity of the banks. According to The World Bank (2012) report, the volume of loans to the private sector has been fluctuating since 2009. After increasing from US$21 million in 2009, to US$69 million dollars in 2010, it dropped sharply to US$39.8 million in 2011.3. Literature reviewThere is wealth of literature providing both theoretical and empirical evidence on the link between bank loan supply to the private sector and a host of predetermined variables, including bank risk measures and capital adequacy. While some authors pay much attention to relationship banking (Kane and Malkiel, 1965), others have focused on four major institution-specific characteristics that are likely to influence traditional lending activities: liquidity, capital,market value and securitization intensity (Montgomery, 2005). Some other studies have suggested that credit creation is influenced by both macroeconomic variables that impact loan uptake as well as internal structures such as the composition of a bank's balance sheet and the demand for loans (Druck and Garibaldi, 2000; Furfine, 2000; Tracey, 2011).By modifying a Tobin-Markowitz portfolio model to account for the phenomenon of deposit variability, Kane and Malkiel (1965) discover cogent reasons for rejecting formulations of the manner in which certain availability effects operate. They make two additions to the traditional bank portfolio model: deposit variability and consideration of long run profits. Their argument is that given an existing optimum portfolio, a certain class of loan demand creates a dilemma for a bank. Granting such a loan according to the writers, adds to the risk-return ratio, but increases the strength of a bank's client relationship and may increase a bank's expected return, while reducing overall risk. Refusal will nevertheless increase the risk and reduce the expected (long run) return. Their study rejects the hypothesis that credit rationing is purely on the basis of credit risk. Their findings support the assertion that credit rationing is on the basis of client features which entail: the strength of the existing client relationship, the size of the borrower, stability and the prospects for long term growthof deposits, and the existence of profitable future lending opportunities.Montgomery (2005) investigates the hypothesis that stricter capital adequacy requirements introduced under the Basel Accord caused Japanese banks to alter their portfolios away from heavily weighted risky assets such as loans and corporate bonds and into unweighted assets such as government bonds. Using a panel of Japanese bank balance sheets for fiscal years 1982-1999, the study finds that neither international nor domestic bank asset portfolios are strongly affected by the total regulatory capital ratio. The study explores the sensitivity of various risk weight categories of assets to both total regulatory capital and core regulatory capital and to examine differences in the sensitivity of asset growth to regulatory capital for domestic and international banks in Japan. Moving the argument further, Sawada (2008), attributes bank runs to twoalternative views; the random withdrawal theory on the one hand, which considers bank runs as a self-fulfilling phenomenon, and the information based theory which considers bank runs as a phenomenon induced by the market discipline of depositors under asymmetric information on the other hand. To investigate portfolio management with respect to banks exposed to liquidity risk, the study uses micro level data pertaining to the pre war era of the Japanese banking industry (1927-1932), since the study is centred on a market without deposit insurance. The findings show that liquidity risk as captured in the study is negatively and statistically significantly related at the 1 percent level of significance to the cash-asset ratio, positively related to the security-asset ratio and insignificantly related to the liquid-asset ratio.In a more related paper studying the effect of bank leverage ratio on credit allocation and bank stability of banks on top of risk-based capital requirements, Kiema and Jokivuolle (2011) finds that both low-risk and high-risk loan rates and volumes remain essentially unchanged. This is because banks previously specializing in low-risk lending can adapt by granting both low-risk and high-risk loans. For sufficiently high LRRs, low-risk lending rates would significantly increase and high-risk lending rates would fall. Similary, Spinassou (2012) finds that high leverage ratios as required by banking regulators impact on the banks'behaviour either positively or negatively. The study shows that the implementation of a leverage ratio with a risk-dependent capital ratio incites banks to increase their risk-taking. On the other hand this regulation incites banks to hold an adequate level of capital and decreases the banking instability.Amidu (2006) examines whether bank lending is constrained by monetary policy in Ghana. Using panel cross-sectional data covering the period from 1998 to 2004, the study models the share of loans and advances in banks'total assets as a function of the growth rate of real GDP, the rate of inflation, the Central Bank of Ghana prime rate, broad money supply, bank size measured as the logarithm of a bank's total assets, and liquidity as measured by the share of a bank's liquid assets to total assets. Among the findings, the study shows that during the period of the investigation, Ghanaian banks preferred to invest in risk-free government treasury bills and bonds to secure higher profitability. However, in Sierra Leone, Bathalomew (2005) using a panel of seven banks with monthly data collected between March 1999 and December 2004 finds some mixed results. Estimating three equations to test the collusion hypothesis, the efficient market hypothesis and a joint hypothesis of collusion and efficient market hypotheses, he confirms support for the collusion hypothesis for the dominant banks, suggesting the role of monopoly power in driving dominant commercial banks'profitability in Sierra Leone, but rejects same for the fringe banks. His study however suggests that smaller banks derive profits from efficiency and not from monopoly rent. The study uses three measures of profitability; return on equity, return on capital, and return on assets for analytical purposes.Tracey (2011) employs an ordinary least square (OLS) model to ascertain the minimum and maximum threshold points for NPLs at which commercial banks become risk adverse in the disbursal of loans. Using the study by Hou and Dickinson (2007) as the launching pad, the study looks at the risk aversion of banks in supplying loans through the modelling of loan supply on balance sheet variables such as the growth rate of the ratio of NPLs to total loans, its square, the growth rates of deposits, other earning assets and capital. The study detects some level of evidence that at higher level of NPLs/loan ratio, banks become more risk adverse in loan disbursal. It is also observed that the two countries used have varying level of risk aversion behavioural patterns. The deposits growth rate is found to move in the same direction as loan supply.The literature also finds the influence of bank specific factors such as bank ownership on credit supply. Evidence abounds to suggest that state-owned banks display lending behavior different from private banks in many countries (Dinc, 2005;Jia, 2009). Dinc (2005) shows how lending of state-owned banks correlates with the electoral cycle in a cross-country study. State-owned banks boost lending in election years relative to private banks, suggesting a different objective function for both types of banks. In a related vein, Jia (2009) analyzes the relationship between ownership and the prudential behavior of banks in China by comparing state-owned and joint-equity banks. He observes that state-owned banks are less prudent in lending. This finding suggests that in times of crisis state-owned banks are more reluctant to pare back lending than other banks. Again, there is also evidence to suggest that foreign owned banks display lending behavior different from domestic banks. For example, Funga (2011) find that relative to domestic private banks, foreign-owned banks reduced their credit supply more and state-controlled banks less. This supports the hypothesis that foreign banks have a “ack of loyalty”to domestic actors particularly during economic downturns or crisis, as well as the view that an objective function of state-controlled banks being more development oriented leads them to support the economy during economic downturns.4. Concluding remarksThe general purpose of this work has been to investigate the factors that influence banks' credit supply in Sierra Leone. Specifically, the study has looked into the effects of risk premium, loan risks as well as capital adequacy on bank loan supply in Sierra Leone between 2002 and 2011.Using annual bank level data on an unbalanced panel of 13 banks in the market for the study period, and employing a time and bank specific fixed effects model, the principal hypothesis that the level of risk premium influences the share of loans to the private sector in interest earning asset of banks has been confirmed. Additionally, the study has shown that NPLs, tier 1 capital ratio and local currency deposit levels positively and statistically significantly affect banks'loan supply to the private sector,while ADRand bank size have significant negative effect on the dependent variable. Also, using a random effect model estimation, bank loan demand (also a control for economic activities) as proxied by real national income growth rate, and bank type are found to be significant determinants of bank portfolio composition. Nevertheless, the market risk component of the model (VRL rate) was found to play a negligible role in shaping banks' loan supply.On the basis of the findings, the study therefore recommends the following: first, bank loan supply as a fraction of bank IEA has been found to be positively responsive to risk premium. To that end, government should play the needed role for risk premium to be sufficient enough for banks to lend more to the private sector, relative to acquiring government securities. After all, banks are in the business of taking calculated risk to make money. Admittedly, this policy advice in no way advocates for a rising loan interest rate, because that would have the negative effect of adverse selection and moral hazard. One way to enable the interest rates on treasury bills and treasury bearer bonds to be appreciably lower than the returns on loans and advances is for government to exercise fiscal discipline in line with the West Africa Monetary Zone's benchmark. That would reduce the amount of government's public sector borrowing requirements so as to bring down the yield on government securities through the interaction of demand and supply.Second, NPL ratio is found to have a positive influence on bank loan supply in Sierra Leone. We have advanced in this study that this may be because actual provisions for loan losses are farless than the value of NPLs on the banks' books which makes banks lend more to encourage repayment of doubtful debts. NPLs do not show in the banks' audited accounts (the usual accounting practice).What is reported in the banks' income statements is“net recoveries/(impairment losses) on loans and advances”, a figure that is far less than the value of NPLs of the banks. This underestimates the portfolio risk of a bank. Banking supervisors should pay keen attention to the level of the banks' actual value of NPLs so as to truly capture the magnitude of the potential default rate of borrowers.Third, the study finds a negative relationship between the loan-deposit ratio and a bank's loan supply. This is because banks cannot sell loans off their books, once they have originated it. We recommend that the Central Bank of Sierra Leone should play a parental role in strengthening the depth of the Interbank Market operations. This will have the effect of increasing access of banks to short term liquidity for intraday position management, enhance market depth to beyond the traditional overnight to one week tenor, and subsequently promote financial stability through confidence building. The availability of more funding sources other than client deposits reduces the risk of adverse deposits shocks.Fourth, a positive relationship has been established between bank loan supply and a bank's leverage ratio measured by a bank's equity divided by total assets, albeit at the 10 percent level of significance. On this note, the current effort of the Central Bank of Sierra Leone to double banks' capitalisation by 2014 should not be relented upon. This is not justifying any increases in the risk capital requirements for the individual risk categories. Instead, we recommend a reduction in the risk capital requirements for fully secured credit exposures. Further, banks should be encouraged to have capital in excess of the minimum paid up capital (capital buffers) so as have more room to absorb the inherent risk in the business of banking.In conclusion, we suggest any future studies should investigate the determinants of the sectoral allocation of bank credits. Additionally, with the availability of data, a time series analysis of this topic using aggregated data is advisable, where an impulse response analysis can be carried out.银行风险、资本和贷款供应:证据来自塞拉利昂奥古斯丁·博卡里大学经济学、加纳摘要目标——这项研究的目的是研究在塞拉利昂影响银行贷款供给的因素。
外文文献及翻译
（（英文参考文献及译文）二〇一六年六月本科毕业论文 题 目：STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED INTHE AUDIT学生姓名：王雪琴学 院：管理学院系 别：会计系专 业：财务管理班 级：财管12-2班 学校代码： 10128 学 号： 201210707016Statistics and AuditRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED IN THE AUDIT - views, recommendations, fi ndingsPhD Candidate Gabriela-Felicia UNGUREANUAbstractThe rapid increase in the size of U.S. companies from the earlytwentieth century created the need for audit procedures based on the selectionof a part of the total population audited to obtain reliable audit evidence, tocharacterize the entire population consists of account balances or classes oftransactions. Sampling is not used only in audit – is used in sampling surveys,market analysis and medical research in which someone wants to reach aconclusion about a large number of data by examining only a part of thesedata. The difference is the “population” from which the sample is selected, iethat set of data which is intended to draw a conclusion. Audit sampling appliesonly to certain types of audit procedures.Key words: sampling, sample risk, population, sampling unit, tests ofcontrols, substantive procedures.Statistical samplingCommittee statistical sampling of American Institute of CertifiedPublic Accountants of (AICPA) issued in 1962 a special report, titled“Statistical sampling and independent auditors’ which allowed the use ofstatistical sampling method, in accordance with Generally Accepted AuditingStandards (GAAS). During 1962-1974, the AICPA published a series of paperson statistical sampling, “Auditor’s Approach to Statistical Sampling”, foruse in continuing professional education of accountants. During 1962-1974,the AICPA published a series of papers on statistical sampling, “Auditor’sApproach to Statistical Sampling”, for use in continuing professional educationof accountants. In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, “AuditSampling”, which provides general guidelines for both sampling methods,statistical and non-statistical.Earlier audits included checks of all transactions in the period coveredby the audited financial statements. At that time, the literature has not givenparticular attention to this subject. Only in 1971, an audit procedures programprinted in the “Federal Reserve Bulletin (Federal Bulletin Stocks)” includedseveral references to sampling such as selecting the “few items” of inventory.Statistics and Audit The program was developed by a special committee, which later became the AICPA, that of Certified Public Accountants American Institute.In the first decades of last century, the auditors often applied sampling, but sample size was not in related to the efficiency of internal control of the entity. In 1955, American Institute of Accountants has published a study case of extending the audit sampling, summarizing audit program developed by certified public accountants, to show why sampling is necessary to extend the audit. The study was important because is one of the leading journal on sampling which recognize a relationship of dependency between detail and reliability testing of internal control.In 1964, the AICPA’s Auditing Standards Board has issued a report entitled “The relationship between statistical sampling and Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)” which illustrated the relationship between the accuracy and reliability in sampling and provisions of GAAS.In 1978, the AICPA published the work of Donald M. Roberts,“Statistical Auditing”which explains the underlying theory of statistical sampling in auditing.In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, named “Audit Sampling”, which provides guidelines for both sampling methods, statistical and non-statistical.An auditor does not rely solely on the results of a single procedure to reach a conclusion on an account balance, class of transactions or operational effectiveness of the controls. Rather, the audit findings are based on combined evidence from several sources, as a consequence of a number of different audit procedures. When an auditor selects a sample of a population, his objective is to obtain a representative sample, ie sample whose characteristics are identical with the population’s characteristics. This means that selected items are identical with those remaining outside the sample.In practice, auditors do not know for sure if a sample is representative, even after completion the test, but they “may increase the probability that a sample is representative by accuracy of activities made related to design, sample selection and evaluation” [1]. Lack of specificity of the sample results may be given by observation errors and sampling errors. Risks to produce these errors can be controlled.Observation error (risk of observation) appears when the audit test did not identify existing deviations in the sample or using an inadequate audit technique or by negligence of the auditor.Sampling error (sampling risk) is an inherent characteristic of the survey, which results from the fact that they tested only a fraction of the total population. Sampling error occurs due to the fact that it is possible for Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthe auditor to reach a conclusion, based on a sample that is different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would have been subject to audit procedures identical. Sampling risk can be reduced by adjusting the sample size, depending on the size and population characteristics and using an appropriate method of selection. Increasing sample size will reduce the risk of sampling; a sample of the all population will present a null risk of sampling.Audit Sampling is a method of testing for gather sufficient and appropriate audit evidence, for the purposes of audit. The auditor may decide to apply audit sampling on an account balance or class of transactions. Sampling audit includes audit procedures to less than 100% of the items within an account balance or class of transactions, so all the sample able to be selected. Auditor is required to determine appropriate ways of selecting items for testing. Audit sampling can be used as a statistical approach and a non- statistical.Statistical sampling is a method by which the sample is made so that each unit consists of the total population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, method of sample selection is random, allowed to assess the results based on probability theory and risk quantification of sampling. Choosing the appropriate population make that auditor’ findings can be extended to the entire population.Non-statistical sampling is a method of sampling, when the auditor uses professional judgment to select elements of a sample. Since the purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions about the entire population, the auditor should select a representative sample by choosing sample units which have characteristics typical of that population. Results will not extrapolate the entire population as the sample selected is representative.Audit tests can be applied on the all elements of the population, where is a small population or on an unrepresentative sample, where the auditor knows the particularities of the population to be tested and is able to identify a small number of items of interest to audit. If the sample has not similar characteristics for the elements of the entire population, the errors found in the tested sample can not extrapolate.Decision of statistical or non-statistical approach depends on the auditor’s professional judgment which seeking sufficient appropriate audits evidence on which to completion its findings about the audit opinion.As a statistical sampling method refer to the random selection that any possible combination of elements of the community is equally likely to enter the sample. Simple random sampling is used when stratification was not to audit. Using random selection involves using random numbers generated byRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit a computer. After selecting a random starting point, the auditor found the first random number that falls within the test document numbers. Only when the approach has the characteristics of statistical sampling, statistical assessments of risk are valid sampling.In another variant of the sampling probability, namely the systematic selection (also called random mechanical) elements naturally succeed in office space or time; the auditor has a preliminary listing of the population and made the decision on sample size. “The auditor calculated a counting step, and selects the sample element method based on step size. Step counting is determined by dividing the volume of the community to sample the number of units desired. Advantages of systematic screening are its usability. In most cases, a systematic sample can be extracted quickly and method automatically arranges numbers in successive series.”[2].Selection by probability proportional to size - is a method which emphasizes those population units’recorded higher values. The sample is constituted so that the probability of selecting any given element of the population is equal to the recorded value of the item;Stratifi ed selection - is a method of emphasis of units with higher values and is registered in the stratification of the population in subpopulations. Stratification provides a complete picture of the auditor, when population (data table to be analyzed) is not homogeneous. In this case, the auditor stratifies a population by dividing them into distinct subpopulations, which have common characteristics, pre-defined. “The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of elements in each layer and therefore allow a reduction in sample size without a proportionate increase in the risk of sampling.” [3] If population stratification is done properly, the amount of sample size to come layers will be less than the sample size that would be obtained at the same level of risk given sample with a sample extracted from the entire population. Audit results applied to a layer can be designed only on items that are part of that layer.I appreciated as useful some views on non-statistical sampling methods, which implies that guided the selection of the sample selecting each element according to certain criteria determined by the auditor. The method is subjective; because the auditor selects intentionally items containing set features him.The selection of the series is done by selecting multiple elements series (successive). Using sampling the series is recommended only if a reasonable number of sets used. Using just a few series there is a risk that the sample is not representative. This type of sampling can be used in addition to other samples, where there is a high probability of occurrence of errors. At the arbitrary selection, no items are selected preferably from the auditor, Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthat regardless of size or source or characteristics. Is not the recommended method, because is not objective.That sampling is based on the auditor’s professional judgment, which may decide which items can be part or not sampled. Because is not a statistical method, it can not calculate the standard error. Although the sample structure can be constructed to reproduce the population, there is no guarantee that the sample is representative. If omitted a feature that would be relevant in a particular situation, the sample is not representative.Sampling applies when the auditor plans to make conclusions about population, based on a selection. The auditor considers the audit program and determines audit procedures which may apply random research. Sampling is used by auditors an internal control systems testing, and substantive testing of operations. The general objectives of tests of control system and operations substantive tests are to verify the application of pre-defined control procedures, and to determine whether operations contain material errors.Control tests are intended to provide evidence of operational efficiency and controls design or operation of a control system to prevent or detect material misstatements in financial statements. Control tests are necessary if the auditor plans to assess control risk for assertions of management.Controls are generally expected to be similarly applied to all transactions covered by the records, regardless of transaction value. Therefore, if the auditor uses sampling, it is not advisable to select only high value transactions. Samples must be chosen so as to be representative population sample.An auditor must be aware that an entity may change a special control during the course of the audit. If the control is replaced by another, which is designed to achieve the same specific objective, the auditor must decide whether to design a sample of all transactions made during or just a sample of transactions controlled again. Appropriate decision depends on the overall objective of the audit test.Verification of internal control system of an entity is intended to provide guidance on the identification of relevant controls and design evaluation tests of controls.Other tests:In testing internal control system and testing operations, audit sample is used to estimate the proportion of elements of a population containing a characteristic or attribute analysis. This proportion is called the frequency of occurrence or percentage of deviation and is equal to the ratio of elements containing attribute specific and total number of population elements. WeightRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit deviations in a sample are determined to calculate an estimate of the proportion of the total population deviations.Risk associated with sampling - refers to a sample selection which can not be representative of the population tested. In other words, the sample itself may contain material errors or deviations from the line. However, issuing a conclusion based on a sample may be different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would be subject to audit.Types of risk associated with sampling:Controls are more effective than they actually are or that there are not significant errors when they exist - which means an inappropriate audit opinion. Controls are less effective than they actually are that there are significant errors when in fact they are not - this calls for additional activities to establish that initial conclusions were incorrect.Attributes testing - the auditor should be defining the characteristics to test and conditions for misconduct. Attributes testing will make when required objective statistical projections on various characteristics of the population. The auditor may decide to select items from a population based on its knowledge about the entity and its environment control based on risk analysis and the specific characteristics of the population to be tested.Population is the mass of data on which the auditor wishes to generalize the findings obtained on a sample. Population will be defined compliance audit objectives and will be complete and consistent, because results of the sample can be designed only for the population from which the sample was selected.Sampling unit - a unit of sampling may be, for example, an invoice, an entry or a line item. Each sample unit is an element of the population. The auditor will define the sampling unit based on its compliance with the objectives of audit tests.Sample size - to determine the sample size should be considered whether sampling risk is reduced to an acceptable minimum level. Sample size is affected by the risk associated with sampling that the auditor is willing to accept it. The risk that the auditor is willing to accept lower, the sample will be higher.Error - for detailed testing, the auditor should project monetary errors found in the sample population and should take into account the projected error on the specific objective of the audit and other audit areas. The auditor projects the total error on the population to get a broad perspective on the size of the error and comparing it with tolerable error.For detailed testing, tolerable error is tolerable and misrepresentations Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditwill be a value less than or equal to materiality used by the auditor for the individual classes of transactions or balances audited. If a class of transactions or account balances has been divided into layers error is designed separately for each layer. Design errors and inconsistent errors for each stratum are then combined when considering the possible effect on the total classes of transactions and account balances.Evaluation of sample results - the auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether assessing relevant characteristics of the population is confirmed or needs to be revised.When testing controls, an unexpectedly high rate of sample error may lead to an increase in the risk assessment of significant misrepresentation unless it obtained additional audit evidence to support the initial assessment. For control tests, an error is a deviation from the performance of control procedures prescribed. The auditor should obtain evidence about the nature and extent of any significant changes in internal control system, including the staff establishment.If significant changes occur, the auditor should review the understanding of internal control environment and consider testing the controls changed. Alternatively, the auditor may consider performing substantive analytical procedures or tests of details covering the audit period.In some cases, the auditor might not need to wait until the end audit to form a conclusion about the effectiveness of operational control, to support the control risk assessment. In this case, the auditor might decide to modify the planned substantive tests accordingly.If testing details, an unexpectedly large amount of error in a sample may cause the auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balances is given significantly wrong in the absence of additional audit evidence to show that there are not material misrepresentations.When the best estimate of error is very close to the tolerable error, the auditor recognizes the risk that another sample have different best estimate that could exceed the tolerable error.ConclusionsFollowing analysis of sampling methods conclude that all methods have advantages and disadvantages. But the auditor is important in choosing the sampling method is based on professional judgment and take into account the cost / benefit ratio. Thus, if a sampling method proves to be costly auditor should seek the most efficient method in view of the main and specific objectives of the audit.Romanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit The auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether the preliminary assessment of relevant characteristics of the population must be confirmed or revised. If the evaluation sample results indicate that the relevant characteristics of the population needs assessment review, the auditor may: require management to investigate identified errors and likelihood of future errors and make necessary adjustments to change the nature, timing and extent of further procedures to take into account the effect on the audit report.Selective bibliography:[1] Law no. 672/2002 updated, on public internal audit[2] Arens, A şi Loebbecke J - Controve …Audit– An integrate approach”, 8th edition, Arc Publishing House[3] ISA 530 - Financial Audit 2008 - International Standards on Auditing, IRECSON Publishing House, 2009- Dictionary of macroeconomics, Ed C.H. Beck, Bucharest, 2008Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit摘要美国公司的规模迅速增加，从第二十世纪初创造了必要的审计程序，根据选定的部分总人口的审计，以获得可靠的审计证据，以描述整个人口组成的帐户余额或类别的交易。
英文文献翻译(终稿)
毕业论文英文文献翻译学生姓名:系别: 中国语言文学系专业: 汉语言文学年级:学号: 200940101021指导教师: 王文征The Big Secret of Dealing with PeopleDale Carnegie There is only one way under high heaven to get anybody to do anything. Did you ever stop to think of that? Yes, just one way. And that is by making the other person want to do it.Remember, there is no other way.Of course, you can make someone want to give you his watch by sticking a revolver in his ribs. You can make your employees give you cooperation - until your back is turned - by threatening to fire them. You can make a child do what you want it to do by a whip or a threat. But these crude methods have sharply undesirable repercussions.The only way I can get you to do anything is by giving you what you want.What do you want?Sigmund Freud said that everything you and I do springs from two motives: the sex urge and the desire to be great.John Dewey, one of America’s most profound philosophers, phrased it a bit differently. Dr. Dewey, said that the deepest urge in human nature is “the desire to be important.” Remember that phrase: “the desire to be important.” It is significant. You are going to hear a lot about it in this book. What do you want? Not many things, but the few that you do wish, you crave with an insistence that will not be denied. Some of the things most people want include:1. Health and the preservation of life.2. Food.3. Sleep.4. Money and the things money will buy.5. Life in the hereafter.6. Sexual gratification.7. The well – being of our children.8. A feeling of importance.Almost all these wants are usually gratified –all except one. But there is one longing – almost as deep, almost as imperious, as the desire for food or sleep – which isseldom gratified. It is what Freud calls “the desire to be great.” It is what Dewey calls the “desire to be important.”Lincoln once began a letter saying: “Everybody likes a compliment.” William James said: “The deepest principle in human nature is the craving to be appreciated.”He didn’t speak, mind you, of the “wish”or the “desire”or the “longing” to be appreciated. He said the “craving” to be appreciated.Here is a gnawing and unfaltering human hunger, and the rare individual who honestly satisfies this heart hunger will hold people in the palm of his or her hand and “even the undertaker will be sorry when he dies.”The desire for a feeling of importance is one of the chief distinguishing differences between mankind and the animals. To illustrate: When I was a farm boy out in Missouri, my father bred fine Duroc – Jersey hogs and pedigreed white – faced cattle. We used to exhibit our hogs and white –faced cattle at the country fairs and live –stock shows throughout the Middle West. We won first prizes by the score. My father pinned his blue ribbons on a sheet of white muslin, and when friends of visitors came to the house, he would get out the long sheet of muslin. He would hold one end and I would hold the other while he exhibited the blue ribbons.The hogs didn’t care about the ribbons they had won. But Father did. These prizes gave him a feeling of importance.If our ancestors hadn’t had this flaming urge for a feeling of importance, civilization would have been impossible. Without it, we should have been just about like animals.It was this desire for a feeling of importance that led an uneducated, poverty –stricken grocery clerk to study some law books he found in the bottom of a barrel of household plunder that he had bought for fifty cents. You have probably heard of this grocery clerk. His name was Lincoln.It was this desire for a feeling of importance that inspired Dickens to write his immortal novels. This desire inspired Sir Christopher Wren to design his symphonies in stone. This desire made Rockefeller amass millions that he never spent! And this same desire made the richest family in your town build a house far too large for its requirements.This desire makes you want to wear the latest styles, drive the latest cars, and talk about your brilliant children.It is this desire that lures many boys and girls into joining gangs and engaging in criminal activities. The average young criminal, according to E.P. Mulrooney, onetime police commissioner of New York, is filled with ego, and his first request after arrest is for those lurid newspapers that make him out a hero. The disagreeable prospect of serving time seems remote so long as he can gloat over his likeness sharing space with pictures of sports figures, movie and TV stars and politicians.The difference between appreciation and flattery? That is simple. One is sincere and the other insincere. One comes from the heart out; the other from the teeth out. One is unselfish; the other selfish. One is universally admired; the other universally condemned.I recently saw a bust of Mexican hero General Alvaro Obregon in the Chapultepec palace in Mexico City. Below the bust are carved these wise words from General Obregon’s philosophy: “Don’t be afraid of enemies who attack you. Be afraid of the friends who flatter you. ”No! No! No! I am not suggesting flattery! Far from it. I’m talking about a new way of life. Let me repeat. I am talking about a new way of life.King George V had a set of six maxims displayed on the walls of his study at Buckingham Palace. One of these maxims said: “Teach me neither to proffer nor receive cheap praise.” That’s all flattery is – cheap praise. I once read a definition of flattery that may be worth repeating: “Flattery is telling the other person precisely what he thinks about himself.”“Use what language you will,”said Ralph Waldo Emerson, “you can never say anything but what you are.”If all we had to do was flatter, everybody would catch on and we should all be experts in human relations.When we are not engaged in thinking about some definite problem, we usually spend about 95 percent of our time thinking about ourselves. Now, if we shop thinking about ourselves for a while and begin to think of the other person’s good points, we won’t have to resort to flattery so cheap and false that it can be spotted almost before it is out of the mouth.One of the most neglected virtues of out daily existence is appreciation. Somehow, we neglect to praise our son or daughter when he or she brings home a good report card,and we fail to encourage our children when they first succeed in baking a cake or building a birdhouse. Nothing pleases children more than this kind of parental interest and approval.The next time you enjoy filet mignon at the club, send word to the chef that it was excellently prepared, and when a tired salesperson shows you unusual courtesy, please mention it.Every minister, lecturer and public speaker knows the discouragement of pouring himself or herself out to an audience and not receiving a single ripple of appreciative comment. What applies to professionals applies doubly to workers in offices, shops and factories and our families and friends. In our interpersonal relations we should never forget that all our associates are human beings and hunger for appreciation. It is the legal tender that all souls enjoy.Try leaving a friendly trail of little sparks of gratitude on your daily trips. You will be surprised how they will set small flames of friendship that will be rose beacons on your next visit. Pamela Dunham of New Fairfield, Connecticut, had among her responsibilities on her job the supervision of a janitor who was doing a very poor job. The other employees would jeer at him and litter the hallways to show him what a bad job he was doing. It was so bad, productive time was being lost in the shop.Without success, Pam tried various ways to motivate this person. She noticed that occasionally he did a particularly good piece of work. She made a point to praise him for it in front of the other people. Each day the job he did all around got better, and pretty soon he started doing all his work efficiently. Now he does an excellent job and other people give him appreciation and recognition. Honest appreciation got results where criticism and ridicule failed.Hurting people not only does not change them, it is never called for. There is an old saying that I have cut out and pasted on my mirror where I cannot help but see it every day:I shall pass this way but once; any good therefore, that I can do or any kindness that I can show to any human being, let me do it now. Let me not defer nor neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again.Emerson said: “Every man I meet is my superior in some way. In that, I learn ofhim.”If that was true of Emerson, isn’t it likely to be a thousand times more true of you and me? Let’s cease thinking of our accomplishments, our wants. Let’s try to figure our other person’s good points. Then forget flattery. Give honest, sincere appreciation. Be “hearty in your approbation and lavish in your praise,”and people will cherish your words and treasure them and repeat them over a lifetime – repeat them years after you have forgotten them.From:Dale Carnegie.How To Stop Worrying And Start Living［M］．Beijing:ChinaMaterial Press，2005.和人交往的一大秘诀戴尔·卡耐基天底下只有一个方法，可以让任何一个人去做任何一件事。
儿童教育外文翻译文献
儿童教育外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)原文：The Role of Parents and Community in the Educationof the Japanese ChildHeidi KnipprathAbstractIn Japan, there has been an increased concern about family and community participation in the child’s educat ion. Traditionally, the role of parents and community in Japan has been one of support and less one of active involvement in school learning. Since the government commenced education reforms in the last quarter of the 20th century, a more active role for parents and the community in education has been encouraged. These reforms have been inspired by the need to tackle various problems that had arisen, such as the perceived harmful elements of society’spreoccupation with academic achievement and the problematic behavior of young people. In this paper, the following issues are examined: (1) education policy and reform measures with regard to parent and community involvement in the child’s education; (2) the state of parent and community involvement at the eve of the 20th century.Key Words: active involvement, community, education reform, Japan, parents, partnership, schooling, supportIntroduction: The Discourse on the Achievement GapWhen western observers are tempted to explain why Japanese students attain high achievement scores in international comparative assessment studies, they are likely to address the role of parents and in particular of the mother in the education of the child. Education mom is a phrase often brought forth in the discourse on Japanese education to depict the Japanese mother as being a pushy, and demanding home-bound tutor, intensely involved in the child’s education due to severe academic competition. Although this image of the Japanese mother is a stereotype spread by the popular mass media in Japan and abroad, and the extent by which Japanese mothers are absorbed in their children is exaggerated (Benjamin, 1997, p. 16; Cummings, 1989, p. 297; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992, p. 82), Stevenson and Stigler (1992) argue that Japanese parents do play an indispensable role in the academic performance of their children. During their longitudinal and cross-national research project, they and their collaborators observed that Japanese first and fifth graders persistently achieved higher on math tests than American children. Besides reciting teacher’s teaching style, cultural beliefs, and organization of schooling, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) mention parent’s role in supporting the learning conditions of the child to explain differences in achievement between elementary school students of the United States and students of Japan. In Japan, children receive more help at home with schoolwork (Chen & Stevenson, 1989; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992), and tend to perform less household chores than children in the USA (Stevenson et al., 1990; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). More Japanese parents than American parents provide space and a personal desk and purchase workbooks for their children to supplement their regular text-books at school (Stevenson et al., 1990; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). Additionally, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) observed that American mothers are much more readily satisfied with their child’s performance than Asian parents are, have less realistic assessments of their child’s academic perform ance, intelligence, and other personality characteristics, and subsequently have lower standards. Based on their observation of Japanese, Chinese and American parents, children and teachers, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) conclude that American families can increase the academic achievement of their children by strengthening the link between school and home, creating a physical and psychological environment that is conducive to study, and by making realistic assessments and raising standards. Also Benjamin (1997), who performed ‘day-to-day ethnography’ to find out how differences in practice between American and Japanese schools affect differences in outcomes, discusses the relationship between home and school and how the Japanese mother is involved in the academic performance standards reached by Japanese children. She argues that Japanese parents are willing to pay noticeable amounts of money for tutoring in commercial establishments to improve the child’s performance on entrance examinations, to assist in ho mework assignments, to facilitate and support their children’s participation in school requirements and activities, and to check notebooks of teachers on the child’s progress and other school-related messages from the teacher. These booklets are read and written daily by teachers and parents. Teachers regularly provide advice and reminders to parents, and write about homework assignments of the child, special activities and the child’s behavior (Benjamin, 1997, p. 119, p. 1993–1995). Newsletters, parents’ v isits to school, school reports, home visits by the teacher and observation days sustain communication in later years at school. According toBenjamin (1997), schools also inform parents about how to coach their children on proper behavior at home. Shimahara (1986), Hess and Azuma (1991), Lynn (1988) and White (1987) also try to explain national differences in educational achievement. They argue that Japanese mothers succeed in internalizing into their children academic expectations and adaptive dispositions that facilitate an effective teaching strategy, and in socializing the child into a successful person devoted to hard work.Support, Support and SupportEpstein (1995) constructed a framework of six types of involvement of parents and the community in the school: (1) parenting: schools help all families establish home environments to support children as students; (2) communicating: effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school communications about school programs and children’s progress; (3) volu nteering: schools recruit and organize parents help and support; (4) learning at home: schools provide information and ideas to families about how to help students at home with homework and other curriculum-related activities, decisions and planning; (5) decision making: schools include parents in school decisions, develop parent leaders and representatives; and (6) collaborating with the community: schools integrate resources and services from the community to strengthen school programs, family practices, and student learning and development. All types of involvement mentioned in studies of Japanese education and in the discourse on the roots of the achievement gap belong to one of Epstein’s first four types of involvement: the creation of a conducive learn ing environment (type 4), the expression of high expectations (type 4), assistance in homework (type 4), teachers’ notebooks (type 2), mother’s willingness to facilitate school activities (type3) teachers’ advice about the child’s behavior (type 1), observ ation days by which parents observe their child in the classroom (type 2), and home visits by the teachers (type 1). Thus, when one carefully reads Stevenson and Stigler’s, Benjamin’s and other’s writings about Japanese education and Japanese students’ high achievement level, one notices that parents’ role in the child’s school learning is in particular one of support, expected and solicited by the school. The fifth type (decision making) as well as the sixth type (community involvement) is hardly ever mentioned in the discourse on the achievement gap.In 1997, the OECD’s Center for Educational Research and Innovation conducted a cross-national study to report the actual state of parents as partners in schooling in nine countries, including Japan. In its report, OECD concludes that the involvement of Japanese parents in their schools is strictly limited, and that the basis on which it takes place tends to be controlled by the teacher (OECD, 1997, p. 167). According to OECD (1997), many countries are currently adopting policies to involve families closely in the education of their children because (1) governments are decentralizing their administrations; (2) parents want to be increasingly involved; and (3) because parental involvement is said to be associated with higher achievement in school (p. 9). However, parents in Japan, where students already score highly on international achievement tests, are hardly involved in governance at the national and local level, and communication between school and family tends to be one-way (Benjamin, 1997; Fujita, 1989; OECD, 1997). Also parent–teacher associations (PTA, fubo to kyoshi no kai ) are primarily presumed to be supportive of school learning and not to participate in school governance (cf. OECD, 2001, p. 121). On the directionsof the occupying forces after the second world war, PTA were established in Japanese schools and were considered with the elective education boards to provide parents and the community an opportunity to participate actively in school learning (Hiroki, 1996, p. 88; Nakata, 1996, p. 139). The establishment of PTA and elective education boards are only two examples of numerous reform measures the occupying forces took to decentralize the formal education system and to expand educational opportunities. But after they left the country, the Japanese government was quick to undo liberal education reform measures and reduced the community and parental role in education. The stipulation that PTA should not interfere with personnel and other administrative tasks of schools, and the replacement of elective education boards by appointed ones, let local education boards believe that parents should not get involved with school education at all (Hiroki, 1996, p. 88). Teachers were regarded to be the experts and the parents to be the laymen in education (Hiroki, 1996, p. 89).In sum, studies of Japanese education point into one direction: parental involvement means being supportive, and community involvement is hardly an issue at all. But what is the actual state of parent and community involvement in Japanese schools? Are these descriptions supported by quantitative data?Statistics on Parental and Community InvolvementTo date, statistics of parental and community involvement are rare. How-ever, the school questionnaire of the TIMSS-R study did include some interesting questions that give us a clue about the degree of involvement relatively compared to the degree of involvement in other industrialized countries. The TIMSS-R study measured science and math achievement of eighth graders in 38 countries. Additionally, a survey was held among principals, teachers and students. Principals answered questions relating to school management, school characteristics, and involvement. For convenience, the results of Japan are only compared with the results of those countries with a GNP of 20650 US dollars or higher according to World Bank’s indicators in 1999.Unfortunately, only a very few items on community involvement were measured. According to the data, Japanese principals spend on average almost eight hours per month on representing the school in the community (Table I). Australian and Belgian principals spend slightly more hours and Dutch and Singaporean principals spend slightly less on representing the school and sustaining communication with the community. But when it comes to participation from the community, Japanese schools report a nearly absence of involvement (Table II). Religious groups and the business community have hardly any influence on the curriculum of the school. In contrast, half of the principals report that parents do have an impact in Japan. On one hand, this seems a surprising result when one is reminded of the centralized control of the Ministry of Education. Moreover, this control and the resulting uniform curriculum are often cited as a potential explanation of the high achievement levels in Japan. On the other hand, this extent of parental impact on the curriculum might be an indicator of the pressure parents put on schools to prepare their children appropriately for the entrance exams of senior high schools.In Table III, data on the extent of other types of parental involvement in Japan and other countries are given. In Japan, parental involvement is most common in case of schools volunteering for school projects and programs, and schools expecting parents to make sure that thechild completes his or her homework. The former is together with patrolling the grounds of the school to monitor student behavior most likely materialized through the PTA. The kinds and degree of activities of PTA vary according to the school, but the activities of the most active and well-organized PTA’s of 395 elementary schools investigated by Sumida (2001)range from facilitating sport and recreation for children, teaching greetings, encouraging safe traffic, patrolling the neighborhood, publishing the PTA newspaper to cleaning the school grounds (pp. 289–350). Surprisingly, less Japanese principals expect from the parents to check one’s child’s completion of homework than principals of other countries. In the discourse on the achievement gap, western observers report that parents and families in Japan provide more assistance with their children’s homework than parents and families outside Japan. This apparent contradiction might be the result of the fact that these data are measured at the lower secondary level while investigations of the roots of Japanese students’ high achievement levels focus on childhood education and learning at primary schools. In fact, junior high school students are given less homework in Japan than their peers in other countries and less homework than elementary school students in Japan. Instead, Japanese junior high school students spend more time at cram schools. Finally, Japanese principals also report very low degrees of expectations toward parents with regard to serving as a teacher aid in the classroom, raising funds for the school, assisting teachers on trips, and serving on committees which select school personnel and review school finances. The latter two items measure participation in school governance.In other words, the data support by and large the descriptions of parental of community involvement in Japanese schooling. Parents are requested to be supportive, but not to mount the territory of the teacher nor to be actively involved in governance. Moreover, whilst Japanese principals spend a few hours per month on communication toward the community, involvement from the community with regard to the curriculum is nearly absent, reflecting the nearly absence of accounts of community involvement in studies on Japanese education. However, the reader needs to be reminded that these data are measured at the lower secondary educational level when participation by parents in schooling decreases (Epstein, 1995; OECD, 1997; Osakafu Kyoiku Iinkai, unpublished report). Additionally, the question remains what stakeholders think of the current state of involvement in schooling. Some interesting local data provided by the Osaka Prefecture Education Board shed a light on their opinion.ReferencesBenjamin, G. R. (1997). Japanese lessons. New York: New York University Press.Cave, P. (2003). Educational reform in Japan in the 1990s: ‘Individuality’ and other uncertainties. Comparative Education Review, 37(2), 173–191.Chen, C., & Stevenson, H. W. (1989). Homework: A cross-cultural examination. Child Development, 60(3), 551–561.Chuo Kyoiku Shingikai (1996). 21 seiki o tenbo shita wagakuni no kyoiku no arikata ni tsu-ite [First Report on the Model for Japanese Education in the Perspective of theCummings, W. K. (1989). The American perception of Japanese parative Education, 25(3), 293–302.Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships. Phi Delta Kappan , 701–712.Fujita, M. (1989). It’s all mother’s fault: childcare and the socialization of working mothers in Japan. The Journal of Japanese Studies , 15(1), 67–91.Harnish, D. L. (1994). Supplemental education in Japan: juku schooling and its implication. Journal of Curriculum Studies , 26(3), 323–334.Hess, R. D., & Azuma, H. (1991). Cultural support for schooling, contrasts between Japanand the United States. Educational Researcher , 20(9), 2–8, 12.Hiroki, K. (1996). Kyoiku ni okeru kodomo, oya, kyoshi, kocho no kenri, gimukankei[Rights and duties of principals, teachers, parents and children in education. InT. Horio & T. Urano (Eds.), Soshiki toshite no gakko [School as an organization](pp. 79–100). Tokyo: Kashiwa Shobo. Ikeda, H. (2000). Chiiki no kyoiku kaikaku [Local education reform]. Osaka: Kaiho Shup-pansha.Kudomi, Y., Hosogane, T., & Inui, A. (1999). The participation of students, parents and the community in promoting school autonomy: case studies in Japan. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 9(3), 275–291.Lynn, R. (1988).Educational achievement in Japan. London: MacMillan Press.Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Gonzalez, E. J., Gregory, K. D., Smith, T. A., Chrostowski,S. J., Garden, R. A., & O’Connor, K. M. (2000). TIMSS 1999 Intern ational science report, findings from IEA’s Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and ScienceStudy at the Eight Grade.Chestnut Hill: The International Study Center.Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., Gregory, K. D., Garden, R. A., O’Connor, K. M.,Chrostowski, S. J., & Smith, T. A.. (2000). TIMSS 1999 International mathemat-ics report, findings from IEA’s Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study at the Eight Grade.Chestnut Hill: The International Study Center. Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (2000).Japanese government policies in education, science, sports and culture. 1999, educational reform in progress. Tokyo: PrintingBureau, Ministry of Finance.Monbusho Ed. (1999).Heisei 11 nendo, wagakuni no bunkyoshisaku : Susumu kaikaku [Japanese government policies in education, science, sports and culture 1999: Educational reform in progress]. Tokyo: Monbusho.Educational Research for Policy and Practice (2004) 3: 95–107 © Springer 2005DOI 10.1007/s10671-004-5557-6Heidi KnipprathDepartment of MethodologySchool of Business, Public Administration and TechnologyUniversity of Twente P.O. Box 2177500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands译文：家长和社区在日本儿童教育中的作用摘要在日本，人们越来越关心家庭和社区参与到儿童教育中。
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Determination of Arsenic in Palm Kernel Expeller using Microwave Digestion and Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry Method Abdul Niefaizal Abdul Hammid, Ainie Kuntom, RazaIi Ismail, and Norazilah Pardi 1Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000,Kajang Selangor, Malaysia. niefaizal@.myAbstrak – A study on the method to determine arsenic in palm kernel expeller wascarried out. Microwave digestion technique is widely applied in the analyticalchemistry field. In comparison to conventional sample digestion method, themicrowave technique is simple, reduced contamination, usage of safe reagent andmatrix completely digested. A graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometrymethod was used for the total determination of arsenic in palm kernel expeller.Arsenic was extracted from palm kernel expeller in a closed vessel digestion systemwith nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. The results showed that the optimal ashingand atomizing temperatures were 800°C and 2400°C respectively. The limit ofdetection was estimated to be 0.001 ppm. The mean recoveries of arsenic forrepeatability and reproducibility for 1, 2 and 4 ppm were in the range between 79 –90%. Ten samples of palm kernel expeller from mills were analyzed to contain 0.18to 3.05 ppm of arsenic. Therefore, is proposed that this method be used to detectarsenic in palm kernel expellerKey Words –Microwave digestion, graphite furnace atomic absorptionspectrometry, palm kernel expeller, arsenic, mills.1 IntroductionArsenic has been considered as an essential trace element for normal growth and development of animals (Lasky et al, 2004). However, arsenic is more often regarded as a hazardous element rather than as essential element widely encountered in the environment and organisms (Cullen and Reimer, 1989). Arsenic is extensively distributed in the environment because of its presence naturally as well as from industrial production. Natural arsenic concentration in plants hardly exceeds 1 mg/kg (Porter and Peterson, 1975). This level increases to several folds when plants are coerced to grow in arsenic treated soils, but arsenic is primarily retained in the roots. Studies showed that vegetable grown in arsenic-spiked soils exhibited 7.1 and 5.0 mg/kg in the roots and shoots respectively Jones and Hatch, 1945). In tomato and bean plants, arsenic is primarily concentrated in the roots, and a small quantity is translocated to the pods (Cobb et al., 2000). A similar pattern is observed in Tamarik (Tamarix parviflora) and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) where the roots accumulate more arsenic compared to the shoots (Tossell et al., 2000).In Malaysia the level of arsenic in oil palm is not well established. Contamination of arsenic may come from the use of herbicides such a monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA), disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA) and cacodylic acid (dimethylarsenic acid) in oil palm plantations. However these compounds are not in used anymore. Numerous methods are available for extracting arsenic from various matrices and analyzing total arsenic (Hudson-Edwards et al., 2004). The most common641methods for extracting total arsenic from soils and sediments involved wet ashing of sample using one or a combination of acids such as sulphuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, boric acid, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen peroxide. Ashing digestion can be carried out using hotplate or microwave oven (Mucci et al., 2003).During the past few decades, microwave digestion method has become widely used since they are more reproducible, more accurate and less time consuming than conventional digestion on hot plates in open crucibles and lost of analyte is minimum (Kingston and Jassie, 1988). Arsenic can be determined using the following methods: colorimetry, hydride generation system in combination with atomic absorption spectrometer (Slemer et al., 1976) and atomic fluorescence spectrometry (Chen et al., 2001). Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer (GFAAS) is another analytical instrument used for trace element analysis. It has been widely used to determine lead in food (Chen et al., 1999), biological samples (Dabeka and McKenzie, 1992) and environmental samples (Cabrera et al., 1994).The main objective of this study was to test the effectiveness of microwave system for the digestion of palm kernel expeller and subsequently analyzing using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer.2 Materials and Methods2.1 ReagentsAll reagents were of analytical grade unless otherwise stated. Double-distilled water (Milli Q Millipore 18.2 mΩ-cm resistivity) was used for dilution. Nitric acid (65% w/v) and hydrogen peroxide (30% w/v) were of suprapure quality (E.Merck, Darmstadt). All the plastic and glassware were cleaned by soaking in diluted nitric acid-distilled water (1+9) and were rinsed with distilled water prior to use.2.2 Arsenic Standard SolutionA standard stock solution of arsenic (1000 ppm) was purchased from BDH Laboratory Supplies.2.3 Working Standard SolutionWorking standard solution of 100 ppm and 1 ppm were prepared by diluting the standard solution with appropriate volumes of Milli Q water. Working standard for 100 ppb was prepared by adding 1 mL of1 ppm and2 mL of nitric acid.2.4 SampleAbout 0.5 g palm kernel expeller was spiked with 500 μL, 1 mL and 2 mL of 1 ppm working standard solution to produce 1 ppm, 2 ppm and 4 ppm respectively.2.5 Preparation of Standard CurveA working standard solution of 25 ppb, 50 ppb, 75 ppb and 100 ppb were prepared by diluting the 1 ppm working standard solution with appropriate volumes of Milli Q water.642 Insan Akademika Publications2.6 Analytical ProcedureMicrowave digestion procedure was applied for palm kernel expeller sample. About 0.5 g of palm kernel expeller was weighed. Then 6 mL of nitric acid (65% w/v) and 2 mL hydrogen peroxide (30% w/v) suprapure quality were added. A blank digest was carried out in the same way. The digestion conditions for the microwave system were shown in Table 1. After treatment, the contents were cooled down, then the resultant residue was dissolved in 25 mL Milli Q water for arsenic determination by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer.2.7 ApparatusZeeman graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer AAnalyst 600 with standard transverse heated graphite atomizer (THGA) B3000641 and arsenic electrode less discharge lamp (As-EDL) were made by Perkin Elmer (Germany). Argon was used as the pure/inert gas. The instrument operating parameters are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3. For sample digestion, a Milestone Ethos MOD with Terminal 1024 closed vessel microwave digestion system with pressure and temperature controller was used.2.8 Analysis of Arsenic in Commercial Palm Kernel ExpellerTen different palm kernel expeller samples were collected from 10 different mills in Malaysia. The samples were preserved in covered polyethylene bags, tagged properly and kept in room temperature until analysis.2.9 Statistic AnalysisThe data obtained from the analysis were calculated using computer programme Microsoft Excel for Windows.Table 1: Microwave oven heating program for the decomposition of palm kernel expellerStep Time (Minute) Temperature 1 (˚C) Temperature 2 (˚C) Microwave Power(Watt)1 15 min 500 180 1002 15 min 500 180 1003 15 min 1000 200 1204 10 min 1000 200 1205 20 min 0 50 30 643644Insan Akademika PublicationsTable 2: Instrument parameters for the determination of arsenic in palm kernel expeller using graphitefurnace atomic absorption spectrophotometerParameterSettingWavelength (nm) 193.7Slit width (nm)0.7Signal measurementPeak areaLampElectrode less dischargeLamp current (mA)380Purge gas Argon Sample volume 20 μL Modifier volume5 μLTable 3: Temperature program for the determination of arsenic in palm kernel expeller by graphitefurnace atomic absorption spectrophotometerTemperature (˚C)Ramp TimeHold TimeInterna (ml/ l Flow Gas Type min)Read120 1 30 12 5 Argon800 10 30 25 0 Argon2400 0 5 5 0 Argon +25002325 0Argon* Temperature injects: 70 ˚C .3 Results and Discussion3.1Matrix ModificationMatrix modification is an essential step in the determination of easily volatile elements by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The most common matrix modifiers used in arsenic determinations are palladium, palladium-magnesium nitrate and nickel nitrate.Palladium-magnesium nitrate was selected as a modifier since memory effects were observed whenthe nickel modifier was used (Bozsai et al., 1990). An interelement compound was formed between arsenic and palladium, which has a higher heat of vaporization than pure arsenic. Therefore, a higher ashing temperature can be used and the effects of interference are diminished. Magnesium nitrate behaves as an ashing aid during the thermal pretreatment step in graphite furnace determinations. Spectral interferences caused by aluminum and phosphate are possible at the primary resonance line (193.7 nm) of arsenic. It should be possible to almost eliminate these interferences with the Zeeman background correction technique (Bettinelli et al., 1989; Welz et al., 1988; Riley, 1982).Characteristic mass for arsenic is quite high, and therefore a rather large absolute mass of arsenic should be injected into a graphite tube in order to obtain a reasonable sensitivity. This means that a645P e a k A r e ahigher sample volume should be used or that a preconcentration step is necessary. However, with a larger sample volume, a longer sample drying phase is needed, and there is also a maximum sample volume that can be dispensed onto a platform.Therefore, a sample volume of 20 mL was selected for routine use. With very low arsenic concentrations, two or more sample dispensing-drying steps can be used in order to increase the absolute amount of arsenic in the graphite furnace. One should remember that this will also increase the amount of matrix introduced into the furnace. About 5 mL of modifier solution was injected onto a sample. Larger volumes of modifier had produced wider and flatter absorption signals, therefore 5 mL of modifier was determined to be the optimal volume in arsenic determinations.3.2Method PerformanceEvaluation of quality parameters such as the linearity, recovery percentage (repeatability, and reproducibility) and limits of detection are essential to assess the method performance (Zanella et al., 2000). Calibration curve was obtained by analyzing three times each, four different solutions of known concentrations of analyte included between 25 and 100 ppb. The curve equation y = bx + m calculated with linear regression method to determine samples concentration was utilized.The calibration curve data for standard arsenic is shown in Table 4 . The equation of the curve and the R2 value (0.999) shows the good linearity of the analytical method and the method is feasible to be used. Values of coefficients of variation are less than 5% for all concentration (25 ppb, 50 ppb, 75 ppb, and 100 ppb) and to be considered acceptable.Table 4: Parameters values obtained from the calibration curveConcentration of ArsenicStandard (ppb)Average Value(ppb)Mean of AreasStandard Deviation Coefficient of Variation (%)2526.14 0.0412 0.0003 0.715051.25 0.0807 0.0020 2.447573.96 0.1165 0.0036 3.0910099.830.15730.00120.74y = 0.0016x R² = 0.9994Concentration (ppb)International Journal of Basic and Applied Science V ol. 01, No. 03, Jan 2013, pp. 641-649 Millersmtih, et. al.Fig.1: Calibration curve for the determination of arsenic by means of thegraphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer techniqueThe limit of quantification (LOQ) was stated as a concentration below which the method could not operate with an acceptable level of precision and trueness. The limit of detection (LOD) was the lowest concentration of arsenic in palm kernel expeller samples that was detectable but not necessarily quantified, distinguished from zero (signal/noise >3). These limits were established based on the mean recovery and relative standard deviation results obtained for the replicates of spiked samples. Limit of detection was found to be 0.001 ppm, limit of quantification was 0.006 ppm.Recovery test for repeatability and reproducibility were performed by spiking several concentrationsof arsenic standard to palm kernel expeller, which was then analyzed using the established method. Recoveries for repeatability from palm kernel expeller at 1, 2, and 4 ppm were found to be 80.40 ±4.55%, 90.59 ±4.74%, and 85.15 ±5.06%, respectively . Recoveries for reproducibility from palm kernel expeller at 1, 2, and 4 ppm were found to be 79.20 ± 3.18%, 89.10 ± 3.11%, and 80.35 ±6.25%, respectively .All recoveries were greater than 80% with coefficient of variation less than 10% and to be considered acceptable. The results obtained show that the established method is capable of yielding a satisfactory recovery.4 ConclusionThe microwave digestion method studied is suitable for the decomposition of palm kernel expeller, since good recoveries for arsenic were obtained. Digesting palm kernel expeller with microwave digester has the advantages of time-saving and more complete digestion. In addition, the graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry has high sensitivity and it only takes few minutes for the time taken to complete an analysis of an individual sample. The method described herein coupled microwave digester and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry, which demonstrated featuresof a rapid, safe and accurate analysis of arsenic in palm kernel expeller. The arsenic contents in palmkernel expeller from mills analyzed by the present study were minimum all below the maximal permissible standard of 4 ppm for animal feed.ReferencesBettinelli, M., U. Baroni and N. Pastorelli. (1989). Microwave oven sample dissolution for the analysis of environmental and biological materials, Analytica Chimica Acta., 225, pp. 159-174. Bozsai, G., G. Schlemmer and Z. Grobenski. (1990). Determination of arsenic, cadmium, lead and selenium in highly mineralized waters by graphite-furnace atomic absorption spectrometry,Talanta, 37(6), pp. 545-53.Cabrera, C., C. Gallego, M. C. Lopez and M. L. Lorenzo. (1994). Determination levels of lead contamination in food and feed crops. J. AOAC Int., 77, pp. 1249-1252.Chen, S. S., B. Y. Lee, C. C. Cheng and S. S. 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(2003). Digenetic mobility to trace elements in sedimentscovered by flash flood deposit: Mn, Fe, and As, Applied Geochemistry , 118, pp. 1011-1026.Porter, K. K. and P. J. Peterson. (1975). Arsenic accumulation by plants on mine wastes (UnitedKingdom), Sci. Total Env ., 4, pp. 365-37.Riley, K. W. (1982). Spectral interferences by Al on the determination of As using the graphitefurnace: choice of resonance lines, At. Spectrom., 3, pp. 120–131.International Journal of Basic and Applied ScienceMillersmtih, et. al. V ol. 01, No. 03, Jan 2013, pp. 641-649Slemer, D. D., P. Koteel and V. Jarlwala. (1976). Optimization of arsine generation in atomic absorption arsenic determination, Anal. Chem., 48,pp. 836.Tossell, R. W., K. Binard and T. Rafferty. (2000). Uptake of arsenic by Tamarisk and Eucalyptus under saline conditions. Battelle Press, Columbus, Richmond, pp: 485-492.Welz, B., G. Schlemmer and J. R. Mudakavi. (1988). Palladium nitrate–magnesium nitrate modifier for graphite-furnace atomic-absorption spectrometry: Determination of arsenic, cadmium, copper, manganese, lead, antimony, selenium and thallium in water, Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 3(5), pp. 695–701.Zanella, R., E. G. Primel, F. F. Goncalves and A. F. Martins. (2000). Development and validation of a high performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of clomazone residues in surface water, J. Chromatogr. A., 904(2), pp. 257–262.648 Insan Akademika Publications。